Lesson Module for Chemistry

Lesson

 Periodic Table
 Organization: Elements arranged by increasing atomic number (protons).
 Periods & Groups: Horizontal rows (periods) and vertical columns (groups)
define electron shells and similar chemical properties, respectively.
 Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids: Categorization based on properties
(conductivity, appearance).
 Atomic Number & Mass: Key identifiers; number of protons and average
atomic weight.
 Trends: Predictable patterns in properties like electronegativity and ionization
energy.
 Molarity
 Molar Mass: Sum of atomic masses of all atoms in the chemical formula
(from the periodic table).
 Moles: Moles = Mass of substance / Molar mass of substance
 Molarity: Molarity = Moles of solute / Liters of solution
 Normality
 Normality ( N ) = Number of equivalents of solute / Liters of solution
 Acids
 Donate protons (H⁺) in aqueous solutions.
 Taste sour and have a pH less than 7.
 Bases
 Accept protons (H⁺) in aqueous solutions.
 Taste bitter and feel slippery, and have a pH greater than 7.
 Atomic Structure
 1. Ancient Philosophical Foundations
o The concept of atoms dates back to Ancient Greece, where
philosophers like Democritus (460–370 BC) and his mentor Leucippus
proposed that matter is composed of indivisible particles called
“atomos,” meaning uncuttable. Their ideas were largely speculative
and lacked experimental evidence but laid the groundwork for future
atomic theory.
 2. Early Scientific Developments in the 19th Century
o The modern understanding of atomic structure began to take shape in
the early 19th century with John Dalton’s work around 1803. Dalton
proposed that atoms are small, hard spheres that cannot be divided
and that atoms of a given element are identical. He also introduced the
 idea that chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of these
atoms, leading to the formulation of compounds in fixed ratios.
 3. Discovery of Subatomic Particles
o In the late 19th century, significant advancements occurred with J.J.
Thomson’s discovery of the electron in 1897 through experiments with
cathode rays. Thomson’s findings challenged Dalton’s indivisible atom
concept and led him to propose the “Plum Pudding Model” in which
electrons were embedded within a positively charged sphere.
 4. Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
o Ernest Rutherford further advanced atomic theory through his gold foil
experiment conducted in 1909. By firing alpha particles at a thin sheet
of gold, he observed that while most particles passed through, some
were deflected at large angles. This led him to conclude that atoms
consist mostly of empty space with a dense, positively charged nucleus
at their center, fundamentally altering the understanding of atomic
structure.
 5. Bohr Model and Quantum Mechanics
o In 1913, Niels Bohr introduced his model of the atom, which
incorporated quantum theory by suggesting that electrons orbit the
nucleus at fixed distances or energy levels. This model explained how
electrons could occupy stable orbits without radiating energy but was
later refined by quantum mechanics as scientists developed a more
complex understanding involving wave-particle duality.
 Periodic Table
 1. Alkali Metals
o Alkali metals are a group of chemical elements in Group 1 of the
periodic table. They include lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). These metals are
characterized by having a single electron in their outermost shell,
which makes them highly reactive, especially with water and halogens.
They tend to form +1 cations and have low melting points compared to
most other metals.
 2. Transition Metals
o Transition metals are found in Groups 3 to 12 of the periodic table. This
category includes elements such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni),
and gold (Au). Transition metals are characterized by their ability to
form variable oxidation states and colored compounds. They often act
as catalysts in chemical reactions due to their ability to lose different
numbers of electrons.
 3. Post-transition Metals
o Post-transition metals are located to the right of transition metals on
the periodic table and include elements like aluminum (Al), tin (Sn),
lead (Pb), and thallium (Tl). These metals exhibit properties that are
intermediate between those of transition metals and metalloids. They
tend to be softer than transition metals and have lower melting points.
 4. Metalloids
 o Metalloids possess properties that are intermediate between those of
metals and nonmetals. Common metalloids include boron (B), silicon
(Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), and tellurium (Te).
They typically exhibit semiconducting properties, making them
valuable in electronics.
 5. Reactive Nonmetals
o Reactive nonmetals include elements such as hydrogen (H), carbon
(C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S),
chlorine (Cl), selenium (Se), bromine (Br) and iodine (I). These
elements tend to gain or share electrons during chemical reactions,
forming anions or covalent bonds.
 6. Noble Gases
o Noble gases comprise Group 18 of the periodic table, including helium
(He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon(Rn).
These gases are characterized by their lack of reactivity due to having
a full valence shell of electrons. As a result, they rarely form
compounds under standard conditions.
 7. Lanthanides
o The lanthanides consist of 15 elements from lanthanum through
lutetium on the periodic table. These rare earth elements are known
for their similar properties; they typically have high melting points and
are used in various applications such as magnets, phosphors for
lighting, and catalysts.
 8. Actinides
o Actinides encompass 15 elements from actinium through lawrencium
on the periodic table. Most actinides are radioactive; uranium and
plutonium are well-known examples due to their use in nuclear energy
production and weaponry.
 9. Unknown Properties
o This category refers to newly discovered or synthesized elements
whose properties have not yet been fully characterized or understood
due to limited research or experimental data.
 Separation of Mixtures
 Handpicking
o This is one of the simplest methods where individuals manually pick
out unwanted substances from a mixture. This technique is particularly
useful when dealing with larger particles or when the components are
visually distinguishable. For example, separating black grapes from
green grapes in a mixed batch.
  Threshing
o Primarily used in agriculture, threshing involves separating grains from
their stalks after harvesting. The stalks are dried, and then mechanical
force is applied to shake off the grains, allowing them to fall free from
the chaff.
 Winnowing
o Following threshing, winnowing is employed to remove lighter
impurities such as husks and chaff from heavier grains. This process
typically uses wind; farmers drop the mixture from a height so that air
blows away the lighter materials while retaining the heavier grains.
 Sieving
o Sieving separates mixtures based on particle size. A sieve (or mesh)
allows smaller particles to pass through while retaining larger ones.
This method is commonly used in cooking and construction to separate
flour from larger clumps or debris.
 Evaporation
o Evaporation is utilized to separate a soluble solid from a liquid solution.
By heating the solution, the solvent evaporates, leaving behind solid
residues. This method is often used in salt production where seawater
is evaporated to obtain salt crystals
 Distillation
o Distillation separates components of a liquid mixture based on
differences in boiling points. The mixture is heated until one
component vaporizes; this vapor is then condensed back into liquid
form and collected separately. Distillation is widely used in industries
for purifying liquids like water or alcohol.
 Separating Funnel
o This technique is specifically designed for separating immiscible liquids
(liquids that do not mix). A separating funnel takes advantage of
differences in density; for example, oil and water can be separated
since oil floats on top of water due to its lower density.
 Magnetic Separation
o When one component of a mixture possesses magnetic properties,
magnetic separation can be employed. Strong magnets attract
magnetic materials away from non-magnetic ones, effectively isolating
them without physical contact.
 Layers of Atmosphere
 The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from the
Earth’s surface up to about 10 km (6.2 miles or approximately 33,000 feet).
 This layer contains approximately 99% of the water vapor in the atmosphere
and is where nearly all weather phenomena occur. As altitude increases
within this layer, temperature decreases from an average of around 62°F
(17°C) at sea level to about -60°F (-51°C) at the tropopause.
 The mesosphere extends from about 50 km (31 miles) to approximately 85
km (53 miles) above sea level. In this layer, temperatures decrease with
height again, reaching some of the coldest temperatures in Earth’s
atmosphere near its upper boundary—around -90°C (-130°F). The
mesosphere is also where most meteors burn up upon entering Earth’s
atmosphere.
 The thermosphere stretches from about 85 km (53 miles) to around 600 km
(375 miles) above Earth. This layer experiences a significant increase in
temperature due to absorption of high-energy solar radiation; temperatures
can soar up to 3,600°F (2,000°C). However, despite these high
temperatures, it would feel extremely cold due to the thinness of air in this
region.
 The exosphere is considered the outermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere and
extends from about 600 km (375 miles) up to approximately 10,000 km
(6,200 miles). This layer has very few particles and gradually fades into outer
space. Atoms and molecules can escape into space here while satellites orbit
within this region.