Chapter 1

Triangles and Properties

In this chapter, we give some geometrical theories related to triangles.

In a triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶,

a. The angle between two sides is called the included angle of the sides.
b. The side between the two angles called the included side of angles.
c. A side opposite to an angle (or vertex) is called opposite side of the angle (and the angle is
called the Opposite angle of the side).
d. A perpendicular from a vertex to the opposite side is called height of the triangle. The opposite
side is then the base of the triangle.
e. A mid-segment of a triangle is the segment joining two mid points of two of its sides.

Congruent Triangles
Definition 1.1: Two triangles are called congurent if their corresponding sides have equal length.

Definition 1.2: Two triangles are called similar if their corresponding angles are congruent.
A’
C
C’

Thus, B and are congruent.

A B’

Figure 1. A’

𝛼
A
𝛼 and are similar.
𝛾
𝛾 C’
𝛽 C 𝛽
B
B’
Figure 2.

Note: Orientation of the triangles are not considered important.

Proposition 1.3
Two triangles are identified congruent if and only if they satisfy one of the following conditions.

(SAS): Two sides and their included angle of one triangle are congruent to corresponding sides and
their included angle of other triangle. (Proved by Euclid in Proposition 2.1.4)
(SSS) : Three sides of one triangle are congruent (equal length) to three sides of the other triangle.
( Proved by Euclid in Proposition 2.1.8)

(ASA): Two angles and their included side of one triangle are congruent to corresponding angles
and their included side of other triangle.

Proposition 1.4
Two triangles are identified similar if and only if they satisfy one of the following conditions.

(AA) : Two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of other triangle.

(sAs): The RATIO of two sides of one triangle is equal to the RATIO of two sides of other triangle
AND the corresponding included angle is congruent.

(sss): The three sides of one triangle makes same ratio with three corresponding sides of other
triangle.

That is,

Two triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′ are similar if and only if one of the following conditions is
satisfied.

(AA): Two corresponding angles are congruent. i.e., for eg.,

∠𝐴 = ∠𝐴′ , ∠𝐵 = ∠𝐵′.

(sAs): Two corresponding sides have same ratio (called homothetic ratio) and the corresponding
included angles are congruent. i.e., for eg., (see Figure 2)

|𝐴𝐵 | |𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ | |𝐴𝐵 | |𝐵𝐶 |

= and ∠𝐵 = ∠𝐵 ′ or = ′ ′ and ∠𝐵 = ∠𝐵 ′ .
|𝐵𝐶 | |𝐵 ′ 𝐶 ′ | |𝐴′𝐵′| |𝐵 𝐶 |

(sss): Ratio of Corresponding sides are equal.

|𝐴𝐵 | |𝐵𝐶 | |𝐶𝐴|

= ′ ′ = ′ ′.
|𝐴′𝐵′| |𝐵 𝐶 | |𝐶 𝐴 |

Note : Many geometric theorems are established by identifying congruent and similar triangles in a
geometric object.

Area of a plane geometric object

Definition 2. 4: Area is a measurement of the region in a plane bounded by a geometric
object. D C

Axiom 2.5: The area of a rectangle is 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 × 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕..

Axiom 2.6: Congruent objects have the same area. A B

Figure 3
Notation: The area of a geometric object 𝐺 is denoted by |𝐺|.

From these axioms, we can compute the areas bounded by various geometric objects.

Example 2.7: Prove that the area of a parallelogram is the 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.

Proof:
1. Given: A parallelogram ABCD
2. To be proved: |𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 | = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
3. Construction required: Draw two perpendicular lines to line AB from points C and D.
Name the lines as CQ and DP.
4. Proof: The two triangles Δ𝐴𝑃𝐷 and Δ𝐵𝑄𝐶 are congruent (why?) and hence their areas
are the same.
Also, in the base line, we have

|𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴𝑃| + |𝑃𝐵| = |𝐵𝑄| + |𝑃𝐵| = |𝑃𝑄 |.

D C
Now, we form a rectangle by removing a triangle part from one
side and adding to the other side.
|𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷| = |Δ𝐴𝑃𝐷| + |Polygon 𝐷𝑃𝐵𝐶|
= |Δ𝐵𝐶𝑄| + |Polygon 𝐷𝑃𝐵𝐶| A P B Q
= |Rectangle 𝐷𝑃𝑄𝐶|
= |𝐷𝑃| × |𝑃𝑄| Figure 4
= |𝐷𝑃| × |𝐴𝐵| = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒. QED.

Definition 2.8: In a parallelogram, the segments connecting the

opposite vertices are called the diagonals.

Figure 5.

Exercise 2.9: Prove that a diagonal divides a parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
1
Exercise 2.10: Prove that the area of a triangle is given by 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.
2
Exercise 2.11: Prove that two triangles with congruent bases and between the same parallel
lines have equal area.
Exercise 2.12: Prove that triangles having one of their sides equal and in a line and same
area are between same parallel lines.
Exercise 2.13: Prove that the area of a quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is equal to the half-length of one
diagonal (say 𝐴𝐶) multiplied by the height of the two parallel lines from the other two
vertices (B,D) and parallel to 𝐴𝐶.

Constructions

1. Construct the following geometric objects and prove that your constructions are valid.
a. A triangle with three given sides
b. A triangle with a two given sides and an included angle
c. A triangle with a two given angles and an included side
d. An equilateral triangle with a given side
e. An isosceles triangle with given base side and an opposite angle
f. A right triangle with given leg and base.
1.2 Some basic Theorems on Triangles

Theorem 1.2.1. Let Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 be an isosceles triangle such that |𝐴𝐶| = |𝐵𝐶|. Then, the bisector of the
angle ∠𝐶 is perpendicular to the base 𝐴𝐵 and the foot is the midpoint of 𝐵𝐶.
Proof:

1. Given: An isosceles triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. |𝐴𝐶 | = |𝐵𝐶 |.

𝐶𝐷 Angular bisector of ∠𝐶 .
2. To prove : 𝐶𝐷 ⊥ 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐷 is midpoint of 𝐴𝐵.
( That is, 𝐶𝐷 is the perpendicular bisector of 𝐴𝐵. )
3. Construction: None
4. Proof:
In Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶, Δ𝐶𝐷𝐵,
|𝐴𝐶 | = |𝐵𝐶| (equal sides of isosceles triangle)
∠𝐴𝐶𝐷 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷 ( 𝐶𝐷 is angular bisector )
𝐶𝐷 is common side
So, Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶 ≡ Δ𝐶𝐷𝐵 (by SAS).
Hence, |𝐴𝐷| = |𝐷𝐵|. So, 𝐷 is the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵.
Also, ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶 = ∠𝐵𝐷𝐶. But, ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶 + ∠𝐵𝐷𝐶 = straight angle (180𝑜 )
So, ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶 = 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (90𝑜 ). QED.
Theorem 1.2.2. The interior angles of a triangles sums to 1800 .
Theorem 1.2.2. The following properties are equivalent regarding a parallelogram.
a. A quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
b. The two pairs of its opposite sides are congruent.
c. Its diagonals bisect each other.
d. The two pairs of its opposite angles are congruent.

Proof: To prove 𝑎. ⟺ 𝑏. ⟺ 𝑑. ⟺ 𝑐, ,
it is enough to prove 𝑎. ⟹ 𝑏. ⟹ 𝑑. ⟹ 𝑐 ⟹ 𝑎.

( 𝑎. ⟹ 𝑏. ) Assume 𝑎. 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a parallelogram.

1. Given : A quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 with 𝐴𝐵 // 𝐶𝐷, 𝐵𝐶 // 𝐴𝐷.
2. To prove: |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐶𝐷|, |𝐵𝐶| = |𝐴𝐷|
3. Construction: Connect diagonal 𝐵𝐷.
4. Proof: In Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷, Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷, ∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 = ∠𝐵𝐷𝐶, |𝐷𝐵| is
common.
Therefore, Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≡ Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷 by (ASA).
Hence, |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐶𝐷|, |𝐵𝐶| = |𝐴𝐷|.

( 𝑏. ⟹ 𝑐. ) Assume 𝑏.:
1. Given : A quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 with |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐶𝐷|, |𝐵𝐶| = |𝐴𝐷|
3. Construction: Connects the diagonals with intersection at 𝑀.
2. To prove: |𝐴𝑀| = |𝑀𝐶|, |𝐵𝑀| = |𝑀𝐷|
4. Proof: In Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷, Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷,
|𝐴𝐷| = |𝐵𝐶|, |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐷𝐶| and 𝐵𝐷 is common. So, Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≡ Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷
by (SSS)
Hence, ∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶. Similarly, ∠𝐷𝐴𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴

Now, In Δ𝐴𝑀𝐷, Δ𝐵𝑀𝐶,

∠𝐴𝐷𝑀 = ∠𝑀𝐵𝐶, ∠𝐷𝐴𝑀 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝑀 , |𝐴𝐷| = |𝐵𝐶|. So, Δ𝐴𝑀𝐷 ≡ Δ𝐵𝑀𝐶 by (ASA)
Therefore, |𝐴𝑀| = |𝑀𝐶|, |𝐵𝑀| = |𝑀𝐷|.

(𝑐 ⇒ 𝑑) Assume c.
1. Given: |𝐴𝑀| = |𝑀𝐶|, |𝐵𝑀| = |𝑀𝐷|
2. To prove: ∠𝐴 = ∠𝐶, ∠𝐵 = ∠𝐷.
3. Construction: None.
4. Proof: In Δ𝐴𝑀𝐷, Δ𝐵𝑀𝐶,
|𝐴𝑀| = |𝑀𝐶|, |𝐵𝑀| = |𝑀𝐷| and ∠ 𝐴𝑀𝐷 is common. So, Δ𝐴𝑀𝐷 ≡ Δ𝐵𝑀𝐶 by (SAS)
So, ∠𝐴𝐷𝑀 = ∠𝑀𝐵𝐶, ∠𝐷𝐴𝑀 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝑀
Similarly, In Δ𝐴𝑀𝐵, Δ𝐵𝑀𝐶, we have ∠𝐶𝐷𝑀 = ∠𝑀𝐵𝐴, ∠𝐷𝐶𝑀 = ∠𝑀𝐴𝐵.
∠𝐴 = ∠𝐷𝐴𝑀 + ∠𝑀𝐴𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝑀 + ∠𝐷𝐶𝑀 = ∠𝐷. Similarly, ∠𝐵 = ∠𝐶.

(𝑑 ⇒ 𝑎) Assume d.
1. Given ∠𝐴 = ∠𝐶, ∠𝐵 = ∠𝐷.
2. To prove: 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a parallelogram
3. Construction: Connect the diagonal 𝐵𝐷.
4. ∠𝐴 + ∠𝐵 + ∠𝐶 + ∠𝐷 = 360𝑜 (why?) So, ∠𝐴 + ∠𝐵 = 180. Therefore, 𝐴𝐵 // 𝐷𝐶.
Similarly ∠𝐶 + ∠𝐷 = 180𝑜. Therefore 𝐴𝐷 // 𝐵𝐶.
Theorem 1.2.3. The mid-segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the
third side and is half of its length.
Theorem 1.2.4. Let 𝑃 be any point on the perpendicular bisector of a segment 𝐴𝐵.
Then, |𝐴𝑃 | = |𝐵𝑃 |.
Converse is also True:
Let 𝑃 be a point that is equidistant from the end points of a segment. The 𝑃 lies on the perpendicular
bisector of the segment.
Theorem 1.2.5: (Pythagoras Theorem)
In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the base and leg.
The converse is also true:
The sides of a triangle satisfy the Pythagorean relation. Then the triangle is a right triangle.

Definition: Three numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is said to satisfy the Pythagorean relation if 𝑐 2 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 .

Three positive integers are called Pythagorean triple, if they satisfy 𝑐 2 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 .

Construction:
Draw 𝐴𝐽 parallel to 𝐶𝐷. Draw 𝐴𝐸 and 𝐶𝐺.
Proof:
Δ𝐴𝐵𝐸 ≡ Δ𝐵𝐶𝐺 by (SAS)
So, |Δ𝐴𝐵𝐸 | = |Δ𝐵𝐶𝐺|.

Now, |▭𝐵𝐸𝐽𝑀| = 2 |Δ𝐴𝐵𝐸 | (why)

Also |▭𝐴𝐵𝐺𝐹 | = 2|Δ𝐵𝐶𝐺|

Hence |𝐴𝐵 |2 = |▭𝐴𝐵𝐺𝐹 | = |▭𝐴𝐵𝐺𝐹 |.

Similarly, we can prove

|𝐴𝐶 |2 = |▭𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐻 | = |▭ 𝐶𝐷𝐽𝑀|

Adding these two we get

|𝐴𝐵 |2 + |𝐴𝐶 |2 = |𝐵𝐶 |2 .
Theorem 1.2.5. Let 𝑃 be any point on the angular bisector of an angle ∠𝐴. Then, 𝑃 is equidistant
from the sides of the angle ∠𝐴.
Converse is also True:
Let 𝑃 be a point that is equidistant from the two sides of an angle. The 𝑃 lies on the angular bisector
of the angle.
Theorem 1.2.6. In a triangle, a parallel line to a side internally or externally divides the two other
sides with equal ratio.
Converse is also True: If a line divides two sides of a triangle with equal ratio internally or
externally, then the line is parallel to the third side.
Theorem 1.2.7. The ratio of areas of two similar triangles is equal to square of their homothetic
ratio.
Definition: The homothetic ratio of two similar triangles are the ratio of their corresponding sides.
Centers of Triangle

Theorem 1.2.8. (Circumcenter) The perpendicular bisectors of a triangle are concurrent. That is,
they meet at one point and is equidistant from the vertices.

Definition: This concurrent point of the perpendicular bisectors is called the circumcenter of the
triangle.
Theorem 1.2.9. (Incenter) The three angular bisectors of a triangle are concurrent and the
intersecting point is equidistant from the three sides.

Definition: This concurrent point of the angular bisectors is called the incenter of the triangle.
Theorem 1.2.10. (Excenters) A bisector of an interior angle and the bisectors of the other two
exterior angles are concurrent and the intersecting point is equidistant from the (extended) sides.

Definition: This concurrent point of the (one internal and two external) angular bisectors is called
the excenter of the triangle.

Note: There are three excenters for a triangle. 𝐽𝐴 , 𝐽𝐵 and 𝐽𝐶 .

Theorem 1.2.11. (Barycenter or Centroid) The three medians of a triangle are concurrent and the
intersecting point divides the medians internally with ratio 2:1 from their vertices.

Definition: This concurrent point of the medians is called the barycenter or centroid of the triangle.
Theorem 1.2.12. (Orthocenter) The three altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.

Definition: This concurrent point of the altitudes is called the circumcenter of the triangle.
Playfair’s Axiom: Given a line and a point outside the line, there is only one through the point
and parallel to the line.

Theorem 1.2.13: Euclid’s Postulate 5 is equivalent to Playfair’s axiom.

Necessity: Assume Euclid’s 5th Postulate.

Let a line traverse through two lines. If the sum of the interior angles of one side is less than 180, then
the two lines meet on that side.
Given: Aline 𝑙 and a point 𝑃 outside 𝑙.
To Prove: There is only one parallel line to 𝑙 through 𝑃.
Assume that there are two lines through 𝑃 parallel to 𝑙.
Let 𝑃𝐺, 𝑃𝐹 be the two parallel lines.
Construction:
Draw a perpendicular 𝑃𝐸 from 𝑃 to 𝑙.
Proof:
Since 𝑃𝐺 // 𝑙, we have 2⊾ = ∠𝐸 + ∠𝐸𝑃𝐺 = ∠𝐸 + ∠𝐸𝑃𝐹 + ∠𝐹𝑃𝐺 > ∠𝐸 + ∠𝐸𝑃𝐹.
So, ∠𝐸 + ∠𝐸𝑃𝐹 < 2⊾.
By Euclid’s 5th postulate, lines 𝑙 and 𝑃𝐹 will meet. A contradiction.
So, there is only one parallel to 𝑙 through 𝑃.

Sufficiency:
Assume Playfair’s axiom : There is only one parallel to 𝑙 through 𝑃.
Let the parallel line be 𝑃𝑄.
Construction: Draw a line 𝑃𝐹 through 𝑃 such that ∠𝐸 + ∠𝐸𝑃𝐹 < 180𝑜 .
To Prove: Lines 𝑙 and 𝑃𝐹 meets.
Proof:
If they do not meet, then 𝑃𝐹 is (another) parallel to 𝑙 . A contradiction.
So, they meet at appoint somewhere.
Inequalities on Triangles

Theorem 1.2.13: (Side inequality Theorem)

The lengths of sides of a triangles have the same relations with their opposite angles.

That is, in Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, |𝐵𝐶 | ≤ |𝐴𝐶 | ≤ |𝐴𝐵 | if and only if ∠𝐴 ≤ ∠𝐵 ≤ ∠𝐶 .

Proof: It is enough to prove |𝐵𝐶 | < |𝐴𝐶 | iff ∠𝐴 < ∠𝐵.

(Equality is proved in isosceles triangles)
Necessity Proof.
1. Given: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with |𝐵𝐶 | < |𝐴𝐶 |.
2. Construction: A point 𝐷 on 𝐴𝐶 such that |𝐵𝐶 | = |𝐶𝐷|
3. To prove: ∠𝐴 < ∠𝐵.
4. Proof:
Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶 is an isosceles triangle. Hence ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 = ∠𝐵𝐷𝐶.
Also, ∠𝐵𝐷𝐶 = ∠𝐴 + ∠𝐷𝐵𝐴 > ∠𝐴.
Now, ∠𝐵 > ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 = ∠𝐵𝐷𝐶 > ∠𝐴.

Sufficiency proof
1. Given: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with ∠𝐴 < ∠𝐵.
2. To prove: |𝐵𝐶 | < |𝐴𝐶 |.
3. Proof: By Trichotomy property, we have one of the following:
(𝑖) |𝐵𝐶 | > |𝐴𝐶 |, (𝑖𝑖) |𝐵𝐶 | = |𝐴𝐶 | 𝑜𝑟 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) |𝐵𝐶 | < |𝐴𝐶 |.
If (i) is true, then by above necessity part, ∠𝐴 > ∠𝐵, a contradiction.
If (ii) is true, then by isosceles triangle, ∠𝐴 = ∠𝐵, a contradiction.
Hence, (iii) is true.
Theorem 1.2.14: (Triangular inequality)
A side of a triangle is smaller than the sum of the other two sides.

That is, In Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, |𝐴𝐶 | < |𝐴𝐵 | + |𝐵𝐶 |

1. Given : Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶,
2. To prove: |𝐴𝐶 | < |𝐴𝐵 | + |𝐵𝐶 |.
3. Construction: A point 𝐷 on the ray 𝐴𝐵 such that
|𝐵𝐶 | = |𝐵𝐷|.
4. Proof: ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷 = ∠𝐷 ( Isosceles triangle Δ𝐶𝐵𝐷 )
∠𝐶 > ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷 = ∠𝐷
Hence by side inequality theorem 1.2.13 for the Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶, we have
|𝐴𝐷| > |𝐴𝐶| ⇒ |𝐴𝐵 | + |𝐵𝐷| > |𝐴𝐶 | ⇒ |𝐴𝐵 | + |𝐵𝐶 | > |𝐴𝐶 |.

Theorem 1.2.15: (Converse of Triangular Inequality Theorem – Collinearity Theorem)

If three points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 satisfy |𝐴𝐵 | + |𝐵𝐶 | = |𝐴𝐶 |, then they are collinear and 𝐵 is between 𝐴𝐶.

Proof: Proof by contra positive,

If the points are not collinear, then they form a triangle and satisfy the triangle inequality.
|𝐴𝐵 | + |𝐵𝐶 | > |𝐴𝐶 |, which is a contradiction.

If 𝐵 is not between 𝐴𝐶, then the line through the points will be either 𝐴𝐶𝐵 or 𝐵𝐴𝐶.
In both cases we have |𝐴𝐶 | + |𝐶𝐵 | = |𝐴𝐵| or |𝐵𝐴| + |𝐴𝐶 | = |𝐵𝐶 |.
Both contradict the given relation. QED.