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Multi objective optimization in computational intelligence
theory and practice 1st Edition Lam Thu Bui Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Lam Thu Bui, Sameer Alam
ISBN(s): 9781599045009, 1599045001
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 8.81 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
Multi-Objective
Optimization in
Computational Intelligence:
Theory and Practice

Lam Thu Bui

University of New South Wales, Australia

Sameer Alam
University of New South Wales, Australia

InformatIon scIence reference

Hershey • New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Multi-objective optimization in computational intelligence : theory and practice / Lam Thu Bui and Ricardo Sameer Alam, editors.

p. cm.

Summary: “This book explores the theoretical, as well as empirical, performance of MOs on a wide range of optimization issues
including combinatorial, real-valued, dynamic, and noisy problems. It provides scholars, academics, and practitioners with a fundamental,
comprehensive collection of research on multi-objective optimization techniques, applications, and practices”--Provided by publisher.

ISBN-13: 978-1-59904-498-9 (hardcover)

ISBN-13: 978-1-59904-500-9 (e-book)

1. Computational intelligence. 2. Evolutionary computation. 3. Mathematical optimization. 4. Artificial intelligence. I. Bui, Lam Thu. II.
Alam, Ricardo Sameer.

Q342.M85 2008

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2007040640

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Reviewer List

Carlos A. Coello Coello K.E. Parsopoulos

INVESTAV-IPN, Evolutionary Computation Group University of Patras, Greece
(EVOCINV), México
Ramesh Rajagopalan
Alessandro G. Di Nuovo Syracuse University, USA
Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Marcus Randall
Maoguo Gong Bond University, Australia
Xidian University, P.R. China
Soo-Yong Shin
Mark P. Kleeman National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Air Force Institute of Technology, USA USA

Saku Kukkonen Jason Teo

Lappeenranta University of Technology, Finland Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia

Andrew Lewis Andrea Toffolo

Griffith University, Australia University of Padova, Italy

Luis Martí Lam Thu Bui

Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain University of New South Wales, Australia

Minh H. Nguyen Sameer Alam

University of New South Wales, Australia University of New South Wales, Australia
Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ xiv

Preface ................................................................................................................................................. xv
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xix

Section I
Fundamentals

Chapter I
An Introduction to Multi-Objective Optimization ................................................................................. 1
Lam Thu Bui, University of New South Wales, Australia
Sameer Alam, University of New South Wales, Australia

Chapter II
Multi-Objective Particles Swarm Optimization Approaches ................................................................ 20
Konstantinos E. Parsopoulos, University of Patras, Greece
Michael N. Vrahatis, University of Patras, Greece

Chapter III
Generalized Differential Evolution for Constrained Multi-Objective Optimization ........................... 43
Saku Kukkonen, Lappeenranta University of Technology, Finland
Jouni Lampinen, University of Vaasa, Finland

Chapter IV
Towards a More Efficient Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimizer ................................................ 76
Luis V. Santana-Quintero, CINVESTAV-IPN, Evolutionary Computation Group
(EVOCINV), Mexico
Noel Ramírez-Santiago, CINVESTAV-IPN, Evolutionary Computation Group
(EVOCINV), Mexico
Carlos A. Coello Coello, CINVESTAV-IPN, Evolutionary Computation Group
(EVOCINV), Mexico
Chapter V
Multi-Objective Optimization Using Artificial Immune Systems ..................................................... 106
Licheng Jiao, Xidian University, P.R. China
Maoguo Gong, Xidian University, P.R. China
Wenping Ma, Xidian University, P.R. China
Ronghua Shang, Xidian University, P.R. China

Chapter VI
Lexicographic Goal Programming and Assessment Tools for a
Combinatorial Production Problem ................................................................................................... 148
Seamus M. McGovern, U.S. DOT National Transportation Systems Center, USA
Surendra M. Gupta, Northeastern University, USA

Chapter VII
Evolutionary Population Dynamics and Multi-Objective Optimisation Problems ............................ 185
Andrew Lewis, Griffith University, Australia
Sanaz Mostaghim, University of Karlsruhe, Germany
Marcus Randall, Bond University, Australia

Section II
Applications

Chapter VIII
Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms for Sensor Network Design ............................................ 208
Ramesh Rajagopalan, Syracuse University, USA
Chilukuri K. Mohan, Syracuse University, USA
Kishan G. Mehrotra, Syracuse University, USA
Pramod K. Varshney, Syracuse University, USA

Chapter IX
Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization for DNA Sequence Design .......................................... 239
Soo-Yong Shin, Seoul National University, Korea
In-Hee Lee, Seoul National University, Korea
Byoung-Tak Zhang, Seoul National University, Korea

Chapter X
Computational Intelligence to Speed-Up Multi-Objective Design Space
Exploration of Embedded Systems ..................................................................................................... 265
Giuseppe Ascia, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Vincenzo Catania, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Alessandro G. Di Nuovo, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Maurizio Palesi, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Davide Patti, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Chapter XI
Walking with EMO: Multi-Objective Robotics for Evolving Two, Four,
and Six-Legged Locomotion............................................................................................................... 300
Jason Teo, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
Lynnie D. Neri, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
Minh H. Nguyen, University of New South Wales, Australia
Hussein A. Abbass, University of New South Wales, Australia

Chapter XII
Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization in Energy Conversion Systems:
From Component Detail to System Configuration ............................................................................. 333
Andrea Toffolo, University of Padova, Italy

Chapter XIII
Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization for Assignment Problems ............................................ 364
Mark P. Kleeman, Air Force Institute of Technology, USA
Gary B. Lamont, Air Force Institute of Technology, USA

Chapter XIV
Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization in Military Applications .............................................. 388
Mark P. Kleeman, Air Force Institute of Technology, USA
Gary B. Lamont, Air Force Institute of Technology, USA

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 430

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 461

Index ................................................................................................................................................ 469

Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ xiv

Preface ................................................................................................................................................. xv
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xix

Section I
Fundamentals

Chapter I
An Introduction to Multi-Objective Optimization ................................................................................. 1
Lam Thu Bui, University of New South Wales, Australia
Sameer Alam, University of New South Wales, Australia

This chapter is devoted to summarize all common concepts related to multiobjective optimization (MO).
An overview of “traditional” as well as CI-based MO is given. Further, all aspects of performance as-
sessment for MO techniques are discussed. Finally, challenges facing MO techniques are addressed.
All of these description and analysis give the readers basic knowledge for understandings the rest of
the book.

Chapter II
Multi-Objective Particles Swarm Optimization Approaches ................................................................ 20
Konstantinos E. Parsopoulos, University of Patras, Greece
Michael N. Vrahatis, University of Patras, Greece

The multiple criteria nature of most real world problems has boosted research on multiobjective algorithms
that can tackle such problems effectively, with the smallest possible computational burden. Particle Swarm
Optimization has attracted the interest of researchers due to its simplicity, effectiveness and efficiency
in solving numerous single-objective optimization problems. Up-to-date, there are a significant number
of multiobjective Particle Swarm Optimization approaches and applications reported in the literature.
This chapter aims at providing a review and discussion of the most established results on this field, as
well as exposing the most active research topics that can give initiative for future research.
Chapter III
Generalized Differential Evolution for Constrained Multi-Objective Optimization ........................... 43
Saku Kukkonen, Lappeenranta University of Technology, Finland
Jouni Lampinen, University of Vaasa, Finland

Multiobjective optimization with Evolutionary Algorithms has been gaining popularity recently because
its applicability in practical problems. Many practical problems contain also constraints, which must be
taken care of during optimization process. This chapter is about Generalized Differential Evolution, which
is a general-purpose optimizer. It is based on a relatively recent Evolutionary Algorithm, Differential
Evolution, which has been gaining popularity because of its simplicity and good observed performance.
Generalized Differential Evolution extends Differential Evolution for problems with several objectives
and constraints. The chapter concentrates on describing different development phases and performance
of Generalized Differential Evolution but it also contains a brief review of other multiobjective DE
approaches. Ability to solve multiobjective problems is mainly discussed, but constraint handling and
the effect of control parameters are also covered. It is found that GDE versions, in particular the latest
version, are effective and efficient for solving constrained multiobjective problems.

Chapter IV
Towards a More Efficient Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimizer ................................................ 76
Luis V. Santana-Quintero, CINVESTAV-IPN, Evolutionary Computation Group
(EVOCINV), Mexico
Noel Ramírez-Santiago, CINVESTAV-IPN, Evolutionary Computation Group
(EVOCINV), Mexico
Carlos A. Coello Coello, CINVESTAV-IPN, Evolutionary Computation Group
(EVOCINV), Mexico

This chapter presents a hybrid between a particle swarm optimization (PSO) approach and scatter search.
The main motivation for developing this approach is to combine the high convergence rate of the PSO
algorithm with a local search approach based on scatter search, in order to have the main advantages of
these two types of techniques. We propose a new leader selection scheme for PSO, which aims to accel-
erate convergence by increasing the selection pressure. However, this higher selection pressure reduces
diversity. To alleviate that, scatter search is adopted after applying PSO, in order to spread the solutions
previously obtained, so that a better distribution along the Pareto front is achieved. The proposed ap-
proach can produce reasonably good approximations of multiobjective problems of high dimensionality,
performing only 4,000 fitness function evaluations. Test problems taken from the specialized literature
are adopted to validate the proposed hybrid approach. Results are compared with respect to the NSGA-
II, which is an approach representative of the state-of-the-art in the area.

Chapter V
Multi-Objective Optimization Using Artificial Immune Systems ..................................................... 106
Licheng Jiao, Xidian University, P.R. China
Maoguo Gong, Xidian University, P.R. China
Wenping Ma, Xidian University, P.R. China
Ronghua Shang, Xidian University, P.R. China
This chapter focuses on extending Artificial Immune Systems (AIS) to solve multiobjective problems.
It introduces two multiobjective optimization algorithms using AIS, the Immune Dominance Clonal
Multi-objective Algorithm (IDCMA), and the Non-dominated Neighbour Immune Algorithm (NNIA).
IDCMA is unique in that its fitness values of current dominated individuals are assigned as the values
of a custom distance measure, termed as Ab-Ab affinity, between the dominated individuals and one
of the nondominated individuals found so far. Meanwhile, NNIA solves multiobjective optimization
problems by using a non-dominated neighbour-based selection technique, an immune inspired operator,
two heuristic search operators and elitism. The unique selection technique of NNIA only selects minority
isolated nondominated individuals in population. The selected individuals are then cloned proportionally
to their crowding-distance values before heuristic search. By using the nondominated neighbor-based
selection and proportional cloning, NNIA pays more attention to the less-crowded regions of the current
trade-off front.

Chapter VI
Lexicographic Goal Programming and Assessment Tools for a
Combinatorial Production Problem ................................................................................................... 148
Seamus M. McGovern, U.S. DOT National Transportation Systems Center, USA
Surendra M. Gupta, Northeastern University, USA

NP-complete combinatorial problems often necessitate the use of near-optimal solution techniques includ-
ing heuristics and metaheuristics. The addition of multiple optimization criteria can further complicate
comparison of these solution techniques due to the decision-maker’s weighting schema potentially mask-
ing search limitations. In addition, many contemporary problems lack quantitative assessment tools,
including benchmark data sets. This chapter proposes the use of lexicographic goal programming for use
in comparing combinatorial search techniques. These techniques are implemented here using a recently
formulated problem from the area of production analysis. The development of a benchmark data set and
other assessment tools is demonstrated, and these are then used to compare the performance of a genetic
algorithm and an H-K general-purpose heuristic as applied to the production-related application.

Chapter VII
Evolutionary Population Dynamics and Multi-Objective Optimisation Problems ............................ 185
Andrew Lewis, Griffith University, Australia
Sanaz Mostaghim, University of Karlsruhe, Germany
Marcus Randall, Bond University, Australia

Problems for which many objective functions are to be simultaneously optimised are widely encountered
in science and industry. These multiobjective problems have also been the subject of intensive investi-
gation and development recently for metaheuristic search algorithms such as ant colony optimisation,
particle swarm optimisation and extremal optimisation. In this chapter, a unifying framework called
evolutionary programming dynamics (EPD) is examined. Using underlying concepts of self organised
criticality and evolutionary programming, it can be applied to many optimisation algorithms as a control-
ling metaheuristic, to improve performance and results. We show this to be effective for both continuous
and combinatorial problems.
 Section II
Applications

Chapter VIII
Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms for Sensor Network Design ............................................ 208
Ramesh Rajagopalan, Syracuse University, USA
Chilukuri K. Mohan, Syracuse University, USA
Kishan G. Mehrotra, Syracuse University, USA
Pramod K. Varshney, Syracuse University, USA

Many sensor network design problems are characterized by the need to optimize multiple conflicting
objectives. However, existing approaches generally focus on a single objective (ignoring the others), or
combine multiple objectives into a single function to be optimized, to facilitate the application of clas-
sical optimization algorithms. This restricts their ability and constrains their usefulness to the network
designer. A much more appropriate and natural approach is to address multiple objectives simultane-
ously, applying recently developed multi-objective evolutionary algorithms (MOEAs) in solving sensor
network design problems. This chapter describes and illustrates this approach by modeling two sensor
network design problems (mobile agent routing and sensor placement), as multiobjective optimization
problems, developing the appropriate objective functions and discussing the tradeoffs between them.
Simulation results using two recently developed MOEAs, viz., EMOCA (Rajagopalan, Mohan, Mehrotra,
& Varshney, 2006) and NSGA-II (Deb, Pratap, Agarwal, & Meyarivan, 2000), show that these MOEAs
successfully discover multiple solutions characterizing the tradeoffs between the objectives.

Chapter IX
Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization for DNA Sequence Design .......................................... 239
Soo-Yong Shin, Seoul National University, Korea
In-Hee Lee, Seoul National University, Korea
Byoung-Tak Zhang, Seoul National University, Korea

Finding reliable and efficient DNA sequences is one of the most important tasks for successful DNA-
related experiments such as DNA computing, DNA nano-assembly, DNA microarrays and polymerase
chain reaction. Sequence design involves a number of heterogeneous and conflicting design criteria.
Also, it is proven as a class of NP problems. These suggest that multiobjective evolutionary algorithms
(MOEAs) are actually good candidates for DNA sequence optimization. In addition, the characteristics
of MOEAs including simple addition/deletion of objectives and easy incorporation of various existing
tools and human knowledge into the final decision process could increase the reliability of final DNA
sequence set. In this chapter, we review multiobjective evolutionary approaches to DNA sequence
design. In particular, we analyze the performance of ε-multiobjective evolutionary algorithms on three
DNA sequence design problems and validate the results by showing superior performance to previous
techniques.
Chapter X
Computational Intelligence to Speed-Up Multi-Objective Design Space
Exploration of Embedded Systems ..................................................................................................... 265
Giuseppe Ascia, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Vincenzo Catania, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Alessandro G. Di Nuovo, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Maurizio Palesi, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
Davide Patti, Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy

Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms (MOEAs) have received increasing interest in industry, be-
cause they have proved to be powerful optimizers. Despite the great success achieved, MOEAs have
also encountered many challenges in real-world applications. One of the main difficulties in applying
MOEAs is the large number of fitness evaluations (objective calculations) that are often needed before
a well acceptable solution can be found. In fact, there are several industrial situations in which both
fitness evaluations are computationally expensive and, meanwhile, time available is very low. In this
applications efficient strategies to approximate the fitness function have to be adopted, looking for a
trade-off between optimization performances and efficiency. This is the case of a complex embedded
system design, where it is needed to define an optimal architecture in relation to certain performance
indexes respecting strict time-to-market constraints. This activity, known as Design Space Exploration
(DSE), is still a great challenge for the EDA (Electronic Design Automation) community. One of the
most important bottlenecks in the overall design flow of an embedded system is due to the simulation.
Simulation occurs at every phase of the design flow and it is used to evaluate a system candidate to
be implemented. In this chapter we focus on system level design proposing an hybrid computational
intelligence approach based on fuzzy approximation to speed up the evaluation of a candidate system.
The methodology is applied to a real case study: optimization of the performance and power consump-
tion of an embedded architecture based on a Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) microprocessor in a
mobile multimedia application domain. The results, carried out on a multimedia benchmark suite, are
compared, in terms of both performance and efficiency, with other MOGAs strategies to demonstrate
the scalability and the accuracy of the proposed approach.

Chapter XI
Walking with EMO: Multi-Objective Robotics for Evolving Two, Four,
and Six-Legged Locomotion............................................................................................................... 300
Jason Teo, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
Lynnie D. Neri, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
Minh H. Nguyen, University of New South Wales, Australia
Hussein A. Abbass, University of New South Wales, Australia

This chapter will demonstrate the various robotics applications that can be achieved using evolutionary
multiobjective optimization (EMO) techniques. The main objective of this chapter is to demonstrate
practical ways of generating simple legged locomotion for simulated robots with two, four and six legs
using EMO. The operational performance as well as complexities of the resulting evolved Pareto solu-
tions that act as controllers for these robots will then be analyzed. Additionally, the operational dynamics
of these evolved Pareto controllers in noisy and uncertain environments, limb dynamics and effects of
using a different underlying EMO algorithm will also be discussed.

Chapter XII
Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization in Energy Conversion Systems:
From Component Detail to System Configuration ............................................................................. 333
Andrea Toffolo, University of Padova, Italy

The research field on energy conversion systems presents a large variety of multiobjective optimization
problems that can be solved taking full advantage of the features of evolutionary algorithms. In fact, design
and operation of energy systems can be considered in several different perspectives (e.g., performance,
efficiency, costs, environmental aspects). This results in a number of objective functions that should be
simultaneously optimized, and the knowledge of the Pareto optimal set of solutions is of fundamental
importance to the decision maker. This chapter proposes a brief survey of typical applications at dif-
ferent levels, ranging from the design of component detail to the challenge about the synthesis of the
configuration of complex energy conversion systems. For sake of simplicity, the proposed examples are
grouped into three main categories: design of components/component details, design of overall energy
system and operation of energy systems. Each multiobjective optimization problem is presented with
a short background and some details about the formulation. Future research directions in the field of
energy systems are also discussed at the end of the chapter.

Chapter XIII
Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization for Assignment Problems ............................................ 364
Mark P. Kleeman, Air Force Institute of Technology, USA
Gary B. Lamont, Air Force Institute of Technology, USA

Assignment problems are used throughout many research disciplines. Most assignment problems in the
literature have focused on solving a single objective. This chapter focuses on assignment problems that
have multiple objectives that need to be satisfied. In particular, this chapter looks at how multiobjective
evolutionary algorithms have been used to solve some of these problems. Additionally, this chapter
examines many of the operators that have been utilized to solve assignment problems and discusses
some of the advantages and disadvantages of using specific operators.

Chapter XIV
Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization in Military Applications .............................................. 388
Mark P. Kleeman, Air Force Institute of Technology, USA
Gary B. Lamont, Air Force Institute of Technology, USA

This chapter attempts to provide a spectrum of military multiobjective optimization problems whose char-
acteristics imply that an MOEA approach is appropriate. The choice of selected operators indicates that
good results can be achieved for these problems. Selection and testing of other operators and associated
parameters may generate “better” solutions. It is not intended that these problems represent the totality
or even the complete spectrum of all military optimization problems. However, the examples discussed
are very complex with high-dimensionality and therefore reflect the many difficulties the military faces
in achieving their goals. MOEAs with local search are another method of attacking theslems that should
provide effective and efficient solutions.

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 430

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 461

Index ................................................................................................................................................ 469

xiv

Foreword

The topic of multiobjective optimization is of utmost importance to most practitioners who deal with a
variety of optimization tasks in real-world settings. The reason is that most real-world problems involve
more than one objective. It is quite unusual to optimize along one dimension, whether this would be
the cost of production, inventory levels or total profits. Rather, real-world problems involve multiple
conflicting objectives (e.g., minimizing the weight of a battery while maximizing its life). Because of
this, no one solution can be termed “the best”—and it is necessary to consider a set of trade-off optimal
solutions.
Many classic optimization methods have been proposed to address multiobjective optimization
problems. Most of these methods convert such problems into single objective formulations, which suffer
from a few disadvantages. These include the necessity of making a variety of adjustments to a method
and also the return of a single solution at the end of each run.
Hence, there is a huge interest in applications of computational intelligence methods for multiobjec-
tive optimization problems. Indeed, it is one of the hottest topics at present, so this book is coming out
at the right time. The first part of the book deals with issues of applicability of various techniques, like
particle swarm optimization, differential evolution, artificial immune systems, evolutionary algorithms,
and multiobjective optimization problems. The second part of the book concentrates on various applica-
tions (e.g., wireless sensor network design, DNA sequence design, assignment problems, and military
applications).
I am sure you will find this book quite useful and interesting, as it presents a variety of available
techniques and some areas of potential applications.

Enjoy.

Zbigniew Michalewicz
University of Adelaide
 xv

Preface

Solving multiobjective optimization (MO) problems using computational intelligence (CI) techniques,
such as genetic algorithms, particle swam optimization, artificial immune systems, is a fast-developing
field of research. Similar to other optimization techniques, MO algorithms using CI techniques (or we
simply call CI-based MO algorithms) are employed to find feasible solutions for a particular problem.
In contrast to their single objective optimization counterparts, they are associated with multiobjective
fitness functions, which complicate the multi-dimensional fitness landscape. With CI-based MO algo-
rithms, there exists a set of trade-off optimal solutions. It thus gives decision makers more options to
choose the best solution according to post-analysis preference information. At the current state, CI-based
MO algorithms have developed to become competent with an increasingly large number of CI-based
MO applications in real life. Researchers have been investigating theoretically as well as empirically
the performance of CI-based MO algorithms on a wide range of optimization problems including com-
binatorial, real-valued to dynamic and noisy problems.
The application of MO as well as CI-based MO for real-world problems is obvious since real-world
problems are hardly single-objective. Because of tremendous practical demands, the research in CI-based
MO has developed quickly with diverse methods. As a result, there are massive numbers of research
papers published in the format of journals as well as conferences. However, most papers on CI-based
MO are scattered around in different journals and conference proceedings focussed on very special and
narrow topics. Although a few books exist on evolutionary MO, there is no publication to provide read-
ers an understanding through all these diverse CI-based MO techniques. Further, due to the practical
usefulness of CI-based MO, there is an increasing demand to have separate subject of CI-based MO in
the educational plan of universities worldwide for: undergraduate and postgraduate students to provide
them a broad knowledge on a wide range of CI-based MO techniques. It is therefore vital to have edi-
tions of chapters across areas of MO in order to summarize the most important CI-based MO techniques
as well as their specialized applications.
This edition is expected to meet the demand to have separate subject of CI-based MO in the educational
plan of universities. It consists of open-solicited and invited chapters written by leading researchers in
the field of computational intelligence. All papers went through a peer review process by at least two
experts in the field and one of the editors. Our goal is to provide lecture notes that representatively cover
the foundation as well as the practical side of the topic. This represents a responsibility from our end to
balance between technicality of specialists, and readability of a larger audience. The book is organized
in such a way that it is primarily used for teaching under graduate and post-graduate levels. Meanwhile,
it can be a reference of CI-based MO techniques for researchers and practitioners.
For the foundation part, the book includes a description of common concepts of MO, a survey of the
MO literature, and several work on hot topics such as extending genetic algorithms, differential evolu-
tion, particle swarm optimization, and artificial immune systems to the MO domain. Meanwhile, the
xvi

application part covers a quite wide range of work from DNA design, network installation to the defence
and security domain. Because of the space constraints, this book just contains a small collection of the
work in the field. However, they are representatives for most of current topics in the CI-based MO.
There are XIV chapters total. Chapter I is devoted to summarize common concepts related to MO.
A description of traditional as well as CI-based MO is given. Further, various aspects of performance
assessment for MO techniques are discussed. Finally, challenges facing MO techniques are addressed.
All of these descriptions and analysis give the readers basic knowledge for understanding the rest of
the book.
In Chapter II, a survey of particle swarm optimization (PSO) is given. PSO has attracted the interest
of researchers due to its simplicity, effectiveness and efficiency in solving numerous single-objective
optimization problems. Up-to-date, there is a significant number of multiobjective PSO approaches and
applications reported in the literature. This chapter aims at providing a review and discussion of the
most established results on this field, as well as exposing the most active research topics that can give
initiative for future research.
Chapter III discusses generalized differential evolution (GDE), which is a general-purpose optimizer.
It is based on a relatively recent Evolutionary Algorithm, Differential Evolution, which has been gaining
popularity because of its simplicity and good observed performance. GDE extends differential evolution
for problems with several objectives and constraints. The chapter concentrates on describing different
development phases and performance of GDE. The ability to solve multiobjective problems is mainly
discussed, but constraint handling and the effect of control parameters are also covered as well as other
relevant studies. It is found that the GDE versions, in particular the latest version, are effective and ef-
ficient for solving constrained multiobjective problems.
Chapter IV presents a hybrid between a PSO approach and scatter search. The main motivation for
developing this approach is to combine the high convergence rate of the PSO algorithm with a local
search approach based on scatter search, in order to have the main advantages of these two types of
techniques. It proposes a new leader selection scheme for PSO, which aims to accelerate convergence by
increasing the selection pressure. However, this higher selection pressure reduces diversity. To alleviate
that, scatter search is adopted after applying PSO, in order to spread the solutions previously obtained,
so that a better distribution along the Pareto front is achieved. The proposed approach can produce
reasonably good approximations of multiobjective problems of high dimensionality, performing only
a few thousnads of fitness function evaluations. Test problems taken from the specialized literature are
adopted to validate the proposed hybrid approach. Results are compared with respect to the NSGA-II,
which is an approach representative of the state-of-the-art in the area.
Chapter V focuses on extending artificial immune systems (AIS) to solve multiobjective problems.
It introduces two multiobjective optimization algorithms using AIS, the immune dominance clonal
multi-objective algorithm (IDCMA), and the non-dominated neighbour immune algorithm (NNIA).
IDCMA is unique in that its fitness values of current dominated individuals are assigned as the values
of a custom distance measure, termed as Ab-Ab affinity, between the dominated individuals and one
of the non-dominated individuals found so far. Meanwhile, NNIA solves multiobjective optimization
problems by using a nondominated neighbor-based selection technique, an immune inspired operator,
two heuristic search operators and elitism. The unique selection technique of NNIA only selects minority
isolated non-dominated individuals in population. The selected individuals are then cloned proportionally
to their crowding-distance values before heuristic search. By using the nondominated neighbor-based
selection and proportional cloning, NNIA pays more attention to the less-crowded regions of the current
trade-off front.
 xvii

Chapter VI proposes the use of lexicographic goal programming for use in comparing combinatorial
search techniques. These techniques are implemented here using a recently formulated and multiobjec-
tive problem from the area of production analysis. The development of a benchmark data set and other
assessment tools is demonstrated, and these are then used to compare the performance of a genetic
algorithm and an H-K general-purpose heuristic as applied to the production-related application.
In Chapter VII, a unifying framework called evolutionary programming dynamics (EPD) is examined.
Using underlying concepts of self organised criticality and evolutionary programming, it can be applied
to many optimisation algorithms as a controlling meta-heuristic, to improve performance and results.
The chapter shows this to be effective for both continuous and combinatorial problems.
Chapter VIII describes and illustrates this approach by modeling two sensor network design problems
(mobile agent routing and sensor placement), as multiobjective optimization problems, developing the
appropriate objective functions and discussing the tradeoffs between them. Simulation results using two
recently developed multiobjective evolutionary algorithms (MOEAs) show that these MOEAs success-
fully discover multiple solutions characterizing the tradeoffs between the objectives.
Chapter IX presents a possibility to apply evolutionary multiobjective optimization in designing
DNA sequences. It performs a review on multiobjective evolutionary approaches to DNA sequence
design. In particular, it analyzes the performance of ε-multiobjective evolutionary algorithms on three
DNA sequence design problems and validates the results by showing superior performance to previous
techniques.
Chapter X describes an approach to speed up the evolutionary design of application- specific embed-
ded systems by means of fuzzy approximation. The methodology uses a MOEA for heuristic exploration
of the design space and a fuzzy system to evaluate the candidate system configurations to be visited. The
proposed methodology works in two phases: firstly all configurations are evaluated using computationally
expensive simulations and their results are used to train the fuzzy system until it becomes reliable; in the
second phase the accuracy of the fuzzy system is refined using results obtained by simulating promising
configurations. Although the methodology was applied to the design of an embedded architecture based
on a very long instruction word (VLIW) microprocessor in a mobile multimedia application domain, it
is of general applicability.
Chapter XI demonstrates the various robotics applications that can be achieved using MOEAs. The
main objective of this chapter is to demonstrate practical ways of generating simple legged locomotion
for simulated robots with two, four and six legs using MOEAs. The operational performance as well as
complexities of the resulting evolved Pareto solutions that act as controllers for these robots will then
be analyzed. Additionally, the operational dynamics of these evolved Pareto controllers in noisy and
uncertain environments, limb dynamics and effects of using a different underlying MOEA will also be
discussed.
Chapter XII proposes a brief survey of typical applications of MOEAs in the field of design energy
systems at different levels, ranging from the design of component detail to the challenge about the syn-
thesis of the configuration of complex energy conversion systems. For sake of simplicity, the proposed
examples are grouped into three main categories: design of components/component details, design of
overall energy system and operation of energy systems. Each multiobjective optimization problem is
presented with a short background and some details about the formulation. Future research directions
in the field of energy systems are also discussed at the end of the chapter.
Chapter XIII discusses assignment problems which are used throughout many research disciplines.
Most assignment problems in the literature have focused on solving a single objective. This chapter focuses
on assignment problems that have multiple objectives that need to be satisfied. In particular, this chapter
looks at how multiobjective evolutionary algorithms have been used to solve some of these problems.
xviii

Additionally, this chapter examines many of the operators that have been utilized to solve assignment
problems and discusses some of the advantages and disadvantages of using specific operators.
Chapter XIV attempts to provide a spectrum of military multiobjective optimization problems whose
characteristics imply that an MOEA approach is appropriate. The choice of selected operators indicates
that good results can be achieved for these problems. Selection and testing of other operators and as-
sociated parameters may generate “better” solutions. It is not intended that these problems represent
the totality or even the complete spectrum of all military optimization problems. However, the examples
discussed are very complex with high-dimensionality and therefore reflect the many difficulties the
military faces in achieving their goals. MOEAs with local search are another method of attacking these
complex problems that should provide effective and efficient solutions.
In summary, this book intends to promote the role of CI-based multiobjective optimization in solving
practical problems. It is also expected to provide students with enough knowledge to be able to identify
suitable techniques for their particular problems. Furthermore, it encourages deeper research into this
field and the practical implementation of the results derived from this field.
 xix

Acknowledgment

The editors would like to acknowledge the help of all involved in the collation and review process of the
book, without whose support the project could not have been satisfactorily completed. Deep apprecia-
tion and gratitude is due to the School of ITEE, UNSW@ADFA, for ongoing sponsorship in terms of
generous allocation of Internet, hardware and software resources and other editorial support services
for coordination of this year-long project.
Most of the authors of chapters included in this book also served as referees for chapters written by
other authors. Thanks go to all those who provided constructive and comprehensive reviews. However,
some of the reviewers must be mentioned as their reviews set the benchmark. Reviewers who provided
the most comprehensive, critical and constructive comments include: Saku Kukkonen, Jason Teo, Minh
Ha Nguyen, Maoguo Gong, Soo-Yong Shin, Ramesh Rajagopalan, Konstantinos E. Parsopoulos, An-
drea Toffolo, Andrew Lewis, Carlos A. Coello Coello, Alessandro Di Nuovo, Mark Kleeman, Marcus
Randall, and Luis Martí.
Special thanks go to the publishing team at IGI Global, whose contributions throughout the whole
process from the inception of the initial idea to final publication have been invaluable. In particular, we
own a great deal for Deborah Yahnke, Kristin Roth, and Ross Miller, who continuously supported us
via e-mail for keeping the project on schedule.
Special thanks go to Professor Hussein Abbass for his helpful discussions on materializing this book
project. And last but not least, our families, for their unfailing support and encouragement during the
months it took to give birth to this book.
In closing, we wish to thank all of the authors for their insights and excellent contributions to this
book.

Lam Thu Bui and Sameer Alam,

Editors,
School of ITEE, UNSW@ADFA, University of New South Wales, Australia
August 2007
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 Fig. 209.—Bronze platter. Diameter about 9 inches. British
Museum. Drawn by Wallet.
It was noticed by those who saw the veil of oxide drawn away
from the ornamentation of these bronze vessels that a large
proportion of them were Egyptian rather than Assyrian in their
general physiognomy. Some of them displayed motives familiar to all
those who have travelled in the Nile valley. Take, for instance, the
fragment we have borrowed from one of the best preserved of them
all (Fig. 209).[412] Neither the minute lines of palmettes in the centre,
nor the birds that occur in the outer border, have, perhaps, any great
significance, but nothing could be more thoroughly Egyptian than the
zone of figures between the two. The same group is there four times
repeated. Two griffins crowned with the pschent, or double tiara of
upper and lower Egypt, have each a foot resting upon the head of a
kneeling child, but their movement is protective rather than
menacing. Instead of struggling, the child raises its hands in a
gesture of adoration. Between the griffins and behind them occur
slender columns, quite similar to those we have so often
encountered in the open architecture of Egypt.[413] Between the
groups thus constituted are thicker shafts bearing winged scarabs on
their campaniform capitals. These same columns and capitals occur
on another cup from which we detach them in order to show their
details more clearly.[414] In one instance the terminal of the shaft is
unlike anything hitherto found elsewhere; it is a sphere (Fig. 210);
but the contour of the next is thoroughly Egyptian (Fig. 211), and the
symbols on the last three, a scarab and two uræi, proclaim their
origin no less clearly (Figs. 212 to 214).

Figs. 210–214.—Columns or standards figured upon a bronze cup; from

Layard.
 Fig. 215.—Bronze platter. Diameter 8
inches. British Museum. Drawn by
Wallet.
We gather the same impression from a platter only cleaned quite
lately and consequently not to be found in Sir H. Layard’s works; it is
now reproduced for the first time (Fig. 215). The whole decoration is
finely carried out in line with the burin. The middle is occupied by a
seven pointed star or rosette, nine times repeated. Around this
elegant and complex motive there are concentric circles, the third of
which, counting from the centre, is filled up with small figures hardly
to be distinguished by the naked eye. We divine rather than see
lions, birds, seated men, and certain groups of symbols, such as
three lines broken and placed one above the other, which are
continually recurring in the hieroglyphic writing of Egypt. The fifth
zone has conventional papyrus stems alternating with rosettes. The
sixth, much larger, is filled with ovals surmounted by two plumes and
the uræus, that is by the royal cartouch of Egypt in its usual form.
The interior of each oval contains very small groups of figures
separated from one another by four horizontal lines.
 Fig. 216.—Part of a bronze cup or platter. Diameter about 9 inches.
British Museum.
We may quote a cup figured by Layard as a last example of this
exotic style of decoration. In the centre there are four full-face heads
with Egyptian wigs (Fig. 216). Around them a mountainous country is
figured in relief, and sprinkled with trees and stags engraved with the
point. The wide border, which is unfortunately very much mutilated,
is covered with groups of figures apparently copied from some
Egyptian monument, if we may judge from the attitudes and
costume. One figure, whose torso has entirely disappeared, wears
the pschent and brandishes a mace over his head; the movement is
almost identical with that of the victorious Pharaoh with whom we are
so familiar. A goddess, who might be Isis, stands opposite to him. In
another part of the border there is a misshapen monster crowned
with feathers and resembling the Egyptian Bes.[415]
 Fig. 217.—Bronze cup. Diameter 11 inches;
from Layard.
Side by side with these platters we find others on which nothing
occurs to suggest foreign influence. Take, for instance, the example
reproduced in Fig. 208. In the centre there is a small silver boss,
while the rest of the flat surface is occupied by the fine diaper pattern
made up of six-petalled flowers that we have already met with on the
carved thresholds (Vol. I. Fig. 96). The hollow border is ornamented
with four lines of palmettes united by an undulating line, a motive
which is no less Assyrian than the first (Vol. I., Figs. 128, 138, 139,
etc.). In Fig. 217 we reproduce a cup on which its original mounting,
or ring by which it was suspended, is still in place. The whole of the
decoration is pure Assyrian. The rosette is exactly similar to many of
those found on the enamelled bricks (see Vol. I., Figs. 122, 123). In
the first of the three zones, gazelles march in file; in the second, a
bull, a gazelle, an ibex, and a winged griffin, followed by the same
animals attacked by lions and making fourteen figures in all; in the
third zone fourteen heavy-crested bulls follow one another round the
dish. All these animals are among those most constantly treated by
the Assyrian sculptor; their shapes and motions are as well
understood and as well rendered as in the bas-reliefs. The bulls
especially are grandly designed. Moreover, the idea of employing all
these animals for the adornment of such a surface is entirely in the
spirit of Assyrian decoration. We shall meet with it again in the
shields from Van; we figure the best preserved of the latter on page
347.
It would be easy to give more examples, either from Layard or
from our own catalogue of these objects, of the purely Assyrian style
on the one hand, or of that in which the influence of Egyptian models
is so clearly shown, on the other. It is enough, however, that we have
proved that these little monuments may be divided into two clearly
marked classes. Did the two groups thus constituted share the same
origin? Did they both come from the same birth-place? Further
discoveries may enable us to answer this question with certainty,
and even now we may try to pave the way to its solution.
There would be no difficulty if these bronze vessels bore
cuneiform inscriptions, especially if the latter formed a part of the
decorative composition, as in the palace reliefs, and were cut by the
same hand. But this, so far as we know at present, was never the
case. In some fragments of pottery we have found cuneiform
characters (Fig. 185), and the name of Sargon has even been read
on a glass phial (Fig. 190), but—and we cannot help feeling some
surprise at the fact—none of these objects of a material far more
precious bear a trace of the Mesopotamian form of writing. I do not
know that a single wedge has been discovered upon them. A certain
number of them are inscribed, but inscribed without exception with
those letters which Phœnicia is supposed to have evolved out of the
cursive writing of Egypt.[416] They were not introduced with any idea
of enriching the design, as they always occur on the blank side of the
vessel. They are close to the edge, and their lines are very slender,
suggesting that they were meant to attract as little attention as
possible. They consist of but a single name, that of the maker, or,
more probably, the proprietor of the cup.[417]
 May we take it that these inscriptions afford a key to the mystery?
that they prove the vases upon which they occur at least to have
been made in Phœnicia? We could only answer such a question in
the affirmative if peculiarities of writing and language belonging only
to Phœnicia properly speaking were to be recognized on them; but
the texts are too short to enable us to decide to which of the Semitic
idioms they should be referred, while the forms of the letters do not
differ from those on some of the intaglios (Figs. 156 and 157) and
earthenware vases (Fig. 183), and upon the series of weights
bearing the name of Sennacherib.[418] The characters belong to that
ancient Aramæan form of writing which seems to have been
practised in Mesopotamia in very early times as a cursive and
popular alphabet.
The inscriptions, then, do little to help us out of our
embarrassment, and we are obliged to turn to the style of the
vessels and their decoration for a solution to our doubts. The
conviction at which we soon arrive after a careful study of their
peculiarities is that even those on which Egyptian motives are most
numerous and most frankly employed were not made in Egypt. In the
first place we remember that the Egyptians do not seem to have
made any extensive use of such platters; their libations were poured
from vases of a different shape, and the cups sometimes shown in
the hands of a Pharaoh always have a foot.[419] Moreover, in the
paintings and bas-reliefs of Egypt, where so many cups and vases of
every kind are figured, and especially the rich golden vessel that
must have occupied such an important place in the royal treasure,
we only find the shape in question in a few rare instances.[420]
After this general statement we may go into the details. In these
the hand of the imitator is everywhere visible; he borrows motives
and adapts them to his own habits and tastes. Take as an example
the platter to which a double frieze of hieroglyphs gives a peculiarly
Egyptian physiognomy (Fig. 215). An Egyptian artist would never
employ hieroglyphs in such a position without giving them some real
significance, such as the name of a king or deity. Here, on the other
hand, an Egyptologist has only to glance at the cartouches to see
that their hieroglyphs are brought together at haphazard and that no
sense is to be got out of them. This is obvious even by the
arrangement of the several characters in the oval without troubling to
examine them one by one. They are divided into groups by straight
lines, like those of a copy book. The Egyptian scribe never made use
of such divisions; he distributed his characters over the field of the
oval according to their sense and shape. The arrangement here
followed is only to be explained by habits formed in the use of a
writing that goes in horizontal lines from left to right or right to left.
There is, in fact, nothing Egyptian but the shape of the ovals, and the
motive with which they are crowned. The pretended hieroglyphs are
nothing but rather clumsily executed pasticcios. And it must be
noticed that even this superficial Egyptianism is absent from the
centre of the dish. In those Theban ceilings which display such a
wealth of various decoration we may find a simple rosette here and
there, or rather a flower with four or eight petals, but these petals are
always rounded at the end; nowhere do we find anything that can be
compared to the great seven-pointed star which is here combined so
ingeniously with eight more of the same pattern but of smaller size.
On the other hand this motive is to be found on a great number of
cups where no reminiscence of Egypt can be traced. The ruling idea
is the same as that of the diaper-work in the thresholds from
Khorsabad and Nimroud (see Vol. I., Fig. 135).
After such an example we might look upon the demonstration as
made, but it may be useful to complete it by analyzing the other cups
we have placed in the same class. That on which the scarabs on
standards and the opposed sphinxes appear (Fig. 209) seems pure
Egyptian at first sight; but if we take each motive by itself we find
variations that are not insignificant. In Egyptian paintings, when the
scarab is represented with extended wings they are spread out
horizontally, and not crescent-wise over its head.[421] We may say
the same of the sphinx. The griffin crowned with the pschent is to be
found in Egypt as well as the winged sphinx,[422] but the Egyptian
griffins had no wings,[423] and those of the sphinxes were folded so
as to have their points directed to the ground. In the whole series of
Egyptian monuments I cannot point to a fictitious animal like this
griffin. It is in the fanciful creations of the Assyrians alone that these
wings, standing up and describing a curve with its points close to the
head of the beast that wears them (see Fig. 87), is to be seen. It is
an Assyrian griffin masquerading under the double crown of Egypt,
but a trained eye soon penetrates the disguise.
The arrangement, too, of the group is Assyrian. When the
Egyptians decorated a jewel, a vessel, or a piece of furniture by
combining two figures in a symmetrical fashion, they put them back
to back rather than face to face.[424] Very few examples can be
quoted of the employment in Egypt of an arrangement that is almost
universal in Assyria. In the latter country this opposition of two
figures is so common as to be common-place; they are usually
separated from each other by a palmette, a rosette, a column or
even a human figure (see Vol. I., Figs. 8, 124, 138, 139; and above,
Figs. 75, 90, 141, 152, 153, 158, etc.), and it was certainly from
Mesopotamia that Asia Minor borrowed the same motive, which is so
often found in the tombs of Phrygia and in Greece as far as
Mycenæ, whither it was carried from Lydia by the Tantalides.[425]
The same remarks will apply to the cup partially reproduced in
our Fig. 216. The ornament of the centre and of the outer band is
Egyptian in its origin, but the mountainous country with its stags and
its trees, that lies between—have we found anything like it in Egypt?
The mountains are suggested in much the same fashion as in the
palace reliefs, and we know how much fonder the sculptors of
Mesopotamia were of introducing the ibex, the stag, the gazelle, etc.,
into their work than those of Egypt. The rocky hills and sterile deserts
that bounded the Nile valley were far less rich in the wilder ruminants
than the wooded hills of Kurdistan and the grassy plains of the
double valley.
There is one last fact to be mentioned which will, we believe, put
the question beyond a doubt. Of all antique civilization, that which
has handed down to us the most complete material remains is the
civilization of Egypt. Thanks to the tomb there is but little of it lost.
Granting that these cups were made in Egypt, how are we to explain
the fact that not a single specimen has been found in the country?
About sixty in all have been recovered; their decoration is
distinguished by much variety, but when we compare them one with
another we find an appreciable likeness between any two examples.
The forms, the execution, the ornamental motives are often similar,
or, at least, are often treated in the same spirit. The majority come
from Assyria, but some have been found in Cyprus, in Greece, in
Campania, Latium, and Etruria. Over the whole area of the ancient
world there is but one country from which they are totally absent, and
that country is Egypt.
We may, then, consider it certain that it was not Egyptian industry
that scattered these vessels so widely, from the banks of the
Euphrates to those of the Arno and the Tiber, not even excepting
from this statement those examples on which Egyptian taste has left
the strongest mark. Egypt thus put out of the question, we cannot
hesitate between Mesopotamia and Phœnicia. If the cups of
Nimroud were not made where they were found, it was from
Phœnicia that they were imported. The composite character of the
ornamentation with which many of them were covered is consistent
with all we know of the taste and habits of Phœnician industry, as we
shall have occasion to show in the sequel. On the other hand we
must not forget at how early a date work in metal was developed in
the workshops of Mesopotamia. Exquisite as it is, the decoration of
the best of these vases would be child’s play to the master workmen
who hammered and chiselled such pictures in bronze as those that
have migrated from Balawat to the British Museum.
We are inclined to believe that the fabrication of these cups
began in Mesopotamia; that the first models were issued from the
workshops of Babylon and Nineveh, and exported thence into Syria;
and that the Phœnicians, who imitated everything—everything, at
least, that had a ready sale—acclimatized the industry among
themselves and even carried it to perfection. In order to give variety
to the decoration of the vases sent by them to every country of
Western Asia and Southern Europe, they drew more than once from
that storehouse of Egyptian ideas into which they were accustomed
to dive with such free hands; and this would account for the
combination of motives of different origin that we find on some of the
cups. Vases thus decorated must have become very popular, and
both as a result of commerce and of successful wars, must have
entered the royal treasures of Assyria in great numbers. We know
how often, after the tenth century, the sovereigns of Calah and
Nineveh overran Palestine, as well as Upper and Lower Syria. After
each campaign long convoys of plunder wended their way through
the defiles of the Amanus and Anti-Lebanon, and the fords of the
Euphrates, to the right bank of the Tigris. The Assyrian conquerors
were not content with crowding the store-rooms of their palaces with
the treasures thus won, they often transported the whole population
of a town or district into their own country. Among the Syrians thus
transplanted there must have been artizans, some of whom
endeavoured to live by the exercise of their calling and by opening
shops in the bazaars of Babylon, Calah, and Nineveh. Clients could
be easily gained by selling carved ivories and these engraved cups
at prices much smaller than those demanded when the cost of
transport from the Phœnician coast had to be defrayed.
In one of these two ways it is, then, easy to explain the
introduction of these foreign motives into Assyria, where they would
give renewed life to a system of ornament whose resources were
showing signs of exhaustion. This tendency must have become
especially pronounced about the time of the Sargonids, when
Assyria was the mistress of Phœnicia and invaded the Nile valley
more than once. To this period I should be most ready to ascribe the
majority of the bronze cups; the landscapes, hunts and processions
of wild animals with which many of them are engraved, seem to
recall the style and taste of the bas-reliefs of Sennacherib and
Assurbanipal rather than the more ancient schools of sculpture.
In any case it would be difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish
between the vases engraved in Mesopotamia by native workmen
and those imported from Phœnicia, or made at Nineveh by workmen
who had received their training at Tyre or Byblos. The resemblances
between the two are too many and too great. At most we may unite
all the platters found in Mesopotamia into a single group, and point
out a general distinction between them and those that have been
discovered in the Mediterranean basin. The ornament on the
Nimroud cups is, on the whole, simpler than on those found in
Cyprus and Italy; the figure plays a less important part in the former,
and the compositions are more simple. The Assyrian cups, or, to be
more accurate, those found in Assyria, represent the earliest phase
of this art, or industry, whichever it should be called. In later years,
after the fall of Nineveh, when Phœnicia had the monopoly of the
manufacture, she was no longer content with purely decorative
designs and small separate pictures. Her bronze-workers multiplied
their figures and covered the concentric zones with real subjects,
with scenes whose meaning and intention can often be readily
grasped. This we shall see when the principal examples of this kind
of art come under review in our chapters upon Phœnicia.[426]

Fig. 218.—Bronze cup. British Museum.

Meanwhile, we shall not attempt to establish distinctions that are
nearly always open to contest; they would, besides, require an
amount of minute detail which would here be quite out of place. To
give but one example of the evidence which might lead to at least
plausible conclusions, we might see pure Assyrian workmanship in
the cup figured below (Fig. 218),[427] where mountains, trees, and
animals stand up in slight relief, both hammer and burin having been
used to produce the desired result. Among these animals we find a
bear, which must have been a much more familiar object to the
Assyrians living below the mountain-chains of Armenia and
Kurdistan than to the dwellers upon the Syrian coast. In the inscribed
records of their great hunts, the kings of Assyria often mention the
bear.[428] Nothing that can be compared to these wooded hills
peopled by wild beasts is to be found on the cups from Cyprus or
Italy. I may say the same of another cup on which animals of various
species are packed so closely together that they recall the
engravings on some of the cylinders (see Fig. 149).[429]
On the other hand, there are plenty of motives which may just as
easily have had their origin in one country as the other. The two
vultures, for instance, preparing to devour a hare stretched upon its
back, which we figure below (Fig. 219).[430]

Fig. 219.—Border of a cup; from Layard.

It may be thought that we have dwelt too long upon these cups;
but the sequel of our history will show why we have examined them
with an attention that, perhaps, neither their number nor their beauty
may appear to justify. They are first met with in Assyria, but they
must have existed in thousands among the Greeks and Italiots.
Light, solid, and easy to carry, they must have furnished western
artists with some of their first models. As we shall see, they not only
afforded types and motives for plastic reproduction, but, by inciting
them to find a meaning for the scenes figured upon them, they
suggested myths to the foreign populations to whom they came.

§ 5. Arms.
 We shall not, of course, study Assyrian arms from the military
point of view. That question has been treated with all the care it
deserves by Rawlinson and Layard.[431] From the stone axes and
arrow-heads that have been found in the oldest Chaldæan tombs, to
the fine weapons and defensive armour in iron and bronze, used by
the soldiers of Nineveh in its greatest years, by the cavalry, the
infantry, and the chariot-men of Sargon and Sennacherib, the
progress is great and must have required many long centuries of
patient industry. In Assyria no trade can have occupied more hands
or given rise to more invention than that of the armourer. For two
centuries the Assyrian legions found no worthy rivals on the
battlefields of Asia; and, although their superiority was mainly due, of
course, to qualities of physical vigour and moral energy developed
by discipline, their unvarying success was in some degree the result
of their better arms. Without dwelling upon this point we may just
observe that when war is the chief occupation of a race, its arms are
sure to be carried to an extreme degree of luxury and perfection.
Some idea of their elaboration in the case of Assyria may be gained
from the reliefs and from the original fragments that have come down
to us.

Figs. 220, 221.—Chariot poles; from a bas-relief.

It was from the animal kingdom that the Assyrian armourer
borrowed most of the forms with which he embellished the weapons
and other military implements he made. Thus we find the chariot
poles ending in the head of a bull, a horse, or a swan (Figs. 220 and
221).[432] Elsewhere we find a bow no less gracefully contrived; its
two extremities are shaped into the form of a swan’s head bent into
the neck.[433]

Figs. 222, 223.—Sword scabbards, from the

reliefs; from Layard.
The sword is the king of weapons. By a kind of instinctive
metaphor every language makes it the symbol of the valour and
prowess of him who wears it. It was, therefore, only natural that the
Assyrian scabbard, especially when worn by the king, should be
adorned with lions (Figs. 82, 222, 223). These were of bronze, no
doubt, and applied. In the last of our three examples a small lion is
introduced below the larger couple. The sword-blade itself may have
been decorated in the same fashion. The Assyrians understood
damascening, an art that in after ages was to render famous the
blades forged in the same part of the world, at Damascus and
Bagdad. The Arab armourers did no more, perhaps, than practise an
art handed down to them from immemorial times, and brought to
perfection many centuries before in the workshops of Mesopotamia.
At any rate we know that two small bronze cubes found at Nimroud
were each ornamented on one face with the figure in outline of a
scarab with extended wings, and that the scarab in question was
carried out by inlaying a thread of gold into the bronze (Fig. 224).
Meanwhile we may point to an Assyrian scimitar, the blade of which
is inscribed with cuneiform characters.[434]
In the reliefs we find a large number of shields with their round or
elliptical surfaces divided into concentric zones.[435] A recent
discovery enables us to say how these zones were filled, at least in
the case of shields belonging to kings or chiefs. In 1880 Captain
Clayton found, on the site of an ancient building at Toprak-Kilissa, in
the neighbourhood of Van, four shields, or rather their remains,
among a number of other objects. These shields are now in the
British Museum. Upon one fragment we may read an inscription of
Rushas, king of Urardha, or Armenia, in the time of Assurbanipal.
[436]

Fig. 224.—Bronze cube damascened with gold;

from Layard.
This inscription, which is votive in its tenor, combines with the
examination of the objects themselves, to prove that these shields
are not real arms, made for the uses of war. The bronze is so thin—
not more than a millimetre and a half in thickness—that even if
nailed upon wood or backed with leather it could have afforded no
serious protection, and its reliefs must have been disfigured and
flattened with the least shock. The edge alone is strengthened by a
hoop of iron. The shields are votive, and must have been hung on
the walls of a temple, like those we see thus suspended in a bas-
relief of Sargon (Vol. I. Fig. 190), a relief in which a temple of this
same Armenia is represented.[437] But although they were made for
purposes of decoration, these arms were none the less copies of
those used in actual war, except in the matter of weight and solidity;
thus they were furnished with loops for the arms, but these were too
narrow to allow the limb of a man of average size to pass through
them with any freedom.

Fig. 225.—Votive shield. Diameter about 34½ inches.

Drawn by R. Elson.
For us the most interesting point about them is their decoration,
which is identical in principle with several of the bronze platters lately
discussed (see Fig. 217). This may be clearly seen in our
reproduction of the shield which has suffered least from rust (Fig.
225).[438] In the centre there is a rosette with many radiations; next
come three circular bands separated from each other and from the
central boss by a double cable ornament. The innermost and
outermost zones are filled with lions passant, the one between with
bulls in the same attitude. And here we find a curious arrangement of
which we can point to no other example: both lions and bulls have
their feet turned sometimes to the centre of the shield, sometimes to
its outer edge. The general character of the form is well grasped in
both cases; but the design has neither the breadth nor firmness of
that upon the cup to which we have already compared this shield
(Fig. 217). The armourers were inferior in skill to the gold and
silversmiths—we can think of no more appropriate name for them—
by whom the metal cups were beaten and chased, although they
made use of the same models and motives. No one would attribute a
Phœnician origin to these bucklers; they were found in Armenia and
were covered with cuneiform inscriptions. They must have been
made either in Assyria, or in a neighbouring country that borrowed all
from Assyria, its arts and industries as well as its written characters.
The Assyrians attached too much importance to their arms and
made too great a consumption of them to be content with importing
them from a foreign country.

Fig. 226.—Knife-handle. Bone.

Louvre.
 When we turn to objects of less importance, such as daggers and
knives, we find their handles also often modelled after animals’
heads. We have already figured more than one example (Vol. I., tail-
piece to chapter II., and Vol. II., tail-piece to chapter I.). But
sometimes they were content with a more simple form of decoration
belonging to the class of ornament we call geometrical, which they
combined with those battlement shapes that, as we have seen, the
enameller also borrowed from the architect (Vol. I. Fig. 118). A by no
means ungraceful result was obtained by such simple means (Figs.
202 and 226). These knife-handles are interesting not so much on
account of their workmanship as for their tendency and the taste
they display. They were objects of daily use and manufacture. Cut
from ivory and bone, they were sold in hundreds in the bazaars. But
in every detail we can perceive a desire to make the work please the
eye. The evidence of this desire has already struck us in Egypt; it will
be no less conspicuous in Greece. In these days, how many useful
objects turned out by our machines have no such character. Those
who design them think only of their use. They are afraid of causing
complications by any attempt to make one different from the other or
to give varied shapes to tools all meant for the same service. They
renounce in advance the effort of personal invention and the love for
ornament that gives an interest of its own to the slightest fragments
from an ancient industry, and raises it almost to the dignity of a work
of art.

§ 6. Instruments of the Toilet and Jewelry.

The preoccupation to which we have just alluded, the love for an

agreeable effect, is strongly marked in several things which are now
always left without ornament. A single example will be enough to
show the difference. Nowadays all that we ask of a comb is to do its
duty without hurting the head or pulling out the hair; that its teeth
shall be conveniently spaced and neither too hard nor too pliant.
These conditions fulfilled, it would not be out of place in the most
luxurious dressing-room. The ancients were more exacting, as a
series of ebony combs in the Louvre is sufficient to show (Figs. 227–
229).[439] They have two rows of teeth, one coarse, the other fine,
and each is ornamented in the middle with a figure in open-work
(Figs. 228–229) or raised in relief on a flat bed (Fig. 227). Only a part
of the latter comb is preserved. The frame round the figures is cut
into the shape of a cable above and below, and into rosettes at the
ends. On one side of the comb there is a walking lion, on the other
the winged sphinx shown in our engraving. Its body is that of a lion, it
is mitred and wears a pointed beard. In the second example we have
a lion with lowered head within a frame with a kind of egg moulding.
The forms are so heavy that at first we have some difficulty in
recognizing the species. In our last specimen both design and
execution are much better. A lion is carved in the round within a
frame ornamented with a double row of zig-zag lines. The modelling
has been carried out by a skilful artist and is not unworthy of a place
beside the Ninevite reliefs.

Fig. 227.—Comb. Actual size.

Louvre.
We know of nothing among the spoils of Assyria that can be
compared to those wooden spoons that the Egyptian workman
carved with so light a hand;[440] but two objects found at Kouyundjik
prove that the Assyrians knew how to give forms elegant and
graceful enough, though less original, to objects of the same kind.
One of these is a bronze fork, the other a spoon of the same
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