Psychological Assessment

other aspects of psychological

Chapter 1 - Psychological Testing and social functioning.
and Assessment
• During World War I, the term
• The roots of contemporary “testing” aptly described the
psychological testing and group screening of thousands of
assessment can be found in early military recruits.
twentieth century France. In
1905, Alfred Binet and a • by World War II a semantic
colleague published a test distinction between testing and a
designed to help place Paris more inclusive term
schoolchildren in appropriate “assessment,” began to emerge.
classes.
• During World War II the U.S.
• Binet’s test would have Office of Strategic Services
consequences well beyond the (OSS), a predecessor to today’s
Paris school district. Within a Central Intelligence Agency
decade an English-language (CIA), used a variety of
version of Binet’s test was procedures and measurement
prepared for use in schools in the tools— psychological tests
United States. among them—in selecting military
personnel for highly specialized
• When the United States declared positions involving espionage,
war on Germany and entered intelligence gathering, and the
World War I in 1917, the military like.
needed a way to screen large
numbers of recruits quickly for • A test is a measurement device
intellectual and emotional or technique used to quantify
problems. behavior or aid in the
understanding and prediction of
• Psychological testing provided behavior.
this methodology. During World
War II, the military would depend • A test may be defined simply as
even more on psychological tests a measuring device or
to screen recruits for service. procedure. When the word test
is prefaced with a modifier, it
• Following the war, more and refers to a device or procedure
more tests purporting to measure designed to measure a variable
an ever-widening array of related to that modifier.
psychological variables were
developed and used. • An item is a specific stimulus to
which a person responds overtly;
• There were tests to measure not this response can be scored or
only intelligence but also evaluated (e.g., classified, graded
personality, brain functioning, on a scale, or counted).
performance at work, and many
 Psychological Assessment

• A psychological test or examiner, such as when an

educational test is a set of items instructor gives everyone in the
that are designed to measure class a test at the same time.
characteristics of human beings
that pertain to behavior. There • Achievement refers to previous
are many types of behavior learning. Aptitude, by contrast,
refers to the potential for learning
• Psychological test refers to a or acquiring a specific skill.
device or procedure designed to
measure variables related to • The distinctions among
psychology (such as achievement, aptitude, and
intelligence, personality, aptitude, intelligence are not always so cut-
interests, attitudes, or values). and-dried because all three are
highly interrelated. Attempts to
• Whereas a medical test might separate prior learning from
involve analysis of a sample of potential for learning, for
blood, tissue, or the like, a example, have not succeeded. In
psychological test almost always view of the considerable overlap
involves analysis of a sample of of achievement, aptitude, and
behavior. intelligence tests, all three
concepts are encompassed by
• Psychological assessment as the term human ability.
the gathering and integration of
psychology-related data for the • An interview is a method of
purpose of making a gathering information through
psychological evaluation that is verbal interaction, such as direct
accomplished using tools such as questions. Not only has the
tests, interviews, case studies, interview traditionally served as a
behavioral observation, and major technique of gathering
specially designed psychological information in
apparatuses and measurement general, but also data from
procedures. interviews provide an important
complement to test results.
• Psychological testing as the
process of measuring • In contrast to the process of
psychology-related variables by administering, scoring, and
means of devices or procedures interpreting psychological tests
designed to obtain a sample of (psychological testing),
behavior. psychological assessment may
be conceived as a problem-
• Those that can be given to only solving process that can take
one person at a time are known many different forms.
as individual tests, while A
group test, by contrast, can be • How psychological assessment
administered to more than one proceeds depends on many
person at a time by a single
 Psychological Assessment

factors, not the least of which is

the reason for assessing. • EMA has been used to help
tackle diverse clinical problems
• Different tools of evaluation— including post-traumatic stress
psychological tests among disorder (Black et al., 2016),
them— might be marshaled in the problematic smoking.
process of assessment,
depending on the objectives, • In general, the process of
people, and circumstances assessment begins with a referral
involved as well as on other for assessment from a source
variables unique to the situation. such as a teacher, school
psychologist, counselor, judge,
• Educational assessment refers clinician, or corporate human
to, broadly speaking, the use of resources specialist.
tests and other tools to evaluate
abilities and skills relevant to • Typically one or more referral
success or failure in a school or questions are put to the assessor
pre-school context. about the assessee.
For example: Intelligence tests,
achievement tests, and reading • Some examples of referral
comprehension tests. questions are: “Can this child
function in a general education
• Retrospective assessment may environment?,” “Is this defendant
be defined as the use of competent to stand trial?,” and
evaluative tools to draw “How well can this employee be
conclusions about psychological expected to perform if promoted
aspects of a person as they to an executive position?”
existed at some point in time prior
to the assessment. • Collaborative psychological
assessment, the assessor and
• Remote assessment refers to assessee may work as “partners”
the use of tools of psychological from initial contact through final
evaluation to gather data and feedback (Finello, 2011; Fischer,
draw conclusions about a subject 1978, 2004, 2006). One variety of
who is not in physical proximity to collaborative assessment
the person or people conducting includes an element of therapy as
the evaluation. part of the process.

• Ecological momentary • Therapeutic psychological

assessment (EMA). EMA refers assessment. In that approach,
to the “in the moment” evaluation therapeutic self-discovery and
of specific problems and related new understandings are
cognitive and behavioral encouraged throughout the
variables at the very time and assessment process.
place that they occur. Using
various tools of assessment.
 Psychological Assessment

• Dynamic assessment refers to • In the world of psychological

an interactive approach to assessment, many different types
psychological assessment that of scores exist.
usually follows a model of (1)
evaluation, (2) intervention of • Cut score (also referred to as a
some sort, and (3) evaluation. cutoff score or simply a cutoff) is
a reference point, usually
• Dynamic assessment is most numerical, derived by judgment
typically employed in educational and used to divide a set of data
settings, although it may be into two or more classifications.
employed in correctional, Some action will be taken, or
corporate, neuropsychological, some inference will be made
clinical, and most any other based on these classifications
setting as well.
• For example, they may be used
in grading, and in making
• The term format pertains to the decisions about the class or
form, plan, structure, program to which children will be
arrangement, and layout of test assigned. Cut scores are used by
items as well as to related employers as aids to decision
considerations such as time making about personnel hiring,
limits. placement, and advancement.

• Format is also used to refer to the • Tests differ with respect to their
form in which a test is psychometric soundness or
administered: computerized, technical quality. Synonymous
pencil-and-paper, or some with the antiquated term
other form. psychometry, psychometrics
may be defined as the science of
• Score as a code or summary psychological measurement.
statement, usually but not
necessarily numerical in nature, • Variants of these words include
that reflects an evaluation of the adjective psychometric (which
performance on a test, task, refers to measurement that is
interview, or some other sample psychological in nature) and the
of behavior. nouns psychometrist and
psychometrician (both terms
• Scoring is the process of referring to a professional who
assigning such evaluative uses, analyzes, and interprets
codes or statements to psychological test data).
performance on tests, tasks,
interviews, or other behavior • Utility refers to the usefulness or
samples. practical value that a test or other
tool of assessment has for a
particular purpose.
 Psychological Assessment

• the word interview conjures • Panel interview (also referred to

images of face-to-face talk. But as a board interview) is
the interview as a tool of employed. Here, more than one
psychological assessment interviewer participates in the
typically involves more than talk. assessment.

• If the interview is conducted face- • Motivational interviewing may

to-face, then the interviewer is be defined as a therapeutic
probably taking note of not only dialogue that combines person-
the content of what is said but centered listening skills such as
also the way it is being said. openness and empathy, with the
use of cognition-altering
• More specifically, the interviewer techniques designed to positively
is taking note of both verbal and affect motivation and effect
nonverbal behavior. therapeutic change.

• Nonverbal behavior may include • These work products—whether

the interviewee’s “body retained on paper, canvas, film,
language,” movements, and facial video, audio, or some other
expressions in response to the medium—constitute what is
interviewer, the extent of eye called a portfolio.
contact, apparent willingness to
cooperate, and general reaction • For example, will make hiring
to the demands of the interview. decisions based, in part, on the
impressiveness of an applicant’s
• The interviewer may also take portfolio of sample drawings.
note of the way the interviewee is
dressed. Here, variables such as • Case history data refers to
neat versus sloppy, and records, transcripts, and other
appropriate versus inappropriate, accounts in written, pictorial, or
may be noted. other form that preserve archival
information, official and informal
• Interview is a method of accounts, and other data and
gathering information through items relevant to an assessee.
direct communication involving
reciprocal exchange. • Case history data may include
• Interviews differ about many files or excerpts from files
variables, such as their purpose, maintained at institutions and
length, and nature. agencies such as schools,
• Interviews may be used by hospitals, employers, religious
psychologists in various specialty institutions, and criminal justice
areas to help make diagnostic, agencies.
treatment, selection, or other
decisions • Other examples of case history
data are letters and written
correspondence, photos and
 Psychological Assessment

family albums, newspaper and

magazine clippings, home videos, • Behavioral observation is often
movies, audiotapes, work used as a diagnostic aid in
samples, artwork, doodlings, and various settings such as inpatient
accounts and pictures pertaining facilities, behavioral research
to interests and hobbies. Postings laboratories, and classrooms.
on social media such as
Facebook or Twitter may also • Behavioral observation may be
serve as case history data. used for purposes of selection or
placement in corporate or
• Case study (or case history) as a organizational settings.
report or illustrative account
concerning a person or an event • Sometimes researchers venture
that was compiled based on case outside of the confines of clinics,
history data. classrooms, workplaces, and
research laboratories in order to
• A case study might, for example, observe behavior of humans in a
shed light on how one individual’s natural setting—that is, the
personality and a particular set of setting in which the behavior
environmental conditions would typically be expected to
combined to produce a occur. This variety of behavioral
successful world leader. observation is referred to as
naturalistic observation.
• A case study of an individual who
attempted to assassinate a high- • Role play may be defined as
ranking political figure could shed acting an improvised or partially
light on what types of individuals improvised part in a simulated
and conditions might lead to situation.
similar attempts in the future.
• A role-play test is a tool of
• Groupthink arises as a result of assessment wherein assessee
the varied forces that drive are directed to act as if they were
decision-makers to reach a in a particular situation.
consensus (such as the
motivation to reach a compromise • CAPA refers to the term
in positions). computer-assisted
psychological assessment. By
• Behavioral observation, as it is the way, here the word assisted
employed by assessment typically refers to the assistance
professionals, may be defined as computers provide to the test
monitoring the actions of user, not the test taker.
others or oneself by visual or
electronic means while recording • The next generation of video
quantitative and/or qualitative assessment is the assessment
information regarding those that employs virtual reality (VR)
actions. technology. Assessment using
 Psychological Assessment

VR technology is fast finding its a deceased individual’s

way into several psychological psychological profile based on
specialty areas (Morina et al., archival records, artifacts, and
2015; Sharkey & Merrick, 2016). interviews previously conducted
with the deceased assessee or
• Psychologists may use many of people who knew him or her.
the tools traditionally associated
with medical health, such as • Educational setting
thermometers to measure body a. Achievement Test - which
temperature and gauges to evaluates accomplishment or the
measure blood pressure. degree of learning that has
• Biofeedback equipment is taken place. Some of the
sometimes used to obtain achievement tests you have
measures of bodily reactions taken in school were constructed
(such as muscular tension) to by your teacher.
various sorts of stimuli. And then
there are some fewer common b. diagnostic test refers to a tool
instruments, such as the penile of assessment used to help
plethysmograph. narrow down and identify areas
of deficit to be targeted for
• The Test developers and intervention.
publishers create tests or other
methods of assessment. The • In educational settings, diagnostic
American Psychological tests of reading, mathematics,
Association (APA) has estimated and other academic subjects may
that more than 20,000 new be administered to assess the
psychological tests are developed need for educational intervention
each year. as well as to establish or rule out
eligibility for special education
• The test user Psychological tests programs.
and assessment methodologies
are used by a wide range of • Informal evaluation as a
professionals, including clinicians, typically nonsystematic
counselors, school psychologists, assessment that leads to the
human resources personnel, formation of an opinion or
consumer psychologists, attitude.
experimental psychologists, and
social psychologists. • Clinical settings Tests and
many other tools of assessment
• The testtaker We have all been are widely used in clinical settings
testtakers. However, we have not such as public, private, and
all approached tests in the same military hospitals, inpatient and
way. outpatient clinics, private-practice
consulting rooms, schools, and
• A psychological autopsy may other institutions.
be defined as a reconstruction of
 Psychological Assessment

a. Psychotherapy • Business and military setting,

b. School Psychologist as in the military, various tools of
c. Research assessment are used in sundry
d. Psychologist Consultant ways, perhaps most notably in
e. Court Appointed Psychologist decision making about the
f. Prison Psychologist careers of personnel.

• Counseling settings • A wide range of achievement,

Assessment in a counseling aptitude, interest, motivational,
context may occur in and other tests may be employed
environments as diverse as in the decision to hire as well as
schools, prisons, and in related decisions regarding
governmental or privately owned promotions, transfer, job
institutions. satisfaction, and eligibility for
further training.
• Regardless of the tools used, the
ultimate objective of many such • Governmental and
assessments is the improvement organizational credentialing
of the assessee in terms of One of the many applications of
adjustment, productivity, or some measurement is in governmental
related variable. licensing, certification, or general
credentialing of professionals.
• Measures of social and academic Before they are legally entitled to
skills and measures of practice medicine, physicians
personality, interest, attitudes, must pass an examination.
and values are among the many
types of tests that a counselor • Law school graduates cannot
might administer to a client. present themselves to the public
as attorneys until they pass their
• Geriatric Setting state’s bar examination.
a. Quality of Life - evaluations Psychologists, too, must pass an
are variables related to perceived examination before adopting the
stress, loneliness, sources of official title “psychologist.”
satisfaction, personal values,
quality of living conditions, and • Academic research settings
quality of friendships and other Conducting any sort of research
social support. typically entails measurement of
b. Dementia is a loss of cognitive some kind, and any academician
functioning (which may affect who ever hopes to publish
memory, thinking, reasoning, research should ideally have a
psychomotor speed, attention, sound knowledge of
and related abilities, as well as measurement principles and tools
personality) that occurs as the of assessment.
result of damage to or loss of
brain cells. • To emphasize this simple fact of
research life, imagine the limitless
 Psychological Assessment

number of questions that standardized way a measurement

psychological researchers could is derived, either by virtue of
conceivably raise, and the tools some special accommodation
and methodologies that might be made to the assessee or by
used to find answers to those means of alternative methods
questions. designed to measure the same
variable(s).
• Protocol typically refers to the
form or sheet or booklet on which • Test catalogues Perhaps one of
a testtaker’s responses are the most readily accessible
entered. The term may also be sources of information is a
used to refer to a description of a catalogue distributed by the
set of test- or assessment-related publisher of the test. Because
procedures, as in the sentence. most test publishers make
available catalogues of their
• Rapport may be defined as a offerings, this source of test
working relationship between the information can be tapped by a
examiner and the examinee. simple telephone call, e-mail, or
Such a working relationship can note.
sometimes be achieved with a
few words of small talk when • Test manuals Detailed
examiner and examinee are information concerning the
introduced. development of a particular test
and technical information relating
• Assessment of people with to it should be found in the test
disabilities People with manual, which usually can be
disabilities are assessed for the purchased from the test
same reasons people with no publisher.
disabilities are assessed: to
obtain employment, to earn a • Professional books Many books
professional credential, to be written for an audience of
screened for psychopathology, assessment professionals are
and so forth. available to supplement, re-
organize, or enhance the
• Accommodation may be defined information typically found in the
as the adaptation of a test, manual of a very widely used
procedure, or situation, or the psychological test.
substitution of one test for
another, to make the assessment • Reference volumes The Buros
more suitable for an assessee Center for Testing provides This
with exceptional needs. volume, which is also updated
periodically, provides detailed
• Alternate assessment is an information for each test listed,
evaluative or diagnostic including test publisher, test
procedure or process that varies author, test purpose, intended
from the usual, customary, or
 Psychological Assessment

test population, and test

administration time.

• Journal articles. Articles in

current journals may contain
reviews of the test, updated or
independent studies of its
psychometric soundness, or
examples of how the instrument
was used in either research or an
applied context.
• Online databases One of the
most widely used bibliographic
databases for test-related
publications is that maintained by
the Educational Resources
Information Center (ERIC).

• Funded by the U.S. Department

of Education and operated out of
the University of Maryland, the
ERIC website at www.eric.ed.gov
contains a wealth of resources
and news about tests, testing,
and assessment