Human Brain

In humans, the brain is a highly complex organs that governs the entire body, managing
everything from movement to cognition. The outer covering of the brain is the cortex or the gray
matter. This gray matter functions an important role in memory, thinking, learning, reasoning,
problem-solving, emotions, etc. It is consists of billions of neurons. Furthermore, the brain is
divided into two cerebral hemispheres namely the right and left hemispheres. This two
hemispheres send messages to each other through corpus callosum.

Localization of
Language in the Brain

In Phrenology, brain localization is the idea that our brain is made up of specialized modules or
different parts and that each modules or parts has a certain function. Franz Joseph Gall was
known for this proposal that mental faculties are localized on the surface of the brain. Mental
functions are localized in particular area of the brain and that human behavior is dependent on
these functions. Phrenologists drew up complex diagrams of the brain, illustrating the supposed
function of each part, like the one below. However, these have turned out to be false, but the
underlying principle of brain localization (as you will see) is now widely accepted in brain
science.
  One of the mistaken assumptions was that the skull fit closely to the brain so that the
shape of the skull provided a reliable indicator of the shape of the brain.
 Another assumption, which has earlier roots and enduring legacy, was that there were
distinct mental capacities or faculties and that individuals differ in these faculties.
These faculties characterize the different abilities or propensities to action, upon which
individuals might differ, such as verbal memory (the first ability Gall focused on),
destructiveness, and physical love.
 Yet a third assumption, and a radical one given von Haller's influence, was that these
faculties were localized in distinct parts of the brain.
 Fourth was the assumption that greater development in a localized brain area
corresponded with larger size. This assumption, as plausible as it might have seemed,
has been discredited. But it has been replaced with a conceptually related assumption that
greater activity in a brain area corresponds with greater metabolism (e.g., blood
flow)

Aphasia

It a disturbance of the comprehension and formulation of language caused by dysfunction in

specific brain regions. It results from a breakdown of the two-way translation that establishes a
correspondence between thoughts and language. Patients with aphasia can no longer accurately
convert the sequences of nonverbal mental representations that constitute thought into the
symbols and grammatical organization that constitute language. One might say that the images or
representations in thought can no longer be rendered in the words and sentences that
appropriately translate them.

Broca’s Area and Aphasia

The Broca’s area is located in the posterior part of the frontal lobe particularly at the posterior
inferior frontal gyrus which is usually the left hemisphere of the human brain with functions
linked to language production and comprehension. This region of the brain assists human plan
and organizes the words and sentences you want to use to express yourself. This plays a vital role
in language production as it acts as a command center, governing the complex muscle
movements necessary for articulation of spoken words namely the mouth.

The idea of localization was fortified by the clinical discovery of Pierre Paul Broca, a French
physician, anatomist, and anthropologist.

 The case of Louis Victor Leborgne, a 51 year-old man who suffered loss of speech
associated with brain damage at the Anthropological Society of Paris. Leborgne
expressed severe speech deficits as he was only able to produce a single syllable, tan,
which he uttered twice in succession, regardless of the context. “ He could no longer
produce but a single syllable, which he usually repeated twice in succession; regardless
of the question asked him, he always responded: tan, tan, combined with varied
expressive gestures. This is why, throughout the hospital, he is known only by the name
Tan (Broca, 1861c).”
o “I performed an autopsy 24 hours postmortem and found a number of
irregularities in the patient’s brain. A softened area over the perisylvian region
contained a cavity the size of a chicken’s egg, filled with serous fluid.”
o “I observed a significant malformation on the left frontal lobe, which I believe to
be the source of the patient’s aphemia and, therefore, the brain location
controlling speech production.”
 Subsequently, Broca came across another patient called “Lelong” who manifested speech
deficits similar to his first case, but less severe. Lelong was able to utter five words
instead of just one (This 84-year-old patient could say only five words, ‘oui’ (‘yes’), ‘non’
(‘no’), ‘tois’ (a mispronunciation of ‘trois’ (‘three’) which he used to represent any
number), ‘toujours’ (‘always’) and ‘Lelo’ (a mispronunciation of his own name).). Broca
believed that these patients understood what was said to them and that their language was
therefore intact. During autopsy, Broca found that both patients had damage to the
 posterior inferior frontal gyrus on the surface of the left hemisphere. Broca reported
several more case studies with similar anatomical correlations.

Consequently, speech deficits due to lesion to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus on the surface
of the left hemisphere became known as Broca’s aphasia. The disorder is considered to be a
complex of several symptoms that, together, contribute to the syndrome of Broca’s aphasia
(Goodglass, 1993; Benson and Ardila, 1996; Dronkers and Ogar, 2003). Spontaneous speech is
greatly reduced and normal grammatical structure is lost. Patients observably struggle with
linking words (and, or, but) and often omit prepositions. A person with Broca’s aphasia. People
with this case also face difficulty repeating phrases. Nevertheless, the words they do manage to
utter are usually understandable and contextually appropriate. Accordingly, speech production is
not normal but the comprehension is intact hence this results frustration to these people because
of communication difficulties. Furthermore, a study conducted by Fredriksson et.al, to 70
patients revealed that although damage to the posterior part of the Broca’s area, the pars
opercularis, is associated with Broca’s aphasia, it shows that involvement of this region is not
sufficient to cause Broca’s aphasia.

What causes Broca’s Aphasia?

 Stroke
 Head injury
 Brain tumor
 Infection
 Dementia
Wernicke’s Area

Wernicke's area is usually thought to be located in the back part of the temporal lobe, although
the exact location can vary. It is most frequently found in the left hemisphere of the brain, but not
always. Wernicke's area is the region of the brain that is important for language development. It
is located in the temporal lobe on the left side of the brain and it plays a part in speech
comprehension. Language development or usage can be seriously impaired by damage to
Wernicke's area of the brain. When this area of the brain is damaged, a disorder known as
Wernicke's aphasia can result, with the person being able to speak in phrases that sound fluent
yet lack meaning.

While the location of Wernicke's area is sometimes displayed visually as being in the left
cerebral hemisphere near a large groove known as the lateral sulcus, the exact location of this
region is still debated. Wernicke's area supports phonologic retrieval, an essential part of speech
production. This allows the mental representation of phonemes, which are then articulated in
their temporal order. This is a necessary component of speech production and plays a role in
being able to read aloud, repeat speech, and retrieve words.

Wernicke's Aphasia

Language aphasia can result when Wernicke’s area is damaged by trauma or disease. Aphasia is
an impairment of language that affects an individual's ability to comprehend and produce spoken
and written communication. Wernicke's aphasia is a language disorder that impacts language
comprehension and the production of meaningful language due to damage to Wernicke's area of
the brain. This condition is sometimes referred to as fluent aphasia, sensory aphasia, or receptive
aphasia. According to the National Aphasia Association, people with Wernicke's aphasia can
frequently produce speech that sounds normal and grammatically correct. The actual content of
this speech makes little sense. Non-existent and irrelevant words are often included in these
individuals' sentences.

Symptoms of Wernicke's aphasia include:

 making up meaningless words,

 producing sentences that do not make sense,
 speaking in a way that sounds normal but lacks meaning,
  difficulty repeating words or phrases, and
 being unaware of problems with speech.

Brain Plasticity

Brain plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity, is the brain’s biological, chemical, and physical
capacity to reorganize its structure and function. Neuroplasticity occurs due to learning,
experience, and memory formation or due to damage to the brain. Learning and new experiences
cause new neural pathways to strengthen, whereas neural pathways used infrequently become
weak and eventually die. This process is called synaptic pruning. Although traditionally
associated with changes in childhood, recent research indicates that mature brains continue to
show plasticity due to learning.

Neuroplasticity provides protective effects in managing traumas during human development

(Cioni et al., 2011). Also, learning music or second languages can increase neuroplasticity
(Herholtz & Zatorre, 2012). Plasticity allows the brain to cope better with the indirect effects of
brain damage resulting from inadequate blood supply following a stroke. Fundamentally, the
nervous system needs to rearrange itself to adapt to its unfolding situation. The genes program
the body to have neuroplasticity so that animals can survive in unpredictable environments.

The Critical Period of Language Development

The critical period of language development is a fundamental concept in the field of linguistics
and cognitive neuroscience, positing that there is a specific window in early human life during
which the brain is particularly primed for language acquisition. This period typically spans from
birth until puberty, with the most critical years being before the age of 12. During this time, the
brain’s plasticity—the ability to form new neural connections—is at its peak, allowing for the
rapid and efficient learning of language.

Research indicates that if a child is not exposed to language during this critical period, the ability
to fully acquire and master a language diminishes significantly. The brain’s language centers,
particularly Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, develop most effectively when stimulated by
linguistic input during these early years. This phenomenon is closely linked to the concept of
brain plasticity, where the brain’s neural circuits are highly adaptable and responsive to
environmental stimuli, including language.

The NCBI Bookshelf provides an In-depth analysis of the critical period hypothesis, detailing
how neurological development supports this theory. It discusses how children who miss out on
language exposure during this crucial time may struggle with language acquisition later in life,
even if they are subsequently exposed to rich linguistic environments.

The critical period is not just about the capacity to learn language but also about achieving
native-like proficiency and fluency. According to these sources, the diminishing plasticity of the
brain post-puberty makes it increasingly challenging to acquire a new language with the same
ease and skill as during the critical period.

In summary, the critical period of language development is a vital aspect of understanding how
humans acquire language. The theory suggests that early childhood is the optimal time for
language learning due to the brain’s heightened plasticity. Failing to utilize this period effectively
can lead to significant difficulties in language acquisition later in life, highlighting the
importance of early linguistic stimulation.

 https://ibpsychmatters.com/brain-localization#:~:text=Brain%20localization%20refers
%20to%20the,faces%2C%20another%20in%20producing%20language.
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 https://openstax.org/books/writing-guide/pages/15-4-annotated-sample-reading-case-
study-on-louis-victor-tan-leborgne
 https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/130/5/1432/283170
 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/23073-cerebral-cortex
