JURONG PIONEER JUNIOR COLLEGE

9749 H2 PHYSICS

WAVE MOTION

Content

• Progressive waves
• Transverse and longitudinal waves
• Polarisation
• Determination of frequency and wavelength of sound waves

Learning Outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

(a) show an understanding of and use the terms displacement, amplitude, period, frequency,
phase difference, wavelength and speed.

(b) deduce, from the definitions of speed, frequency and wavelength, the equation v = f  .

(c) recall and use the equation v = f  .

(d) show an understanding that energy is transferred due to a progressive wave.

(e) recall and use the relationship, intensity  (amplitude)2.

(f) show an understanding of and apply the concept that wave from a point source and
travelling without loss of energy obeys an inverse square law to solve problems.

(g) analyse and interpret graphical representations of transverse and longitudinal waves.

(h) show an understanding that polarisation is a phenomenon associated with transverse

waves.

(i) recall and use Malus’ law (intensity  cos2θ) to calculate the amplitude and intensity of a
plane polarised electromagnetic wave after transmission through a polarising filter.

(j) determine the frequency of sound using a calibrated oscilloscope.

(k) determine the wavelength of sound using stationary waves.

1
1 Introduction

Wave motion is the transmission of energy from one place to another through a
material or in a vacuum, without the physical transfer of any material between the
points.

• The source of any wave is a vibration or oscillation.

• It is the energy that is transferred along the direction of propagation, and not the
particles.
• Each particle oscillates about its equilibrium position in the same way as its
neighbour.
• The particles oscillate about their equilibrium positions while the wave moves along
the direction of propagation at the same time as shown in Fig. 1 below.

Fig. 1 Particles oscillate vertically

A wave where the wave profile moves along the direction of propagation and energy is
transferred is called a progressive wave.

2 Describing Waves
Students should be able to
(a) show an understanding of and use the terms displacement, amplitude, period,
frequency, phase difference, wavelength and speed.
(b) deduce, from the definitions of speed, frequency and wavelength, the equation v = f λ.
(c) recall and use the equation v = f λ.

2.1 Basic Terminology

Fig. 2 shows the different parts of a wave profile.

• The crest is the highest point on a wave while the trough is the lowest point.

crest

amplitude, A displacement, y

wavelength, λ.

trough

Fig. 2 Parts of a wave profile

2
 Physical quantity Description
the distance of a particle from its equilibrium
displacement y/m
position with the associated direction
the magnitude of the maximum displacement of an
amplitude A/ m oscillating particle in a wave from its equilibrium
position
the distance between any two successive points on
wavelength λ/m the wave which are in phase (e.g. between two
crests or two troughs)

period T/s the time taken for one complete oscillation

the number of oscillations that pass through a given

point per unit time
frequency f / Hz
1
• f =
T

2.2 Wave Velocity

Wave velocity refers to the speed at which the waveform travels in the direction of
propagation.

For a wave that travels with a constant speed, the distance travelled by the wave is the
wavelength  when the time taken is one period T.

Since speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time, the velocity of the wave,
v is

v= =f
T

• Wave velocity refers to the speed at which the energy is transmitted, and not the
speed of the particles of the medium in the wave.
• The speed of a wave depends on the medium in which the wave travels.
• When a wave passes from one medium to another, the frequency of the wave
remains constant, while the wavelength changes, hence the wave velocity changes.

3
2.3 Wave Representation

2.3.1 Wavefronts

Wave can be represented in various ways depending on how closely we look at it.

Fig. 3 A wave moving from left to right

Wavefronts are lines which join points of a wave which are in phase, e.g. crests or
troughs.

• They move outwards or away from the wave source.

• The arrows drawn perpendicularly to the wavefronts indicate the direction of the
wave / energy propagation.

Fig. 3.1 Plane wavefronts

Fig. 3.2 Circular wavefronts

2.3.2 Displacement–Distance Graph

If we take a snapshot at a particular time instant of a wave, the particles along the
wave are at different “stages” of oscillation (e.g. up and down) about their equilibrium
positions. This is represented by the displacement-distance graph of the wave as shown
in Fig. 4.

Displacement–distance (y–x) graph shows the displacement y of all particles

along the path of propagation (at various distances x away from the source) at an
instant in time.

4
 displacement, y / m

A distance,
0 x/m
λ

Fig. 4 Displacement-distance graph of a wave at an instant in time

2.3.3 Displacement–Time Graph

If we look at only a single particle along a wave, we will observe that it oscillates (e.g.
up and down) about an equilibrium position. Fig. 5 shows how the displacement of this
particle changes with time.

Displacement–time (y–t) graph shows the displacement y of a single particle

along a wave at various time t.

displacement, y / m

A
time, t / s
0
T 2T

T
Fig. 5 Displacement-time graph of a particle along a wave

• Each particle in a wave exhibits simple harmonic motion.

EXAMPLE 1

The diagram shows an instantaneous position of a string as a progressive wave travels along
it from left to right. Draw arrows on the diagram to show the velocities of the particles at points
A, B and C.

A
B

C is momentarily at rest.

5
 EXAMPLE 2

The graph represents the simple harmonic motion of a particle in a progressive

wave travelling at a speed of 5.0  103 m s–1.
displacement y / μm

2
time t / μs
0
10 20 30 40
-2

Determine a) the frequency of vibration

1 1
f = = = 5.0  104 Hz
T 20  10−6

b) the amplitude of vibration

A = 2  10 −6 m

c) the wavelength.
v 5.0  103
v = f ➔  = = = 0.10 m
f 5.0  104

2.4 Phase and Phase Difference

The phase ϕ of a particle refers to the stage of vibration / oscillation, with respect to a
reference point.

Particles are considered to be “in phase” when they execute the same motion at the
same time. To check that two particles are in phase, we check that they have the same
velocity at the same displacement from the equilibrium position.

EXAMPLE 3

y Particle Particle
B F
is in phase
B F
with

A E I is in phase
x D H
C G with

is in phase
A E/I
with
D H
is in phase
C G
with

6
The phase difference, Δϕ between two particles refers to the difference in the phase
between the two particles.

To determine the phase difference, , between two particles on a wave, we consider
points A and B in Fig.6 below,

y 
Ax
Bx

x

Fig. 6 Two particles on a wave

Phase difference between two points separated by a path distance Δx can be

determined using

x  x
=   = 2
 2 

Alternatively, the phase difference between two points separated by a time difference
Δt can be determined using

t  t
=   = 2
T 2 T

Two points are in phase if their phase difference, Δϕ = 0, 2π, 4π, 2n.

Two points are out of phase if they are not in phase.

Two points are in anti-phase if their phase difference, Δϕ = π, 3π, 5π, (2n +1) π.
For example, a crest and a trough are in anti-phase.

The phase difference,  is expressed in radians.

In calculating phase difference, the two particles must have the same frequency, but
need not have the same amplitude.

Phase difference can be measured between

• two points in the same wave at the same time.
• two different instants of the same point on a wave.
• two waves of the same frequency.

7
EXAMPLE 4

A sound wave of wavelength 0.80 m is travelling at a speed of 320 m s–1. What is

the difference in phase between two points 1.00 m apart in the direction of travel?

Solution
5
This means that there are cycles between these two points in the wave.
4
Therefore, phase difference is

5
 x
 5
= ➔  = 4  2 = 
2   2

EXAMPLE 5 [N89/I/21]

Two sinusoidal waves M and N of the same frequency are shown below. What
is the phase relationship between the two waves?

displacement, y wave M
wave N

t/s

Solution
T
The time difference between M and N =
4
 t 
Therefore, path difference,  =   2
T 
T  
=  4  2 = rad
 T  2
 

M leads N by rad.
2

8
3 Wave Intensity
Students should be able to
(d) show an understanding that energy is transferred due to a progressive wave.
(e) recall and use the relationship, intensity  (amplitude)2.
(f) show an understanding of and apply the concept that wave from a point source and
travelling without loss of energy obeys an inverse square law to solve problems.

All waves carry energy and momentum in the direction of the wave propagation.

The power P of a wave is the rate at which energy is transported by the wave. The
power is determined by the power of the source.

The intensity I of a wave is defined as the rate of energy flow (i.e. power) passing
through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.

Power
Intensity of wave, I =
Area of perpendicular surface

The SI unit for intensity is W m−2.

3.1 Intensity and Amplitude

Energy of a wave is carried by the oscillation of the wave particles. Their oscillations
can be considered to be simple harmonic.
1
Recall that the total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is given by E = m 2 A2 .
2
Thus, the energy of a wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude A of
the wave. Since intensity of a wave is the rate of energy flow per unit perpendicular
area, intensity is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude.

I  A2

where A is the amplitude of the wave.

Note: A is NOT area in this equation.

3.2 Intensity and Distance

A point source produces waves that spread outwards radially and uniformly in all
directions on an expanding spherical surface as shown in Fig. 7. Thus the wavefronts
can be seen as concentric spheres centred at the source.

source

Fig. 7 Energy spread out radially from a point source

9
 Assuming that there is no energy loss, the same energy flows and spread out in
spheres of increasing radii.

• The power incident on the entire spherical surface is the same for all spheres.
• Since the surface area of the spheres increases as the radius increases, the
intensity decreases the further it is from the source.

Thus the intensity of a wave, at a distance r away from the point source is

Power P
I = =
surface area of sphere of radius r 4 r 2

For a fixed source, where power P is constant,

1
I
r2

This is also known as the inverse square law, which means that the intensity is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the fixed point source.

EXAMPLE 6

A small source of sound radiates energy equally in all directions. At a particular frequency, the
intensity of the sound 1.0 m from the source is 1.0 × 10−5 W m−2, corresponding to an amplitude
of oscillation of the air molecules of 70 m.

Calculate, at a distance of 5.0 m from the source,

(a) the intensity of the sound, and
(b) the amplitude of oscillation of the air molecules.

Assume that the sound is propagated without energy loss.

Solution

P
(a) I=
4 r 2
P
At 1.0 m, 1.0  10−5 =
4 (1.0)2
P
At 5.0 m, I =
4 (5.0)2

Therefore I = 4.0  10−7 W m−2

(b) I = kA2
At 1.0 m, 1.0  10−5 = k (70  10−6 )2
At 5.0 m, 4.0  10−7 = kA2

A = 14  10−6 m = 14 m

10
EXAMPLE 7 [N08/I/20]

Waves from a point source pass through an area that is 2.0 cm wide, as shown.

Within this area, the intensity of the waves is I and their amplitude is A. The waves reach
a second area of width 16 cm.

What will be the intensity and amplitude of the waves when they reach the second area?

intensity amplitude
I A
A
8 4
I A
B
64 4
I A
C
64 8
I A
D
256 16

Solution
1
Assuming no energy loss, intensity 
⊥ area
Let the breadth of the smaller area be x hence the breadth of the larger area is 8x
P
I=
2x
P I
I2 = =
(16 )( 8 x ) 64

Relationship between intensity and amplitude: intensity  amplitude 2

For first area: I = cA2 , and for second area: I 2 = cA22
A
 A2 =
8

Ans: C

11
4 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Students should be able to
(g) analyse and interpret graphical representations of transverse and longitudinal waves.

(a) Transverse (b) Longitudinal

Direction of wave

Fig. 8 Waves in a slinky (a) transverse and (b) longitudinal

Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

A transverse wave is a wave in which A longitudinal wave is a wave in which

the oscillation of the particles is the oscillation of the particles is parallel to
perpendicular to the propagation of the the propagation of the wave. The wave
wave. has alternate compressions (high
pressure regions) and rarefactions (low
pressure regions).

Examples Examples

• Waves in ropes and springs • Sound

• Water waves • Longitudinal pulses in springs

• Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

(which do not require any
medium for propagation)

• The displacement – distance (y – x) graph can be imagined to be a picture taken of

all the particles in the wave motion frozen at an instant in time.
• This graph can be used to represent both transverse and longitudinal waves.

4.1 Transverse waves

• The graphical interpretation of a transverse wave represented by a displacement-
distance graph was illustrated in Section 2.3. From the graph, we can determine
how a particle along the wave is moving at a particular instant in time.

4.2 Longitudinal waves

• Fig. 9 illustrates the graphical representation of longitudinal waves.

• Compressions are regions of high pressure and density, where particles are
moving towards each other.
• Rarefactions are regions of low pressure and density, where particles are moving
away from each other.

12
 • Longitudinal waves can also be represented using pressure-distance (p-x) graph
as shown in Fig 10.

Fig. 9 y-x graph for a longitudinal wave

pressure, p / Pa
compressions

distance, x / m
patm

rarefactions

Fig. 10 Pressure-distance (p-x) graph for a longitudinal wave

13
Example 8

The diagram below shows an instantaneous displacement–position graph of a spring as a

longitudinal progressive wave travels along it from left to right.

1 2 3

Which one of the following correctly shows the directions of the velocities of the points
indicated by 1, 2 and 3?

1 2 3
A → → →
B  → 
C   
D   
ANS: B

Point 1: At the next moment, displacement of particle decreases

(i.e. remains on the right, but gets closer to the equilibrium).

Point 2: At the next moment, displacement of particle increases

(i.e. further right to the equilibrium).

14
5 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a transverse

wave with electric and magnetic fields varying
sinusoidally with time. These fields oscillate at
right angles to each other and to the direction of
propagation, and are in phase with each other.
For EM waves, the speed c, frequency f, and
wavelength  , is related by

c = f

EM radiation carries energy and momentum, which may be imparted when it interacts
 require any medium for propagation and travel with a
with matter. EM waves do not

speed of c = 3.0  108 m s−1 in vacuum (c is the speed of light in vacuum).

The electromagnetic spectrum classifies electromagnetic waves according to the
frequencies (or wavelengths), into 7 broad categories - radio waves, microwaves, infra-

red waves, visible light, ultraviolet waves, x-rays, and gamma rays.
Visible light has a range in wavelength from about 400 to 700 nm as shown in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11 The wavelength values for visible light

15
6 Polarisation
Students should be able to
(h) show an understanding that polarisation is a phenomenon associated with transverse
waves.
(i) recall and use Malus’ law (intensity  cos2θ) to calculate the amplitude and intensity
of a plane polarised electromagnetic wave after transmission through a polarising filter.

When the oscillations in a wave is only in a single direction, it is said to be linearly (or
plane) polarised. Fig. 12 illustrates the difference between polarised and unpolarised
waves.

Polarised wave Unpolarised wave

Fig. 12 Comparison of polarised and unpolarised waves

• It is a phenomenon associated with transverse waves only. Thus, polarisation can

be used to distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves

6.1 Polarisation of Electromagnetic Waves

• Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, hence they can be polarised.

• The direction of polarisation is the direction in which the electric field vector is
oscillating.

6.1.1 Polarisation of Visible Light

An unpolarised light can be polarised using a polariser as shown in Fig. 13.

• A polariser is a thin sheet of crystalline material containing long chains of molecules

(of quinine iodosulphate) whose axes have been aligned.
• These chains of molecules absorb the electric field component of the EM radiation
if the electric field vibrations is parallel to them, and allow vibrations perpendicular
to them to pass through.
• The polarising axis is the axis which is perpendicular to the alignment of the chains
of molecules.
• The intensity of the polarised light emerging from the polariser will be less than the
incident unpolarised light.

16
 polariser

plane
polarised
light

polarising
axis eye

Fig. 13 Polarisation of visible light with a polariser

A second polariser B, can be used to polarise a plane-polarised light further. The

resultant wave will be plane-polarised in the direction of the polarising axis of the
polariser B with a smaller intensity, as shown in Fig. 14.

polariser A
polariser B
plane
polarised polarising
light axis of B

eye

Fig. 14 Polarisation of visible light with two polarisers with polarising axes at
different orientations

If the polarising axis of B is perpendicular to that of A as shown in Fig. 15, light will not
pass through B as it will be totally absorbed.

polariser A
polariser B
plane
polarised
light
zero
intensity

eye

Fig. 15 Polarisation of visible light with two polarisers with polarising axes
perpendicular to each other

• Microwaves and radiowaves are usually produced polarised from a transmitter.

o Otherwise, microwaves can be polarised with a metal grill.
o This is the reason why radio and TV antennae must be rotated to the
optimum angle for good reception.

17
6.2 Malus’ Law

Malus’ Law shows how the intensity of a plane-polarised light changes after passing
through a polariser.

• When the polarising axis of the second polariser B is at an angle of θ to that of the
first polariser A, the plane of polarisation of the transmitted light will be rotated by
angle θ.
• The amplitude of the emergent wave will also change, as shown in Fig. 16.
• If the amplitude of the incident plane-polarised light is Ao, the emergent light will
be polarised along the polarising axis of B with amplitude

A = Ao cos  initial plane-

polarised
light from A

(a) (b) (c)

θ

Ao
Ao cos 

plane-polarised light polarising axis of transmitted plane-

from A seen head-on second polariser B polarised light from B

Fig. 16 The change in amplitude in polarising a plane-polarised light at an angle of θ

Since the intensity of the wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of
the wave, the intensity of the incident plane-polarised light is

Io = kAo2

where k is a constant. Hence, the intensity of the emergent wave from the second
polariser B is

I = kA2
= kAo 2 cos2 
= I o cos2 

Thus, the intensity of a plane polarised electromagnetic wave after transmission

through a polarising filter is given by
I = I o cos2 
This is Malus’ Law.

18
 EXAMPLE 9

When two polarisers P and Q are placed so that their polarising directions are parallel, the
amplitude of the emergent beam is A.

P Q

emergent
incident beam of
beam amplitude A

(a) Through what angle must Q be rotated so that the amplitude of the emergent beam is
A
reduced to ?
2
(b) What will be the corresponding fractional reduction in the intensity of the emergent
beam?

Solution

(a) When the polarisers are parallel, the amplitude of the beam emerging from both P and
Q is A.
Let θ be the angle through which Q is rotated for the amplitude of the beam emerging
A
from Q to be reduced to .
2
A
= A cos 
2
1
cos  =
2
 = 60

(b) Let I o and I be the intensity of the beam emerging from P and Q respectively.
I = I o cos2 60
1
I= Io
4
Therefore the fractional reduction in the intensity of the emergent beam = 0.75 .

19
7 Determining Frequency and Wavelength of Sound Waves
Students should be able to
(j) determine the frequency of sound using a calibrated oscilloscope.
(k) determine the wavelength of sound using stationary waves.

7.1 Determining Frequency of Sound using a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Fig. 17 A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)

A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an electronic device that can display how voltage
varies with time.

• A microphone is connected to the CRO. It is used to capture audio signals, before

converting them into a voltage signal to be sent to the CRO. The CRO displays the
corresponding voltage against time graph on the screen as shown in Fig. 17.
• The amplitude of the voltage signal represents the amplitude of the pressure
variation of the sound captured by the microphone. Thus the graph shows how
pressure varies with time at the point of space where the microphone is placed.
• The frequency can be determined by obtaining the value of the period T from the
graph.

Below is an example of how to use a CRO to determine the amplitude and period of a
wave.

Setting

Y-Input:
V-gain = 1 V div-1
Max Voltage = 2 V

X-Input
Time-base = 1 ms div-1
Period = 8 ms

20
 EXAMPLE 10

The diagram shows the trace on a CRO screen produced by a microphone

detecting a sound. The time scale is such that 1 cm (division) represents 2 ms.

(a) What is the period of the sound?

(b) Sketch the trace produced by a sound
of twice the frequency.
(c) Sketch the trace produced by a sound
with the original frequency, but with
twice the pressure variation.

Solution

(a) Period T = 8 cm × 2 ms cm-1

= 16 ms

(b) As shown by blue line

(c) As shown by green line

7.2 Determining the Wavelength of Sound using Stationary Waves

Stationary waves are formed when two waves superpose each other from opposite
directions. (This would be discussed in detail in the next topic Superposition.)
λ

Fig. 18 Set-up for determining the wavelength of sound

Fig. 18 shows the set-up for determining the wavelength of sound through stationary
waves.

21
 • Sound waves of constant frequency f travel from the loudspeaker towards a
reflector, which reflects the wave backwards. This cause the forward-moving waves
to interfere with the backward-moving waves, giving rise to stationary waves.
• Stationary waves are characterised by nodes N (points of zero amplitude) and
antinodes A (points of maximum amplitude) along the entire waveform.
• The detection of the nodes and antinodes of the stationary waves can be done by
a microphone, connected to a CRO.
• By moving the microphone slowly forward or backwards, the traces on the CRO are
seen to vary from minimum to maximum, showing the nodes and antinodes
respectively.
• Hence the wavelength can be determined by measuring the distance between two

adjacent nodes (or antinodes) which is .
2
o The wavelength of the sound waves is twice the distance between two
adjacent nodes (or antinodes).
o The speed of sound can be calculated if the frequency f of the waves is
known, using v = f λ.

EXAMPLE 11

A source of sound of frequency 2500 Hz is placed several metres from a plane wall in a large
chamber containing a gas. A microphone, connected to a cathode-ray oscilloscope, is used to
detect nodes and antinodes along the line XY between the source and the wall.

1.90 m

The microphone is moved from one node through 20 antinodes to another node, a distance of
1.90 m. What is the speed of sound in the gas?
(J95/I/10)

Solution

Distance from one node through an antinode to another node =
2
Going through 20 antinodes means going through 10 = 1.90 m.

v =f
= 2500(1.90/10)
= 475 m s−1

Notice that the “speed of sound” is not universal, and it depends on factors like the type of gas
and the pressure of the gas in the chamber.

22