GENERAL PHYSICS II

PHY102: Lecture Notes

Auwal Muhammad, Ph.D.

Department of Physics
Aliko Dangote University of Science and Technology (ADUSTECH), Wudil, Kano

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Contents
1 Forces in Nature 5
1.1 Gravitational force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Electromagnetic force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Weak Nuclear force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Strong Nuclear force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Electrostatics 6
2.1 Properties of Electric Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Conductors and Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Insulators (Dielectrics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Charging by Conduction and Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 Conduction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.2 Induction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Coulomb’s Law and Superposition 11

3.1 Coulomb’s law in a Vector Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Superposition Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Concept of Electric Field 21

4.1 Electric Lines of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Electric Field Intensity or Electric Field Strength (E)⃗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Electric Field Intensity due to a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 Electric Field Intensity due to a Group of Point Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.5 Electric Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.6 Electric Field Intensity at a Point on the Axis of a Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.7 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.7.1 Linear Charge Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.7.2 Surface Charge Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.7.3 Volume Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.8 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5 Electric Potential (V) 39

5.1 Potential Difference between Two Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Relation Between Electric Potential (V) and Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3 Electric Potential Due to a Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.4 Potentials due to a Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4.1 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Ring . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.4.2 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.5 Electric Potential Energy (U) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.6 Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

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6 Gauss’s theorem 54
6.1 Proof of Gauss’s theorem for Spherically Symmetric Gaussian Surface . . . . 57
6.2 Deduction of Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.3 Application of Gauss’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7 Capacitors 65
7.1 Combination of Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.1.1 Capacitors in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.1.2 Capacitors in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.2.1 Energy Stored in a Combination of Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3 Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

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Course Contents
Forces in nature. Electrostatics ( electric charge and its properties, methods of charging).
Coulomb’s law and superposition. Electric field and potential. Gauss’s law. Capacitance.
Electric dipoles. Energy in electric fields. Conductors and insulators. DC circuits (current,
voltage, and resistance). Ohm’s law. Resistor combinations. Analysis of DC circuits. Mag-
netic fields. Lorentz force. Biot-Savart and Ampere’s laws. Magnetic dipoles. Dielectrics.
Energy in magnetic fields. Electromotive force. Electromagnetic induction. Self and mutual
inductance. Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws. Step up and step down transformers. Maxewll’s
equations. Electromagnetic oscillations and waves. AC voltages and currents applied to
inductors, capacitors, and resistance.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1). Describes the electric and potential, and related concepts for stationary charges

2). Calculate electrostatics properties of simple charge distributions using Coulomb’s law,
Gauss’s law, and electric potential

3). Describe and determine the magnetic field for steady and moving charges

4). Determine the magnetic properties of simple current distributions using Biot-Savart
and Ampere’s law

5). Describe electromagnetic induction and related concepts and make calculations using
Faraday’s and Len’z laws

6). Explain the basic physical significance of Maxwell’s equations in integral form

7). Evaluate DC circuits to determine the electrical parameters; and

8). Determine the characteristics of AC voltages and currents in resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.

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1 Forces in Nature
Forces in nature refer to the fundamental interactions that govern the behavior of mat-
ter and energy at all scales, from subatomic particles to the vast structures of the universe.
These forces play a crucial role in shaping the physical world and determining the behav-
ior of objects and particles within it. Four fundamental forces are currently known and
understood:

1.1 Gravitational force

Gravity is perhaps the most familiar force to us, as it governs the motion of objects on
Earth and throughout the cosmos. It is an attractive force that exists between any two
masses in the universe. The strength of the gravitational force depends on the masses of the
objects involved and the distance between them, as Newton’s law of universal gravitation
describes. Despite its apparent weakness compared to other forces, gravity dominates the
behavior of large-scale astronomical objects such as planets, stars, galaxies, and even the
entire universe.
In summary, Gravitational force is a very weak, attractive long-range force of unlimited
range that exists between any two objects possessing mass. It is the weakest of all the
fundamental forces.

1.2 Electromagnetic force

The electromagnetic force is responsible for interactions between electrically charged
particles. It has two components: electric force and magnetic force. It is a very strong,
long-range force with unlimited range that acts between any two objects possessing an
electric charge. Electric force acts between charged particles can either be attractive or
repulsive depending on whether the charges involved are positive, that is positively charged
(protons), or negative that is negatively charged (electrons). Magnetic force arises from
the movement of charged particles and their associated magnetic fields. Electromagnetic
force plays a crucial role in holding atoms and molecules together. It is also essential in
the transmission of light and other electromagnetic radiation. It is described by classical
electromagnetism as formulated by James Clerk Maxwell and is one of the fundamental
forces in Physics.

1.3 Weak Nuclear force

The weak nuclear force is responsible for certain types of radioactive decay and plays
a crucial role in the nuclear reactions that power the sun and other stars. It is involved
in processes such as beta decay, where a neutron decays into a proton, an electron, and
an antineutrino. It is an extremely short-range (10−18 m) force that acts on the quarks
that make up protons and neutrons. It is much weaker than the electric and acts over an
extremely tiny distance, and is the cause of beta decay in atoms.

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1.4 Strong Nuclear force
The strong nuclear force (strong interaction or strong force), is a very strong, attrac-
tive short-range (10−15 m) force that binds the protons and neutrons in the nuclei of atoms
together. It is the strongest of the fundamental forces but acts over a very short distance
(10−15 m). It binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons and holds protons and
neutrons together within atomic nuclei. The strong force is mediated by particles called
gluons, which ”glue” quarks together via the exchange of virtual gluons. Unlike electromag-
netic and weak forces, which have infinite range, the strong force is effective only over very
short distances, typically within the size of an atomic nucleus.
These four fundamental forces are essential for understanding the behavior of matter
and energy in the universe, from the smallest subatomic particles to the largest astronomical
structures. While each force operates over different ranges and has different strengths and
characteristics, they collectively govern the dynamics of the physical world as we know it.

2 Electrostatics
This field of study focuses on the behavior of electric charges at rest. The phenomenon
is also called frictional electricity because the charge at rest is produced due to friction
between two insulating bodies which are rubbed against each other.
Since charges are produced in the bodies when they are rubbed against each other; the
bodies are said to be electrified or become electrically
If a glass rod is rubbed with silk or amber rubbed on woolen silk, it gains the power
to attract light bodies like cotton, feathers of birds, or small pieces of paper. The light
bodies will be attracted by the plastic pen and a body made attractive by rubbing is said to
be electrified or become electrically charged. Hence they possess the property of attracting
small materials e.g. pieces of paper, dry leaves, etc. Examples of materials that get electrified
include a glass rod rubbed with woolen cloth, an amber rubbed with fur, plastic comb with
dry hair.
Experimental evidence has shown that there are two types of electrification. This is
because two different types of charges are acquired which are previously termed ”resinous”
and ”vitreous”. This was realized experimentally. Later vitreous is considered a positive
charge and resinous as a negative charge by Benjamin Franklin. Further experiments with
materials carrying these charges led to the simple law of electrostatics which says:

Unlike charges attract each other and like charges repel each other.

Note that

1. Even an uncharged object can be attracted towards a charged body by induction.

Therefore attraction cannot be used to test the sign of charge on an object. Hence
repulsion is the same test for checking the sign of charge on an object.
The table below gives the pair of objects which get uncharged on rubbing against each
other. The objects acquire different charges.

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 positive charge negative charge
1. Glass rod Silk cloth
2. Fur Ebonite or rubber rod
3. Woolen material Plastic or rubber object

2. All atoms are electrically neutral under normal conditions. It becomes positively or
negatively charged depending on whether it loses or gains an electron. Charges are
acquired in equal and opposite amounts by the bodies that experience the transfer of
electrons. A transfer is done by means of electron. This is because electrons are held
in an atom by weak electrostatic forces which are easily overcome by even rubbing or
heating. Protons are shielded because are held in the nucleus by strong nuclear forces.
Hence under ordinary conditions, protons cannot be transferred from one body to the
other.

2.1 Properties of Electric Charges

The following are properties of electric charges

1. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

2. A charged body attracts uncharged (neutral) bodies due to electrostatic induction.

3. Charge on a body remains unaffected by motion, that is the charge on a body or

particle remains the same whether it is at rest or moving with any velocity.

4. The electric charge is additive. It means that the total charge on a body is equal to
the algebraic sum of charges distributed over different parts of it. If the body has both
positive and negative charges, then the net charge of the body is the algebraic sum of
all charges. X
Q= qi
i

A neutral body has an equal amount of positive and negative charge so that the charge
on a neutral body is always zero.
Note: (a) in taking the summation, the sign is considered. (b) charge is a scalar
quantity.

5. Conservation of electric charge: This means the total amount of charge found in a
body obeys the principle of conservation of charge which says

The total charge of an isolated system remains constant at all times. or charge
can neither be created nor destroyed in isolation.

6. Quantization of charges: This means the electrical charges on any uncharged body are
integral multiple of a basic amount of charge (e). Thus,

Q = ±ne

where n is an integer, and e is charge on the electron.

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 Note that the charges for some neutral elementary particles are the charge of electron
(−e), the charge of proton (+e), and the charge of α−particle is (+2e). The absolute value
of the basic charge is given by 1.6 × 10−19 C. It is measured in Coulombs (C).

Worked Examples
Example 2.1

A plastic piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 4 × 10−7 C.
Calculate the number of electrons transferred. Given e = −1.6 × 10−19 C.

Solution

Given that Q = −4 × 10−7 C, e = −1.6 × 10−19 C, n =?

Q −4 × 10−7 C
Q = ne =⇒ n = = = 2.5 × 1012
e −1.6 × 10−19 C

Example 2.2

How many electrons must you have to get a total charge of −1C? How many moles
of electron is this? Given, the Charge of an electron is e = −1.6 × 10−19 C.

Solution

Given that Q = −1C, n =? Since each electron is has a charge of −1.6 × 10−19 C, then
the number of electrons required is

Q −1C
Q = ne =⇒ n = = = 6.2 × 1018
e −1.6 × 10−19 C

A mole of any kind of particle is NA = 6.02 × 1023 (Avogadro number) of those particles.
Here, we have 6.2 × 1018 electrons and that is,

n 6.2 × 1018
N= = = 1.03 × 10−5 moles
NA 6.02 × 102 3

Example 2.3

A metal sphere has a charge of +8µC. What is the net charge after 6.0×1013 electrons
have been placed on it?

Solution

Given that Qt =?, n = 6.0 × 1013 , Qms = 8µC = 8 × 10−6 C

Therefore, the total charge of 6.0 × 1013 electrons is calculated as

Qt = n(−e) = (6.0 × 1013 ) × (−1.6 × 10−19 C) = −9.6 × 10−6 C = −9.6µC

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 After these charges have been added to the metal sphere, it is total charge is,

Qms = +8µC − 9.6µC = −1.6µC

Example 2.4

When a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth, it becomes charged and acquires a charge
of +18.2 × 10−19 C. Determine (a) the number of electrons the glass rod loses during
this process and (b) the negative charge acquired by the silk.

Solution

Given that Q = +18.2 × 10−19 C, n =?

(a) The number of electrons lost by the glass rod is obtained as

Q 18.2 × 10−19 C
n= = = 11.375 ≈ 11.4
e 1.6 × 10−19 C

(b) The charge on the silk is equal to −18.2 × 10−19 C

Example 2.5

A glass rod rubbed with fabric possesses an electric charge of 5µC. Determine (a)
the charge on the fabric and (b) How many electrons are transferred.

Solution

(a) According to the law of conservation of charges, the total charge of the system remains
constant, that is Q1 + Q2 = const
Initially, both objects were neutral. Their total charge before rubbing is zero. So, after
the process, the sum of their charges must also be zero.

Q1 + Q2 = 0 =⇒ Q1 = −Q2

Q2 = −5µC

(b) The magnitude of the charge on an electron is |e| = 1.6 × 10−19 C, and the number
of electrons transferred is found to be

|Q1 | 5 × 10−6
n= = = 3.1 × 1013 electrons
|e| 1.6 × 10−19

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Study Questions

1. A plastic rod has a charge of 12µC. If it’s rubbed with a cloth, it loses 21% of
its charge. Find the final charge on the rod.

2. How many electrons must be transferred to a body to produce a charge of

125nC?

3. An ebonite rod is rubbed with fur. The ebonite rod is found to have a charge
of −3.2 × 10−8 C on it. (a) Calculate the number of electrons transferred (b)
what is the charge on fur after rubbing?

4. A particle has a charge of +10−12 C. Does it contain more or less number

of electrons as compared to the neutral state? (b) Calculate the number of
electrons transferred to provide this charge.

5. If an object is determined to have a negative charge of 160nC, what excess of

an electron is found in it?

6. How many electrons would have to be removed from a copper coin to leave it
with a charge of 1.04 × 10−7 C?

7. An ebonite rod is rubbed with a cat’s fur, and the ebonite rod acquires a charge
of −2.4 × 10−18 C. Find (a) the number of electrons gained by the ebonite rod
and (b) the positive charge acquired by the cat’s fur.

8. A rubber rod is rubbed with a silk cloth. It acquires a charge of +1.6×10−17 C.

Find (a) the number of electrons lost by the rubber rod and (b) the negative
charge acquired by the silk cloth.

9. A plastic pen is rubbed with a class rep. hairs and then it acquires a charge
of −3.2 × 10−18 C. Find (a) the number of electrons gained by the plastic pen
and (b) the positive charge acquired by the pen.

10. (a) Calculate the number of electrons in a small, electrically neutral silver pin
that has a mass of 10g. Silver has 47 electrons per atom, and its molar mass is
107.87g/mol. (b) Imagine adding electrons to the pin until the negative charge
has a very large value of 1mC. How many electrons are added for every 109
electron already present?

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2.2 Conductors and Insulators
2.2.1 Conductors

Conductors are materials having free charges (electrons) e.g. metals, electrolytes, etc.

2.2.2 Insulators (Dielectrics)

These are materials with bound charges. That is materials with no free-moving electrons.
e.g. plastics, glass, paper, wool, wood, etc. The charges on this kind of material are called
static charges.
Materials in between conductors and insulators in terms of conductivity are called semi-
conductors. e.g. Silicon, Germanium, etc. But their conductivity is greatly increased by
adding traces of some elements e.g. Arsenic, Boron, etc.

2.3 Charging by Conduction and Induction

Two general methods are employed in order to charge an object using another object
that is already charged. These are conduction and induction

2.3.1 Conduction Method

The method is only used for charging conductors. The conductors are joined by a wire
or put in contact so that the charge is transferred from one body to the other.
The following are important points of the method:

(i). The charging body loses some of its charge as it charges the uncharged body.

(ii). The charge on both bodies is of the same sign.

2.3.2 Induction Method

This is an indirect method of charging. In this method, the object to be charged is

brought near a charged body and the charges are induced on the surfaces of the uncharged
body. The following are important points of the method:

(i). The charge induced on the uncharged body is of the opposite sign to the charge on
the charging body.

(ii). There is a redistribution of charge on the body being charged and the charging body
does not lose its charge.

3 Coulomb’s Law and Superposition

In 1785, Charles Coulomb experimentally established the fundamental law governing
the electric force between two stationary charged particles. This law, known as Coulomb’s
law, states that ”the force of interaction between charged bodies (point charges) is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers.”
An electric force exhibits the following properties

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 1. It’s directed along the line joining the two particles and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

2. The magnitude of the electric force is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of the two charges. This relationship is given by:

F ∝ Q1 Q2

3. The electric force between two point charges is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. Mathematically, this is expressed as:

1
F ∝
r2

4. It is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign, and repulsive if the charges have the
same sign.

From these observations, Coulomb proposed the following mathematical form for the
electric force between two charges:
Q1 Q2
F =k 2 (1)
r
where k is a constant called Coulomb’s constant or electrostatic force constant and it’s
given:
1
k=
4πϵ
where ϵ is the permittivity of the medium.
If Q1 Q2 > 0, both charges are positive or negative. Hence F will be positive representing
repulsive force.
If Q1 Q2 < 0, the charges are of different signs; F will be negative representing attractive
force.
Note:

(i). Coulomb’s law holds only for point charges.

(ii). The Coulomb’s force of interaction acts along the line joining the centers of the two
charges. The force obeys Newton’s third law.

(iii). The value of k depends upon the system of units. In S.I units, if the experiment is
conducted in vacuum ε = ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 N −1 m−2
1
=⇒ k = 4πε0 ≈ 9 × 109 N m2 /C 2 . Therefore,

1 Q1 Q2
F =
4πε0 r2

(iv). The relative permittivity of a medium (εr ) is defined as the ratio of the permittivity
of that medium to that of a vacuum. It is also called the dielectric constant of the
medium.
ε
εr =
ε0

For vacuum, εr = 1, for water εr = 81

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 It can also be shown that
F
εr =
Fm
Hence, the dielectric of the medium may be defined as the ratio of the force between
two charges placed at a certain distance apart in a vacuum to the force between the
same two charges placed the same distance apart in that medium.

(v). The unit of charge is Coulomb. 1 Coulomb is that quantity of charge that exerts a
force of 9 × 109 N on an equal charge placed in a vacuum at a distance of 1m from it.
For the CGS system of units, the charge is measured in e.s.u. as stat Coulomb.

1C = 3 × 109 SC

In e.m.u. charge is measured in absolute-Coulomb. 1ab.c = 106 = 3 × 1010 S · C

Worked Examples
Example 3.1

A charge of 4.5 × 10−9 C is located 3.2m from a charge of −2.8 × 10−9 C. Find the
electrostatic force exerted by one charge on another.

Solution

Given that Q1 = 4.5 × 10−9 C, Q2 = −2.8 × 10−9 C, r = 3.2m

This will be a force of attraction between the two charges since they have opposite signs.
Coulomb’s law gives the magnitude of this force

|Q1 Q2 | (8.99 × 109 )(4.5 × 10−9 )(−2.8 × 10−9 )

F =k 2
= = 1.1 × 10−8 N
r (3.2m)2

The charge will attract one another with a force of magnitude 1.1 × 10−8 N

Example 3.2

Calculate the Coulombic force between two protons when the distance between them
is 4 × 10−15 m. Also give the nature of the force. Given charge of proton +e =
+1.6 × 10−19 C.

Solution

Given that r = 4 × 10−15 m, charge on proton = +1.6 × 10−19 C, therefore, Q1 =

Q2 = +e = 1.6 × 10−19 C
Applying Coulomb’s law:

|Q1 Q2 | |(+e)2 | (9 × 109 )(1.6 × 10−19 )2

F =k =k = = 14.4N
r 2 r 2 (4 × 10−15 m)2

The nature of the force is a repulsive force.

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 Example 3.3

Two small, identical spheres are positioned 1.5m apart in a vacuum. They carry the
same amount of electric charge. What is the magnitude of the charge on each sphere
if they exert a force of 2N on each other?

Solution

Given that r = 1.5m, F = 2N Let us approximate small charges as point charges, that
is Q1 = Q2 = Q.
Using the Coulomb’s equation,

Q1 Q2 Q2 F r2 (2N )(1.5m)2
F =k 2
= k 2 =⇒ Q2 = = = 5 × 10−10 C 2
r r k (9 × 109 )
√
Therefore, Q= 5 × 10−10 C 2 = 2 × 10−5 C

Example 3.4

A particle of charge Q = 4.1µC is placed at the origin. If one wants to exert a

force of 6.3 × 10−6 N on a particle in a positive x-direction with a positive charge of
1.6 × 10−7 C. Where must the charge be placed?

Solution

Given that Q1 = 4.1 × 10−6 C, Q2 = 1.6 × 10−7 C, F = 6.3 × 10−6 N, r =?

|Q1 Q2 | Q1 Q2 (9 × 109 )(4.1 × 10−6 )(1.6 × 10−7 ) 5.904 × 10− 3

F =k =⇒ r2 = k = −6
= = 937m2
r 2 F 6.3 × 10 6.3 × 10−6
√
Therefore, r = 937m2 = 30.6m

Example 3.5

The force between two very small charged bodies is found to be F . If the distance
between them is tripled without altering their charges, the force between them be-
comes

Solution

The force between two charged bodies is given by Coulomb’s Law:

Q1 Q2
F =k
r2
′
Since the distance between the charges is given as tripled, the new distance r is 3r. The
′
new force F can be calculated using Coulomb’s Law with the new distance that is 3r:

′ Q1 Q2 ′ Q1 Q2
F =k , Simplifying the expression will gives, F =k
(3r)2 9r2

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 We know from the original force equation that F = k Qr1 Q 2
2
Substituting this into the
new force equation:
′ 1  Q1 Q2  ′ 1
F = k 2 =⇒ F = F
9 r 9
Therefore, if the distance between the charged bodies is tripled, then the force between
them becomes 91 of the original force F .

3.1 Coulomb’s law in a Vector Form

Suppose Q1 and Q2 be two point charges placed at points A and B respectively as shown
below.

⃗ 12 is
Let ⃗r1 be the position vector of point A and ⃗r2 is the position vector of point B. R
the vector from A to B, then from the above figure,

⃗ 12 = ⃗r2
⃗r1 + R

⃗ 12 = ⃗r2 − ⃗r1
R

Therefore, the unit vector,

⃗ 12
R ⃗r2 − ⃗r1
r̂12 = =
R12 |⃗r2 − ⃗r1 |

F⃗12 is the force on charge Q1 due to Q2 , and F⃗21 is the force on charge Q2 due to Q1 .
r̂12 is the unit vector pointing from Q1 to Q2 , r̂21 is the unit vector pointing from Q2 to Q1 .

r̂12 = −r̂21

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 It is clear that F⃗12 and ⃗r12 are in the same direction, so

1 Q1 Q2 1 Q1 Q2 ⃗
F⃗12 = 2 r̂ = 3 R12
4πϵo R12 4πϵo R12

Like other forces, electric force here obeys Newton’s third law. Hence, the forces F⃗12
and F⃗21 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction:

Q1 Q2 ⃗r1 − ⃗r2
F⃗12 = −F⃗21 =⇒ F⃗12 =
4πϵ0 |⃗r1 − ⃗r2 |3

Worked Examples
Example 3.6

A charge of Q1 = −30 × 10−6 C is located at the P (−6, 4, 7)m and another charge
⃗ P M (b) |R
of Q2 = 40 × 10−6 C is at M (−9, 8, 8)m in free space. Find (a) R ⃗ P M | (c)
−12
Determine the vector force exerted on QP by QM if εo = 8.854 × 10 F/m.

Solution

Given Q1 = −30 × 10−6 C, Q2 = 40 × 10−6 C F⃗P M =?

(a) Point P is (−6, 4, 7) and M is (−9, 8, 8)

⃗rP = −6î + 4ĵ + 7k̂

⃗rM = −9î + 8ĵ + 8k̂

⃗ P M = ⃗rM − ⃗rP = (−9 + 6)î + (8 − 4)ĵ + (8 − 7)k̂ = −3î + 4ĵ + k̂
R
⃗ P M = −3î + 4ĵ + k̂
Therefore, R
(b)
⃗ P M | = (−3)2 + (4)2 + (1)2 = 5.0990m ≈ 5.1m
p
|R

(c) Forces on QP by QM

1 Q1 Q2
F⃗12 = −F⃗21 = − r̂P M
⃗2
4πεo R PM

1 Q1 Q2 ⃗PM
R
=− ·
⃗
4πεo R 2 |RP M |2
PM
−6 −6
−30 × 10 × 40 × 10
F⃗P M = − ⃗PM
R
4π × 8.854 × 10−12
1.2 × 10−9
= (−3î + 4ĵ + k̂)
4π × 8.854 × 10−12 × (5.1)3

= 0.0813 × (−3î + 4ĵ + k̂) N

= −0.244î + 0.325ĵ + 0.081k̂ N

16
 Therefore, the vector force exerted on QP due to QM is found to be

F⃗12 = −0.244î + 0.325ĵ + 0.081k̂ N

Quiz 1
A point charge Q1 = 300µC located at (1, −1, −3) experiences a force F = 8i−8j+4k
due to a point charge Q2 at (3, −3, −2)m. Determine Q2 .

3.2 Superposition Principle

The principle of superposition states that ”the total force on a given charge due to the
certain number of charges is the vector sum of the individual charges exerted on it by all
charges”.
Note: The force between any two charges is independent of the presence of the other
charges.
Suppose there are n number of charges Q1 , Q2 , · · · · Qn in space at points with position
vectors ⃗r1 , ⃗r1 · · · ⃗rn respectively with respect to the origin 0 of the x, y, z coordinate system;
the individual forces exerted on Q1 by the other charges, F⃗12 , F⃗13 , etc can be calculated
using Coulomb’s law. Finally the resultant force on Q1 , F⃗1 can be calculated by polygon’s
law of vector addition.
Therefore,
F⃗1 = F⃗12 + F⃗13 + · · · · +F⃗1n

" #
1 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q3 Q1 Qn
= 2 r̂21 + 2 r̂31 + · · · 2 r̂n1
4πε0 r21 r31 rn1

Q1 X Qi
= 2 r̂i1
4πε0 i=2 ri1

The same pattern will be followed in order to obtain the resultant force on each charge.

Example 3.7

Three charges Q1 , Q2 , and Q3 are placed along a horizontal line as shown in the
figure. Find the resultant force acting on charge Q2 .

Solution

Let us draw the forces acting on charge Q2 , due to other charges. Now, we can calculate
the forces F⃗1 and F⃗2 separately.

|Q1 ||Q2 | (6 × 10−6 C)(2 × 10−6 C)

F⃗1 = k 2 = (9 × 109 N m2 C −2 )
r1 (0.2m)2

17
 0.108N m2 Nm 2
F⃗1 = = 2.7 = 2.7N
0.04m2 m2

F⃗1 = 2.7N

|Q2 ||Q3 | (2 × 10−6 C)(4 × 10−6 C)

F⃗2 = k 2 = (9 × 109 N m2 C −2 )
r2 (0.2m)2

0.072N m2 Nm 2
F⃗2 = 2
= 0.8 = 0.8N
0.03m m2

F⃗2 = 0.8N

The resultant force is in the direction of greater force and its magnitude is given by,

F⃗ = F⃗1 − F⃗2 = (2.7 − 0.8)N = 1.9N

F⃗ = 1.9N towards Q1

Example 3.8

Suppose three charges Q1 = +12µC, Q2 = +6µC, and Q3 = −4µC as shown in the

figure. Find the resultant force exerted on charge Q2 by the two charges Q1 and Q3 .

Solution

Since Q1 and Q2 are positive, while Q3 is negative, then force F⃗21 is repulsive and the
force F⃗23 is attractive as displayed in the above figure. Let’s resolve the components
From Coulomb’s law we can find F⃗21 as follows:

|Q1 ||Q2 |
F⃗21 = k
r2
−6
(6 × 10 C)(12 × 10−6 C)
F⃗21 = 9 × 109 N m2 /C 2
(0.9m)2

0.648N m2 0.648Nm2
F⃗21 = 2
= = 0.8N
(0.9m) 2
m
0.81
Therefore F⃗21 = 0.8N

18
 Similarly, we can find F⃗23 using the same approach as follows:

|Q2 ||Q3 |
F⃗23 = k
r2
−6
(6 × 10 C)(4 × 10−6 C)
F⃗23 = 9 × 109 N m2 /C 2
(0.6m)2

0.216N m2 0.216Nm2
F⃗23 = 2
= = 0.6N
(0.6m) 2
m
0.36
Therefore F⃗23 = 0.6N
Since F⃗21 is perpendicular to F⃗23 , we can use the Pythagoras theorem to find the mag-
nitude of the resultant force F⃗ and we can use the above figure to find its direction. Thus:
q p
F⃗ = F⃗21 + F⃗23 =
p
(0.8N )2 + (0.6)2 = 0.64N 2 + 0.36N 2 = 1N
!
−1 F⃗23
θ = tan = tan−1 (0.75) = 36.9o
F⃗21

We can also write the resultant force F⃗ in vector form as follows:

F⃗ = −F⃗21 î + F⃗23 ĵ = (−0.8î + 0.6ĵ)

Study Questions

1. A positive charge of 63nC is 15cm from a negative of 45nC. Calculate the

force on one of the charges due to the other.

2. Charges Q1 and Q2 exert a repulsive force of 10N on each other. What is the
repulsive force when their separation is decreased so that their final separation
is 80% of their initial separation?

3. Two electrons are separated by a distance of 1.6nm. What would be the elec-
trostatic force each will experiences?

19
 4. The alpha particle of charge +2e is sent at a high speed toward a gold nucleus
with a charge of +79e. What is the electrical force acting on the alpha particle
when it is 2 × 10−14 m from the gold nucleus?

5. The force between two very small charged bodies is found to be F. If the
distance between them is doubled without altering their charges, the force
between them becomes.

6. Calculate the magnitude of electric force between an electron and a proton at

a distance of r = 5.26 × 10−11 m.

7. The attraction electrostatic force between the point charges +8.42µC and Q
has a magnitude of 0.975N when the separation between the charges is 1.21m.
Find the sign and magnitude of the charge Q.

8. What is the magnitude of the repulsive Coulomb force between two protons in
a nucleus of iron, assuming a separation of 3 × 10−16 ?

9. Two identical conducting spheres are placed with their centers 0.28m apart.
One of the charges is given as 12×10−9 C and the other charge of −16×10−9 C.
(a) Find the electrostatic force exerted on one sphere by the other. (b) If a
conduction wire connects the spheres, find the electrostatic force between the
two after reaching equilibrium.

10. The distance between the two electrons in contact equals 1Å. Determine the
Coulomb force between them.

11. Let Q1 = 3µC at P (1, 2, 3) and a charge of 1µC at Q()2, 0, 5 in a vacuum.

Find force exerted on Q2 by Q1 .

12. Two small identical conducting spheres have charges of 2 × 10−9 C and −0.6 ×
10−9 C respectively. When they are placed 4cm apart, what is the force between
them? If they are brought into contact and then separated by 4cm, what is
the force between them.

20
4 Concept of Electric Field
The electric forces between two charges can be described using the electric field concept.
Considering an electric charge Q (source charge) located in space, if any other charge says
qo (test charge) is brought near it, qo will experience a force of attraction or repulsion due
to the Q. The force experienced by the charge qo is said to be due to the electric field set
up by charge Q.
Hence an electric field of a charge Q may be considered as a kind of space property by
means of which a charge modifies the space around itself so as to exert a force on any charge
introduced in that space.

Definition
An electric field due to a given charge is defined as the space around that charge
within which an electrostatic force of attraction of repulsion acts upon any stationary
charge.

Figure 1: Electric field lines (a) Positive charge (b) Negative charge

Note:

i). A test charge may be a point charge, a number of discrete charges, or a continous
distribution of charges.

ii). A test charge is a fictitious charge that exerts no forces on nearby charges.

iii). A test charge should be extremely small so that it does not disturb the electric field
created by the source charge.

iv). An electric field is zero at a point where the test charge does not experience electro-
static force.

v). The source charge or any given charge does not experience a force due to its own field.

21
4.1 Electric Lines of Force
Definition

A field line (force line) in an electric field is an imaginary line along which a free
positive test charge tends to move.

The following are properties of electric force lines:

1. Lines force starts from a positive charge and ends at a negative charge. No electric
line of force exists inside the charged body.

2. They cannot have sudden breaks.

3. Tangent to a line of force at any given point gives the direction of the electric field
⃗ at that point.
vector E

4. The lines of force never intersect each other. This is because, at the point of intersec-
tion, there will be two directions for the electric field which is not possible.

5. The electric lines of force contract longitudinally (lengthwise). This is explained by

the attraction between two unlike charges.

6. The lines of force exert a lateral pressure due to repulsion between like charges.

7. The lines of force are drawn so that the number of lines per unit cross-sectional area
is proportional to the magnitude of E. E is large when the lines are close together. E
is small when they are far apart.

4.2 ⃗
Electric Field Intensity or Electric Field Strength (E)
Definition
An electric field intensity at a given point is a measure of the force experienced by a
unit positive test charge placed at that point.

Mathematically, if a test charge qo experiences a force F⃗ , then electric field intensity at

the point where qo is placed is given by:

⃗ F⃗
E(r) =
qo
E⃗ is a vector in the direction of force, F⃗ ; that is the direction in which a stationary
positive charge placed at that point would tend to move.
Hence the force on qo is
F⃗ = qo E⃗

E is measured in N/C.

22
4.3 Electric Field Intensity due to a Point Charge
To measure an electric field at a given point, a unit positive test charge is kept at that
point and the force it experienced is measured.

As shown above, considering a point charge +Q at point 0. Let P be a point at a

distance r from the source charge. A test charge qo is placed at P .
According to Coulomb’s law, force on qo due to Q is given by:

1 Qqo
F = along 0P
4πεo r2

F 1 Q
∴ E= = also along 0P
qo 4πεo r2

Example 4.1

Determine the electric field at the point P at a distance 20cm from the negatively
charged particles Q = −4µC. What force does a charge of qo = +1µC experience if
it is placed at point P?

Solution

The magnitude of the electric field at P is given as:

N m2 | − 4 × 10−6 C|
 
|Q|
E=k 2 = 9× 109 2
r C (0.2m)2
 2
  
2
36000 N m
C2
C
36000 N
m C
C 2
E= = = 9 × 105 N/C
0.04m2 m2
0.04
∴ E = 9 × 109 N/C towards the left

The force acting on the charge, qo = +1µC is F = |qo |E

F = |1 × 10−6 | · (9 × 105 N m2 /C 2 ) = 0.9N towards the left

Example 4.2

What is the magnitude of a point charge that would create an electric field of 1N/C
at point 1m away?

Solution

23
 The magnitude of E field due to a point charge Q at a distance r is given by:

|Q|
E=k
r2
Here, E = 1N/C and r = 1m, so we can solve for |Q|

Er2 (1N/C)(1m)2 N
/C)1
(1 m 2
|Q| = = = = 1.11 × 10−10 C
k 9 × 109 N m2 /C 2 9 × 109
N
 2
m /C
2

Therefore the magnitude of the charge is E = 1.11 × 10−10 C

4.4 Electric Field Intensity due to a Group of Point Charges

An electric field intensity at any point due to a group of point charges Q1 , Q2 , · · ·Qo is
equal to the vector sum of the electric field intensities due to the individual charges at the
same point.
This follows from the principle of superposition. We calculate the electric field intensity
at the given point due to the individual charges as if present alone and add the individual
contributions vectorially.
⃗ =E
E ⃗1 + E
⃗2 + E⃗3 + · · · + E
⃗n
n n
⃗ = 1 X Qi X Qi
E r̂i = k r̂i
4πεo i ri2 i
ri2

Where ri is the distance of the point of consideration from the ith charge Qi and r̂i is a
unit vector directed from Qi to that point.

Example 4.3

Three point charges are aligned along the x axis as shown below. Find the electric
field at the position x = +2m, y = 0.

Solution

The point at which we want to calculate the E field, (2.0m, 0), lies to the right of all
the charges. At that point, the field due to the −4.0nC charge must point to the left since
it is a negative charge. That charge lies at a distance of 2.50m from So x-component of its
contribution is now given as

|Q1 |
(4 × 10−9 C) 36N m2 /C 36Nm2

/C
E1,x = k 2
= 9 × 109 N m2 /C 2 2
= 2
= = −5.76N/C
r (2.50m) 6.25m m
6.25 2

The field due to the charge at the origin must point to the right since it is a positive
charge. The x-component of its contribution is

−9
|Q2 | 9 2 2 (5 × 10

C) 45N m2 /C m
45N 2
/C
E2,x = k 2 = 9 × 10 N m /C 2
= 2
= = +11.25N/C
r2 (2.0m) 4m 2
m
4

Finally, the field due to the 3.0nC charge must also point to the right since it is a positive
charge. This charge’s distance from our “observation” point is 1.20m, so the x-component

24
of its contribution is

|Q3 |
(3 × 10−9 C) 45N m2 /C 27N 2

m /C
E3,x = k 2 = 9 × 109 N m2 /C 2 2
= 2
= = +18.75N/C
r3 (1.2m) 1.44m m2
1.44

Add these up, and the total E field at the given point is Ex = E1,x + E2,x + E3,x

Ex = −5.76N/C + 11.25N/C + 18.75N/C = +21.24N/C

4.5 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole is a system of a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a
small distance. The line joining the two charges is called the axis of the dipole.
The strength of the dipole is called the electric dipole moment and is denoted by P⃗ . It is
the product of the charge and the separation between the charges. It is a vector quantity in
the direction pointing from the negative charge to the positive charge. The diagram below
illustrates the dipole.

P⃗ = 2aQ measured in C − m.

⃗ and makes an angle

Suppose that an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field E
θ with the field, causing the dipole to experience a torque. as shown below.

The electric forces acting on the two charges are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. Therefore, the net force on the dipole is zero. the dipole rotates in the direction
that brings the dipole moment vector into greater alignment with the field. The torque due
to the force on the positive charge about an axis through O has magnitude F a sin θ, where
a sin θ is the moment arm of F about O. This force tends to produce a clockwise rotation.
The torque about O on the negative charge is also has magnitude F asinu; here again, the
force tends to produce a clockwise rotation. Therefore, the magnitude of the net torque

25
about O is
τ = 2F a sin θ

where F = qE and p = 2aq. We can now express the τ as

τ = 2aqE sin θ = pE sin θ

Based on this expression, it is convenient to express the torque in vector form as follows:

⃗
⃗τ = p⃗ × E

Let’s determine the potential energy of the system as a function of the dipole’s orientation
with respect to the field. To do so, recognize that work must be done by an external agent
to rotate the dipole through an angle to cause the dipole moment vector to become less
aligned with the field.
The work dW required to rotate the dipole through an angle dθ is

dW = τ dθ

since the work results in an increase in the electric potential energy U , we find that for
a rotation from θi to θf , the change in potential energy of the system is
Z θf Z θf Z θf
Uf − Ui = τ dθ = pE sin θ = pE sin θ
θi θi θi

 θ
= pE − cos θ θfi = pE(cos θf − cos θi )

Note that the term that contains cos θi is a constant that depends on the initial
orientation of the dipole.

Let’s choose a reference angle θi = 90o so that cos θi = cos 90 = 0. Also, choose Ui = 0
at θi = 90o as the reference value of the potential energy. Hence, we can express a general
value of UE = Uf

UE = −pE cos θ

We can write this expression for the potential energy of a dipole in an electric field as
⃗
the dot product of the vectors p⃗ and E:

UE = −⃗ ⃗
p·E

Example 4.4

What is the dipole moment for a dipole having an equal charge of −2C and 2C
separated by a distance of 2cm?

Solution

26
 Given equal and opposite charges, Q = 2C, and distance of d = 2cm = 2 × 10−2 m
Using the relation:

p⃗ = Q · d = (2C) × (2 × 10−2 m) = 0.04Cm

Example 4.5

An electric dipole consists of two charges, +Q and −Q, separated by a distance a. If

the dipole moment is 3.2 × 10−8 Cm, and the distance between the charges is 0.02m,
what is the magnitude of the charges?

Solution

Given dipole moment, p⃗ = 3.2 × 10−8 C · m, distance between the charges, d = 0.02m,
Q =?

p⃗ (3.2 × 10−8 C · m) (3.2 × 10−8 C · 

m)
p⃗ = Q · d =⇒ Q = = = = 1.6 × 10−6 C = 1.6µC
d 0.02m m
0.02

Example 4.6

Consider two point charges Q1 = −24nC and Q2 = +24nC that are 10cm apart,
forming an electric dipole as shown below. Calculate the electric field due to the two
charges at points a, and b.

Solution

27
 At point a, the electric field vector due to the negative charge Q1 , is directed toward the
left, and its magnitude is:

−9
|Q1 | 9 2 2 (24 × 10 C) (216N · m2 /C) (216N · 
m2
/C)
E1a = k 2 = (9 × 10 N · m /C ) = =
r1a (0.04m)2 (1.6 × 10−3 m2 ) −3
(1.6 × 10  m2
)

∴ E1a = 135 × 103 N/C

The electric field vector due to the positive charge Q2 is also directed toward the left,
and its magnitude is:

−9
|Q2 | 9 2 2 (24 × 10 C) (216N · m2 /C) (216N · 
m2
/C)
E2a = k 2 = (9 × 10 N · m /C ) = =
r2a (0.06m)2 (3.6 × 10−3 m2 ) −3
(3.6 × 10  m2
)

∴ E2a = 60 × 103 N/C

Then, the resultant electric field at point a is toward the left and its magnitude is:

E = E1a + E2a = 135 × 103 N/C + 60 × 103 N/C = 195 × 103 (Toward the left)

At point b, the electric field vector due to the negative charge Q1 , is directed toward the
left, and its magnitude is:

−9
|Q1 | 9 2 2 (24 × 10 C) (216N · m2 /C) (216N · 
m2
/C)
E1b = k 2 = (9 × 10 N · m /C ) 2
= −3 2
=
r2a (0.12m) (14.4 × 10 m ) −3
(14.4 × 10  2
m )

∴ E1b = 15 × 103 N/C

In addition, the electric field vector due to the positive charge Q2 is directed toward the
right, and its magnitude is:

−9
|Q1 | 9 2 2 (24 × 10 C) (216N · m2 /C) (216N · 
m2
/C)
E2b = k 2 = (9 × 10 N · m /C ) 2
= −4 2
=
r2a (0.02m) (4 × 10 m ) −4
(4 × 10  m2
)

∴ E2b = 540 × 103 N/C

Since E2b > E1b , the resultant electric field at point b is toward the right and its

28
magnitude is:

Eb = E2b − E1b = 540 × 103 N/C − 15 × 103 N/C = 525 × 103 N/C Towards the right

4.6 Electric Field Intensity at a Point on the Axis of a Dipole

To calculate the dipole field intensity at any point, we place a unit positive charge at
that point and calculate the individual electric field intensity due to each dipole charge. The
vector sum of these two fields gives the resultant electric field at that point.

AB represents an electric dipole of charge +Q and −Q and length of 2a. The direction
of the dipole moment P⃗ = 2aQ is from A to B. To calculate the dipole field at point P , ”r”
⃗ A, E
distant from the center of the dipole 0, we calculate E ⃗B

⃗ A| = 1 Q −→
∴ |E , PA
4πε0 (r + a)2

⃗B| = 1 Q −−→
similarly |E , BP
4πε0 (r − a)2
⃗ B | > |E
Since |E ⃗ A |, the resultant intensity at P is given by

⃗ = |E
⃗ B | − |E
⃗ A| = 1 Q 1 Q
|E| −
4πε0 (r − a)2 4πε0 (r + a)2

 
⃗ = Q 4ar 2aQ 2r
|E 2 2 2
= · 2
4πε0 (r − a ) 4πε0 (r − a2 )2
But
2r|P⃗ |
|P⃗ | = 2aQ =⇒ ⃗ =
|E|
4πε0 (r2 − a2 )2
for
⃗ = 2|P⃗ | ⃗ ∝ 1
a << r, then |E| =⇒ |E|
4πε0 r3 r3
Following the same principle, students can calculate the dipole field at a point P on the
perpendicular bisector of a dipole.

29
 Example 4.7

The electric intensity due a dipole of length 10cm having a charge of 500µC, at a
point on the axis at a distance of 20cm from one of the charges in air. What is the
electric dipole moment?

Solution

From the question we can have the following sketch:

Given the electric charge, Q = 500µC = 500 × 10−6 C, the distance between the two
dipoles, d = 10cm = 10 × 10−2 m, the distance between the center of dipole and the point
is, r = 25cm = 25 × 10−2 m, and length, ℓ = 5cm = 5 × 10−2 m
Electric field by axis due to dipole is calculated using the formula:

⃗ = p
2r⃗ p
2r⃗
E =k 2
4πεo (r2 − ℓ2 )2 (r − ℓ2 )2

But, the electric dipole moment is calculated using the relation:

p⃗ = Q × d = (500 × 10−6 C) × (10 × 10−2 m) = 5 × 10−5 C · m

−2 −5
∴ ⃗ = (9 × 109 N · m2 /C 2 ) (2 × 25 × 10 × 5 × 10 )
E
[(0.25)2 − (0.05)2 ]2
3
⃗ = 225 × 10 = 6.25 × 107 N/C
E
(0.06)2

4.7 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution

A continuous charge distribution is a system of closely spaced charges. Although the
charge is still quantized, it simply means that the distribution of discrete charges is contin-
uous with little space between the charges.
Let P be a point at a distance r from a continuous charge distribution as shown.
To calculate the electric field at point P due to charge distribution are as follows:
Z
⃗ = 1 dq
E r̂
4πεo r2

Where the integral is done over the entire charge distribution, r̂ is the unit vector that
points from each elementary charge dq towards the location of the point P .
Now we consider cases where the total charge is uniformly distributed on a line, on a
surface, or throughout a volume. It is convenient to introduce the charge density as follows:

30
(1). When the charge Q is uniformly distributed along the line of length L, the linear
charge density λ is defined as
Q
λ=
L
where λ has the units of Coulomb per meter (C/m)

Example 4.8

A long thin rod of length 46cm has a total charge of 3mC uniformly distributed
over it. Find the linear charge density.

Solution

Given Q = 3mC = 3 × 10−3 C, L = 46cm = 46 × 10−2 m, λ =? Therefore,

Q (3 × 10−3 C)
λ= = = 6.52 × 10−3 C/m
L (46 × 10−2 m)

(2). When the charge Q is uniformly distributed on the surface of area, A, the surface
charge density σ is defined as:
Q
σ=
A
where σ has the units of Coulomb per square meter (C/m2 ).

Example 4.9

A sphere has a charge of 10C and a radius of 6cm. Calculate the surface charge
density.

Solution

Given the charge of the sphere, Q = 10C, the radius of the sphere, r = 6cm =
6 × 10−2 m, σ =?
Using the equation:
Q
σ=
A

31
 But, the surface area of the sphere is

A = 4πr2 = 4 × 3.412 × (6 × 10−2 m)2 = 4.524 × 10−2 m2

Q 10C
∴ σ= = = 221C/m2
A 4.524 × 10−2 m2

(3). When the charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout a volume V , the volume charge
density ρ is defined as:
Q
ρ=
V

where ρ has the units of Coulomb per square meter (C/m3 ).

Example 4.10

Calculate the volume Charge Density of an Electric Field When a Charge of

5C is Flowing through a Cube of Volume of 3m3 .

Solution

Given charge Q = 5C, volume, V = 3m3 , ρ =?

Using the equation:
Q 5C
ρ= = ≈ 1.67C/m3
V 3m3
Accordingly, the charge dq of a small length dL, a small surface of area dA, or a small
volume dV is respectively given by:

dq = λdL, dq = σdA, dq = ρdV

There are three kinds of continuous charge distributions: linear, surface, and volume
charge distributions.

4.7.1 Linear Charge Distributions

A charge distribution is said to be linear if the charge is distributed along a one-

dimensional curve or the circumference of a circle. It is represented by linear charge density.
λ is measured in Cm−1 . Therefore the total electric field due to linear charge distribution
is:
Z
⃗ = 1 λ
E r̂ dL
4πεo L r2
R
where L
is the integral to be carried out for all points on the line.

32
 Example 4.11

A rod of length ℓ has a uniform positive charge per unit length λ and a total charge
Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P that is located along the long axis of the
rod and a distance a from one end as shown in the figure below.

Solution

⃗ at P due to this segment is in the negative x direction and has a

The electric field dE
magnitude given by:
⃗ = 1 dq = 1 λ dx = k λ dx
dE
4πεo x2 4πεo x2 x2
The total electric field at P due to all the segments of the rod is obtained after integrating
from one end of the rod (x = a) to the other (x = a + L) as follows:
Z a+ℓ Z a+ℓ  a+ℓ
λdx 1
E= k = kλ x−2 dx = kλ −
a x2 a x a
 
1 1 kλℓ
E = kλ − + =
(a + ℓ) a a(a + ℓ)
When we use the fact that the total charge is Q = λℓ, we have:

Q
E=k
a(a + ℓ)

If P is a very far point from the rod, i.e. a >> ℓ, then ℓ can be neglected in the
denominator of the above equation. Accordingly, we have

Q
E≈k
a2
which resembles the magnitude of the electric field produced by a point charge.

4.7.2 Surface Charge Distributions

This distribution is represented by surface charge density σ. It is measured in Cm−2 .

Therefore the total electric field due to a surface charge distribution is given by:
Z
⃗ = 1 σ
E r̂ dS
4πεo S r2

33
 R
where S
is the surface integral to be carried out for all points on the surface.

Example 4.12

A disk of radius R has a uniform surface charge density σ. Calculate the electric
field at a point P that lies along the central perpendicular axis of the disk and a
distance x from the center of the disk as shown in the figure below.

Solution

The given figure shows a ring, with radius r, radial width dr, and surface areadA =
2πrdr. Since σ is the charge per unit area, then the charge dq on this ring is:

dq = σdA = 2πrσdr

To find its small contribution dE to the electric field at point P , we rewrite the equation
in terms of the ring’s charge dq and radius r:

kx 2rdr
dE = (2πσrdr) = πkσx 2
(r2 + x2 )3/2 (r + x2 )3/2

To find the total electric field, we integrate this expression with respect to the variable
r from r = 0 to r = R. This gives:
Z R
E = πkσx (r2 + x2 )−3/2 (2rdr)
0

To solve this integral, we transform it to the form

un+1
Z
un du =
(n + 1)

Now, setting u = r2 + x2 , and du = 2rdr. Thus, the above integral becomes

Z R Z u=R2 +x2
E = πkσx (r2 + x2 )−3/2 (2rdr) = πkσx u−3/2 du
0 u=x2

34
 u=R2 +x2 ! " #
u−1/2 (R2 + x2 )−1/2 x−1
= πkσx = πkσx −
−1/2 −1/2 −1/2
u=x2

Rearranging the terms of the above equation, we find:

" #
x
E = 2πkσ 1 − √
R + x2
2

Substitute the value of k as k = 1/4πεo , where εo is the permittivity of free space. The
above relation can be written as follows:
" #
σ x
E= 1− √
2εo R2 + x2

If we let R −→ ∞ while keeping x finite, the second term in the above equation ap-
proaches zero, and the equation reduces to:
σ
E=
2εo

4.7.3 Volume Charge Distribution

A volume charge distribution is said to be a volume charge distribution if the charges

are distributed inside a volume V . Examples are a sphere or a cube. It is represented by ρ
and is measured in C/m−3 . The total electric field due to a volume charge distribution is
given by:
Z
⃗ = 1 ρ
E r̂ dV
4πεo V r2
R
where V
is the volume integral to be carried out for all points inside the volume.

4.8 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field

⃗ and the electric
Suppose a particle of charge q and mass m is placed in an electric field E,
⃗
force exerted on the charge is q E. If that is the only force exerted on the particle, it must
be the net force, and it causes the particle to accelerate according to the particle under a
net force model. Therefore,
F⃗e = q E
⃗ = m⃗a

and the acceleration of the particle is obtained as:

⃗
qE
⃗a =
m

⃗ is uniform, and the particle is free to move, the electric force on the particle is
If E
constant and we can apply the particle under a constant acceleration model to the motion
of the particle.

Consider that a uniform electric field E⃗ is directed along the x-axis between parallel
plates of charge separated by a distance d as shown below.

35
 A positive point charge q of mass m is released from rest at point A next to the positive
plate and accelerates to a point B next to the negative plate.
to find the velocity of the particle as a function of position:

vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf − xi )

since the particles start from rest vi = 0, xi = 0. Then the above equation becomes
√
vf2 = 0 + 2a(d − 0) = 2ad =⇒ vf = 2ad

but
qE
a=
m
r
2qEd
∴ vf =
m
The electric force, like any force, can do work on a system. Energy is transferred to the
system of the charge by work done by the electric force exerted on the charge. Therefore,

W = ∆K

Replace the work and kinetic energies with their mathematical definition:

1
Fe ∆x = KB − KA = mv 2 − 0
2 f
r
2Fe ∆x
=⇒ vf =
m
r r
2(qE)(d) 2qEd
vf = =
m m

36
 Example 4.13

A proton is projected in the positive x direction into a region of a uniform electric

⃗ = (−6 × 105 )îN/C at t = 0. The proton travels 7cm as it comes to rest.
field E
Determine (a) the acceleration of the proton, (b) its initial speed, and (c) the time
interval over which the proton comes to rest.

Solution

(a)
qE (1.602 × 10−19 C)(6 × 105 N/C)
|a| = = = 5.76 × 1013 m/s2
m 1.67 × 10−31 kg

∴ ⃗a = −5.76 × 1013 îm/s2

(b)
vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf − xi )

0 = vi2 + 2(−5.76 × 1013 îm/s2 )(0.07m) =⇒

⃗vi = 2.84 × 106 îm/s

(c)
vf = vi + at

0 = 2.84 × 106 m/s + (−5.76 × 1013 m/s2 )t =⇒

t = 4.93 × 10−8 sec

Study Questions

1. Estimate the magnitude of the electric field due to the proton in a hydrogen
atom at a distance of 5.29 × 10−11 m.

2. A charged particle produces an electric field with a magnitude of 2N/C at

a point that is 50cm away from the particle. What is the magnitude of the
particle’s charge?

3. What is the magnitude of a point charge that would create an electric field of
1N/C at points 1m away?

4. An electric dipole p⃗ of equal and opposite charge of magnitude 25pC · m with

a uniform electric field of magnitude 3 × 10−6 N/C. What is the separation
distance between the dipole ?

5. A long thin rod of length 80cm has a total charge of 4 × 10−3 C uniformly
distributed over it. Determine the linear charge density.

37
 6. A point charge of +35nC is above a point charge of −35nC on a vertical
line. The distance between the charges is 4mm. What are the magnitude and
direction of the dipole moment p⃗?

7. A cuboidal box penetrates a huge plane sheet of charge with uniform surface
charge density of 2.4 × 10−2 Cm−2 such that its smallest surfaces are parallel
to the sheet of charge. If the dimensions of the box are 12cm × 6cm × 3cm,
find the charge enclosed by the box.

8. Find the Volume Charge Density if the Charge of 22C is Applied Across the
volume of 4m3 .

9. An infinite line charge of linear density λ = 0.30µC/m lies along the z axis
and a point charge Q = 6.0µC lies on the y axis at y = 2m. What will be the
electric field at the point P on the x axis at x = 3m?

10. A uniform circular ring has charge Q = 7.36µC, and radius r = 3.33cm.
Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a distance of 4.20cm along the
axis of the ring.

11. A disk of radius 10cm carries a uniform surface charge density of6.0µC/m2 .
What would be the electric field on the axis of the disk at a distance of 10cm?

12. A uniformly charged disk of radius 35cm carries charge with a density of 7.90 ×
10−3 C/m2 . Calculate the electric field on the axis of the disk at 5cm

13. A rod 14cm long is uniformly charged and has a total charge of 22µC. Deter-
mine (a) the magnitude of the electric field along the axis of the rod at a point
36cm from its center.

14. An electron is released from rest in a uniform electric field of magnitude 2 ×

104 N/C. Calculate the acceleration of the electron. (Ignore gravitation.)

15. An electron enters a region of uniform electric field with an initial velocity
of 40km/s in the same direction as the electric field, which has magnitude
E = 50N/C. (a) What is the speed of the electron 1.5ns after entering this
region? (b) How far does the electron travel during the 1.5ns interval?

16. An electric dipole consists of charges +2e and −2e separated by 0.78nm. It is
in an electric field of strength 3.4 × 106 N/C. Calculate the magnitude of the
torque on the dipole when the dipole moment is parallel to the electric field.

17. How much work is required to turn an electric dipole 180o in a uniform electric
field of magnitude E = 46N/C if the dipole moment has a magnitude of p =
3.02 × 10−25 C · m and the initial angle is 64o ?

38
5 Electric Potential (V)
Definition
The electric potential at a point is defined as the work done per unit positive test
charge placed at that point against electrostatic forces in moving the unit positive
from infinity to that point.

Therefore potential at point A,

W∞A
VA =
qo
Electric potential is a scalar quantity measured in Joules per coulomb (J/C) or volts
(S.I unit). In the CGS system, it is measured in stat-volt.

1 stat-volt = 300Volts

In order to derive an expression for potential at a point, we imagine a small test charge
qo brought from infinity to that point.

As shown above a small test charge +qo is brought from infinity to point B near a charge
q placed at 0 so that the charge is in equilibrium. E is the electric field at B directed along
OB. Force acting on the test charge is F = qo E must applied.
Work done by the applied force in moving a test charge through a small distance dl is:

⃗ = −qo E · dl
dW = F⃗ · dl ⃗ = qo E · dl
⃗

Let
⃗ =⇒ dW = −qo E dr
d⃗r = −dl ⃗

But electric field at a distance r from a point charge is defined as:

⃗ = 1 q
E
4πεo r2

Hence work done in moving a test charge from infinity to point B is given by:

B  B
1  −qqo −qqo
Z
qqo  1 1 1
W∞B = − = dr = − 2
4πεo B ∞ 4πεo ∞ r2 4πεo r ∞

 
qqo 1 1 qqo
∴ W∞B = − =
4πεo B ∞ 4πεo B

39
with reference to 0,
qqo
B=r =⇒ W∞B =
4πεo
Therefore electric potential at B,

W∞B q
VB = = =⇒ at r = ∞, V =0
qo 4πεo r

Thus potential at a point of infinite distance from a point charge is taken as zero.
Potential at any other distance is measured with reference to a point of zero potential
(infinity).

Note: Since the electric potential is a scalar quantity, the electric potential at a given
point A due to a group of point charges q1 , q2 , · · ·qn at distances r1 , r2 , · · ·rn is given
by the algebraic sum of the potentials at A due to the individual charges.
∞
1 X qi
VA =
4πεo i=1 ri

Example 5.1

Determine the electric potential at 1mm from a charge of 2pC.

Solution

Given r = 1mm = 1 × 10−3 m, q = 2pC = 2 × 10−12 C, V =?

Using the equation:

q (2 × 10−12 ) (1.8 × 10−2 )

V =k = (9 × 109 ) −3
= = 18V
r (1 × 10 ) (1 × 10−3 )

Example 5.2

Two point charges are on the y axis. A 4.5µC charge is located at y = 1.25cm, and
a −2.24µC charge is located at y = 1.80cm. Find the total electric potential at the
origin.

Solution

The total electric potential is the sum of the potentials from the individual charges,
" #
X qi q1 q2
V =k =k +
i
r r1 r2

The 4.5µC and −2.24µC charges are distances 1.25cm and 1.80cm, respectively, from
the origin. The electric potential is then
" # " #
4.5 × 10−6 −2.24 × 10−6 40500 20160
V = (9 × 109 ) + = −
1.25 × 10−2 1.8 × 10−2 1.25 × 10−2 1.8 × 10−2

40
 ∴ V = 2.12 × 106 V

Example 5.3

What is the electric potential at point P , located at the center of the square of
charged particles shown below? The distance d is 1.3m, and the charges are q1 =
+12nC, −24nC, +31nC, and + 17nC.

Solution

The total electric potential is the sum of the potentials from the individual charges:

4
!
X qi q1 q2 q3 q4
V =k =k + + +
i=1
r r r r r

The distance r is obtained from the graph as

d 1.3
r = √ = √ = 0.919m
2 2
 12 × 10−924 × 10−9 31 × 10−9 17 × 10−9 
∴ V = (9 × 109 ) − + +
0.919 0.919 0.919 0.919
9 9
9 × 10 9 ×10
 324
= (12 − 24 + 31 + 17) × 10−9 = (36) ×  −9
10 = = 352.6V

0.919 0.919 0.919
∴ V = 353V

5.1 Potential Difference between Two Points

Definition
The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the
work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to the other against the
electrostatic forces.

If W∞B denotes the work done in moving a test charge qo from A to B, then

WAB
p.d = VB − VA = =⇒ WAB = qo (VB − VA )
qo

WAB is positive when VB > VA and it is negative when VB < VA

41
 To find the potential difference between the two points, we assume a test charge qo
be moved from point A to point B of the diagram above against the electrostatic force of
repulsion. To keep the test charge in equilibrium at every point between A and B, a force
F = −qo E has to be applied on it.
Therefore work done in moving the test charge through a small distance dl against
electrostatics force is:

⃗ =⇒ dW = −qo E
dW = F⃗ · dl ⃗ = qo Edl = −qo Edr
⃗ · dl

Total work done in moving the test charge from A to B is given by

Z B Z B
WAB = dW = − qo E dr
A A

but electric field at point r distant from the source charge q is

1 q
E=
4πεo r2

rA  r
1 A
Z  
qqo 1 qqo qqo 1 1
WAB =− dr = − − = −
4πεo rB r2 4πεo r rB 4πεo rB rA
 
WAB q 1 1
=⇒ VB − VA = = −
qo 4πεo rB rA

Example 5.4

Consider a particle with charge q = 1µC, point A at distance d1 = 2m from q, and

point B at distance d2 = 1.0m. If A and B are diametrically opposite to each other,
as shown below, what is the electric potential difference VA − VB ?

Solution

The potential difference is

! !
q q 1 1
VA − VB = k − = kq −
rA rB rA rB

42
 h1 1i
VA − VB = (9 × 109 )(1 × 10−6 ) − = −4.5 × 103 V
2 1

∴ VA − VB = −4.5 × 103 V

Note:

(i) Positive charge flows from a point of higher potential to a point of lower po-
tential.

(ii) The potential difference between two points is independent of the path taken
by the test charge and depends only on the endpoints.

VB − VA is the same for all the three cases.

5.2 Relation Between Electric Potential (V) and Electric Field

Since work done in moving a test charge qo from A to B in an electric field is given by:
Z B Z B Z B
WAB = dW = F⃗ · d⃗s = −qo ⃗ · d⃗s
E
A A A

and potential difference is given by

Z Z B
WAB ⃗ · d⃗s
VB − VA = =⇒ VB − VA = dV = − E
qo A

The above equation can be expressed as

⃗ · d⃗s
dV = −E

⃗ · d⃗s = Ex dx.
If the electric field has only one component Ex along the x-axis, then E

dV
∴ dV = −Ex dx or Ex =
dx
Thus, the x component of the electric field is equal to the negative of the derivative of
the electric potential with respect to x.
If the field is radial, i.e. V = V (r), then

⃗ · d⃗s = Er dr =⇒ dV = Er dr
E

43
 dV
∴ Er =
dr
The above equation relates E and V . The component of E in any direction is the
negative of the rate at which the electric potential changes with distance in that direction.
⃗ = Ex î + Ey ĵ + Ez k̂ and d⃗s = dxî + dy ĵ + dz k̂. Then:
In general, E

⃗ · d⃗s = −Ex dx + Ey dy + Ez dz
dV = −E

Therefore, when V = V (x, y, z), the chain rule of differentiation will gives:

∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z

Comparing the last two equations, we will get the potential gradients as follows:

∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − , Ey = − Ez = −
∂x ∂y ∂z

Note: If point A coincide with B, VB − VA = 0. That is work done in moving a test

charge around a closed path is zero.

Example 5.5

Oppositely charged parallel plates are separated by 5.33mm. A potential difference

of 600V exists between the plates. What is the magnitude of the electric field between
the plates?

Solution

From the equation:

∆V (600)
E= = ≈ 1.13 × 105 N/C
d (5.33 × 10−3 )

5.3 Electric Potential Due to a Dipole

An electric dipole consists of equal and opposite charges separated by a distance of 2d.
Let us find the electric potential at point P in the plane shown below. At P , the positively
charged particle at a distance (r1 ) sets up potential V1 , and the negatively charged particle
at a distance (r2 ) sets up potential V2 .Then the net potential at P is given by:

2
X
V = Vi = V1 + V2
i=1

!
q −q
V =k +
r1 r2
!
q 1 1
V = −
4πεo r1 r2

44
 q r2 − r1
V =
4πεo r2 r1
Because naturally occurring dipoles have very small lengths, such as those possessed
by many molecules, we are usually interested only in points far away from the dipole, i.e.
r >> 2d. Considering these conditions, we find from Figure (b) above:

r2 − r1 ≈ d cos θ

Also, that difference is so small that the product of the lengths is approximately r2 .
Thus,
r1 r2 ≈ r2

When substituting these approximate quantities, then we find the potential as:

q d cos θ d cos θ
V = = kq
4πεo r2 r2

when θ is measured from the dipole axis as shown in Figure (a) above, we can now write
V as:

1 p cos θ
V =
4πεo r2

45
 where p = qd is the magnitude of the electric dipole p⃗ moment. The the direction of p⃗
is taken to be from the negative charge to the positive charge of the dipole.

Example 5.6

Calculate the electric potential due to a dipole whose dipole moment is 4.2×10−8 C ·m
at a distance of 2.4m on a line making an angle of 60o with the axis of dipole.

Solution

To calculate the electric potential due to a dipole, we can use the following relation:

p cos θ
V =k
r2

(4.2 × 10−8 × cos (60) 189

V = (9 × 109 ) 2
= = 32.81V
(2.4) 5.76
Therefore, the electric potential, V ≈ 33V

5.4 Potentials due to a Continuous Charge Distribution

To get the potential at point P due to a charge distribution is the sum of the contributions
from the individual charge elements. The potential due to a charge dq at a distance r is:

1 q
dV =
4πεo r
To obtain the total potential at pointP , we integrate the above equation to include
contributions from all elements of the charge distributions.
Z Z
dq
V = dV = k
r

In the expression for V above, the electric potential is taken to be zero when point P is
infinitely far from the charge distribution.

46
5.4.1 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Ring

Example 5.6

Use the figure given to (a) find an expression for the electric potential at a point P
located on the perpendicular central axis of a uniformly charged ring of radius a and
total charge Q (b) find an expression for the magnitude of the electric field at point
P.

Solution

(a) We take point P to be at a distance x from the center of the ring, as shown. T
express V in terms of the giving geometry, we use the relation:
Z
dq dq
V =k =k √
r a2+ x2
Z
k
V =√ dq
a + x2
2

kQ
=⇒ V = √
a2 + x2
⃗ can have only x component.
(b) From symmetry, we notice that along the x axis E
Therefore, applying this equation yield

dV
EX = −
dx
d 2
Ex = −kQ (a + x2 )−1/2
dx
 1
= −kQ − (a2 + x2 )−3/2 (2x)
2
 1
= −kQ − (a2 + x2 )−3/2 (2
x)
2

kx
∴ Ex = Q
(a2 + x2 )3/2

47
5.4.2 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk

Example 5.7

Use the figure given to (a) find an expression for the electric potential at a point P
located on the perpendicular central axis of a uniformly charged ring of radius a and
total charge Q (b) find an expression for the magnitude of the electric field at point
P.

Solution

(a) First, we need to find the amount of charge dq on a ring of radius r and width dr as
shown above.
dq = σdA = σ(2πrdr) = 2πσrdr

To find the potential due to the ring, we use the relation:

kdq k2πσrdr
dV = √ =√
2
r +x 2 r 2 + x2

The total potential at P can be obtained by integrating the above equation over the limits
r = 0 to r = R.
Z R Z R
2πrdr
V = πkσ √ = πkσ (r2 + x2 )−1/2 · 2rdr
0 r2 + x2 0

To solve this integral, we transform it into the form of this expression:

un+1
Z
un du =
n+1

Setting u = r2 + x2 and du = 2rdr, then the above expression become

Z R Z u=R2 +x2
2 −1/2
V = πkσ 2
(r + x ) · 2rdr = πkσ u−1/2 du
0 u=x2

u=R2 +x2 ! " #

u1/2 (R2 + x2 )1/2 x
= πkσ = πkσ −
1/2 1/2 1/2
u=x2

48
 Rearranging the terms of the above equation, we finally get the potential as:
hp i
V = 2πkσ R 2 + x2 − x

Substitute the value of k = 1/4πεo into the last equation yield:

σ hp 2 i
V = R + x2 − x
2εo

(b) To find the x component of the electric field at a point P along the perpendicular
central axis of the disk, we use the equation:

dV
Ex =
dx

" #
d h 2 2 1/2
i x
∴ Ex = 2πkσ (R + x ) − x = 2πkσ 1 − 2
dx (R + x2 )1/2

5.5 Electric Potential Energy (U)

Definition
An electric potential energy of a system of point charges is defined as the amount
of work done to assemble this system of charges by bringing them from an infinite
distance.

If the energy possessed by a system of point charges by virtue of their positions. We

assume that charges are at rest when they are infinite distant apart, i.e. they had no initial
kinetic energy.
The potential energy of a system of two like charges is positive while that of opposite
charges is negative.

As shown above, considering a point charge q1 at rest at a point P1 in space. Suppose

there is another point charge q2 at rest at an infinite distance from q1 . Thus, the initial
kinetic energies of both charges are zero. Hence work done to carry the charge q2 from
infinity to position P2 at a distance r12 from q1 can be calculated as follows:

49
 1 q1
V at P2 due to q1 is V =
4πεo r12
q1 q2
∴ W = q2 V =
4πεo r12
But from the definition U = W
1 q1 q2
=⇒ U =
4πεo r12

The above results for two charges can be generalized for getting an expression for the
potential energy of N − system of charges q1 , q2 , · · ·qN .
Since potential energy is equal to the total amount of work done in assembling all the
charges at the given positions from infinity.

=⇒ W = W1 + W2 + W3 + · · · + WN

But W1 = 0 because there is no field, being that all the other charges are at infinity. Hence,
there is no work to bring in the first charge.
Similarly,
U = U1 + U2 + U3 + · · · · UN
⃗ In this
When the two charges q1 (⃗r1 ) and q2 (⃗r2 ) are kept in an external electric field E.
case, the two charges will have their own potential energies U1 and U2 due to the interaction
with the field in addition to their mutual potential energy U12 .

q1 q2
∴ U = U1 + U2 + U3 = q1 V (⃗r1 ) + q2 V (⃗r2 ) +
4πεo r12
Example 5.9

(a) What is the electric potential energy of two electrons separated by 2nm? (b) If
the separation increases, does the potential energy increase or decrease?

Solution

(a) Since the charge of an electron is −e, using the definition of U :

1 q1 q2
U=
4πεo r

(−e)(−e) e2 (1.60 × 10−19 )2 2.304 × 10−28

∴ U =k −9
=k −9
= (9 × 109 ) −9
=
(2 × 10 ) 2 × 10 2 × 10 2 × 10−9

U = 1.15 × 10−19 J

(b) As the charges are both positive, the potential energy is a positive number and is
inversely proportional to r. So the potential energy decreases as r increases.

50
 Example 5.10

Three equal charges of 1.8 × 10−6 each are arranged as shown below. Calculate the
electrostatic potential energy of the charge distribution.

Solution

We need to calculate the electrostatic potential energy between each pair of charges in
the charge distribution using the relation:

U = U12 + U13 + U23

q1 q2 (1.8 × 10−6 )2 2.916 × 10−2

U12 = k = (9 × 109 ) = = 0.583J
r12 5 × 10−2 5 × 10−2

q1 q3 (1.8 × 10−6 )2 2.916 × 10−2

U13 = k = (9 × 109 ) −2
= = 0.172J
r13 17 × 10 17 × 10−2

q2 q3 (1.8 × 10−6 )2 2.916 × 10−2

U23 = k = (9 × 109 ) = = 0.243J
r13 12 × 10−2 12 × 10−2
The total electrostatic energy is therefore

U = 0.583J + 0.172J + 0.243J = 0.998J

5.6 Equipotential Surfaces

For a given configuration of charges, a set of points where the electric potential V (r) has
a given value is called an equipotential surface. It takes no work to move a charged particle
from one point on such a surface to another point on the surface, for then we have ∆V = 0.
From the relations between E(r) and V (r) it follows that the field lines are perpendicular
to the equipotential surfaces everywhere.

Study Questions

1. The voltage between the cathode and the screen of a television set is 22kV . If
we assume a speed of zero for an electron as it leaves the cathode, what is its
speed just before it hits the screen?

2. How much work is done by an applied force that moves two charges of 6.5µC
that are initially very far apart to a distance of 4.5cm apart?

3. The work done to move a charge of 5C from point A to B against electric field
is 22J. If the electric potential at point A = 10V , what is the potential at B?.

51
4. The electric potential difference between two opposing parallel plates is 12V ,
while the separation between the plates is d = 0.4cm. Find the magnitude of
the electric field between the plates.

4. What will be the amount of work done if 5C of charge moves at constant speed
along a path between two points differing in potential by 12V ?

5. Two charges q1 = 2µC and q2 = 4µC are fixed in their positions and separated
by a distance d = 10cm as shown. Find the total electric potential at the point
P.

6. Consider a dipole with charges 4nC and −4nC, with a separation of 2.5cm
between them, situated at the origin. What will be the electric potential due
to this dipole at positions A(5cm, 0, 0), and B(0, 5cm, 0)?

7. Find the electric potential along the axis of the electric dipole at the four points
A, B, C, and D as shown in the figure below.

52
 8. Calculate the electric potential due to a dipole whose dipole moment is 3.2 ×
10−9 C · m at a point of 1.6 × 10−8 m away if this point is (a) along the axis
of the dipole nearer the positive charge; (b) 45o above the axis but nearer the
positive charge.

9. The electric potential energy associated with an electron and proton is −4.23 ×
1018 J. What is the distance between the two charges?

10. A uniform electric field exists between two parallel plates separated by 2.0cm.
The intensity of the field is 15kN/C. What is the potential difference between
the plates?

11. ABC is a straight line with AB = BC = 0.60nm. BP is perpendicular to

ABC and BP = 0.80nm. Charges of +3.2 × 10−19 C are placed at A and B.
What will be the electric potential at point P .

12. What will be the work required to move a third charge, q = −e, from the
+100V line to b?

13. The potential at a point due to a unit positive charge is found to be V . If

the distance between the charge and the point is tripled, what will be the new
potential?

14. Two charges q1 = +6.6 × 10−9 C and q2 = −3.3 × 10−9 C are at rest a distance
of 66cm apart. How much work must be done to slowly move the charges to a
separation of 33cm?

15. The electric potential in a region of space is given by V = 2xy + 3y 2 in units

of V . What will be the electric field, in V /m, in this region?

16. The electric potential at the surface of an infinite plane of charge is 100V . If
the charge density of the charge on the infinite plane is σ = 1nC/m2 , what will
be the electric potential at a distance of 1m from the infinite plane?

17. A line of charge having a uniform charge density λ = 1 × 10−6 C/m and length
of ℓ = 10cm. Find the electric potential at P which is at the distance z = 5cm
above the midpoint of the line.

53
6 Gauss’s theorem
Before the theory is stated, we need to know about the area vector and the electric flux.
The area vector is represented by a vector along the normal to the area outwards.

Considering a small area element ds of a closed surface represented by a vector ds ⃗ along

the outward drawn normal. The length of the vector represents the magnitude of the area
and the direction of the vector tells about its orientation.
Generally, flux ϕ is the property of any vector field which gives the measure of the
number of field lines per given area. Therefore the electric flux of an area tn an electric field
is a measure of the total number of electric field lines crossing the given area normally. It
is denoted by ϕE .
Considering a small area element ds⃗ of a closed surface inside an electric field E⃗ and n̂
the outward normal as shown below:

The electric flux through this element is

⃗ = Eds cos θ = E cos θ × ds

⃗ · ds
dϕ = E

where E cos θ is the component of the electric field in the direction of normal n̂.
⃗ which always points outwards, the sign
According to the definition of the vector area ds
⃗ ⃗
of the flux depends on the angle between E and ds as follows:
⃗ crosses the surface from the inside to the outside, and hence
1) If θ < 90o , then E
dϕE = E ⃗
⃗ · ds.

⃗ is perpendicular to the surface, and hence dϕE = E

2) If θ = 0, then E ⃗ is zero.
⃗ · ds

⃗ crosses the surface from the outside to the inside, and hence
3) If 90o < θ < 180o , then E
dϕE = E ⃗ is negative.
⃗ · ds

54
 Therefore, the electric flux of a given surface may be defined as the surface integral of
the electric field over that surface. ϕE is a scalar measured in N m2 C −1 .
The net flux through a surface is proportional to the net number of electric field lines
leaving the surface. If more lines are leaving than entering, the net flux is taken as positive
(diverging), that is to say when the electric lines of force passing through a surface point
outward. If more lines are entering than leaving, it is taken as negative (converging); that
is, they point inward.
We can write that the net electric flux across the entire surface is
I
ϕE = E ⃗
⃗ · ds
s
H
where the symbol represents an integral over a closed surface.

Gauss’s theorem
The theorem states that the surface integral over a surface S of the electrostatic
⃗ produced by a source is proportional to the total charge q in the volume V
field E
enclosed by the surface. Z
∴ ϕE = E ⃗ = q
⃗ · ds
s εo

According to Gauss’s theorem, only charges inside the volume contribute to the surface
integral. The charges inside S maybe point charges or a continuous charge distribution.
The closed surface S is called the Gaussian surface.

Example 6.1

A flat surface of area 3.20m2 is rotated in a uniform electric field of magnitude

E = 6.20 × 105 N/C. Determine the electric flux through this area. (a) when the
electric field is perpendicular to the surface and (b) when the electric field is parallel
to the surface.

Solution

⃗ = Es cos θ where
⃗ · ds
For a uniform electric field passing through a plane surface, ϕE = E
θ is the angle between the electric field and the normal to the surface.
(a) The electric field is perpendicular to the surface, so θ = 0

ϕE = (6.20 × 105 N/C)(3.20M 2 ) cos 0

ϕE = 1.98 × 106 N m2 /C

(b) The electric field is parallel to the surface: θ = 90o , so cos θ = 0, and the flux is zero.

55
 Example 6.2

A vertical electric field of magnitude 2 × 104 N/C exists above the Earth’s surface
on a day when a thunderstorm is brewing. A car with a rectangular size of 6m by
3m is traveling along a dry gravel roadway sloping downward at 10o . Determine the
electric flux through the bottom of the car

Solution

The electric flux through the bottom of the car is given by

⃗ = Es cos θ
⃗ · ds
ϕE = E

ϕE = (2 × 104 )(3m × 6m) cos (10) = 355 × 103 N m2 /C

Example 6.3

Two charges Q1 and Q2 are inside a closed cubical box of side a. What is the net
outward flux through the box?

Solution

q
ϕE =
εo
where ϕ is the net outward flux, Q is the total charge enclosed, and εo is the electric
constant.
In this case, the total charge enclosed by the box is the sum of the two charges:

Q = Q1 + Q2

Therefore, the net outward flux through the box is:

(Q1 + Q2 )
ϕ=
εo

Example 6.4

The following charges are located inside a submarine: 5µC, −9µC, 27µC, and −84µC
Calculate the net electric flux through the hull of the submarine. Given εo = 8.85 ×
10−12 C 2 /N m2

Solution

The total charge within the closed surface is

Q = 5µC − 9µC + 27µC − 84µC = −61µC

56
 So, the total electric flux is

Q −61 × 10−6 C
ϕE = = = 6.89 × 106 N m2 /C
εo 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N m2

6.1 Proof of Gauss’s theorem for Spherically Symmetric Gaussian

Surface

Considering an isolated positive charge q at the center of a sphere of radius r as shown

above. The electric field intensity is the same at every point on the surface of the sphere.
⃗ is the same as that of the outward-drawn normal n̂ at that point.
The direction of E

⃗ = q
∴ by definition, E r̂
4πεo r2

⃗ on the sphere surface, then ds

Also, considering a small area ds ⃗ = n̂ds where n̂ is a unit
vector along outward drawn normal.

⃗ =
⃗ · ds
 q  q ds
=⇒ E r̂ · n̂ds = (r̂ · n̂)
4πεo r2 4πεo r2

q ds
=
4πεo r2
Integrating over the closed Gaussian surface s
I I
⃗ =
⃗ · ds q
=⇒ E ds
s 4πεo r2 s

I
⃗ =
⃗ · ds q q
E × 4πr2 = πr2
×
4
s 4πεo r2 πεo r
4
 2
I
∴ E ⃗ = q
⃗ · ds
s εo
Note:

57
 Q
(i) For N number of charges q1 , q2 , · · ·, qN , Gauss’s theorem is ϕE = εo , where

N
X
Q= qi
i

(ii) ϕE = 0, when Q = 0

6.2 Deduction of Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s law

Using a Gaussian sphere of radius r centered at 0 and considering an isolated point

⃗ is the electric intensity on the sphere surface, directed radially outwards at
charge q at 0; E
every point.
⃗ and dE
ds ⃗ point in the same direction, hence θ = 0
From Gauss’s theorem
I I
⃗ ⃗ q q
E · ds = =⇒ Eds =
s ε o s ε o
I
q
=⇒ E ds =
s ε o

2 q
∴ E · 4πr =
εo
1 q
∴ E=
4πεo r2
The above equation gives the electric field intensity at a point of r distance from q. If
′ ′
another charge q is placed at that point, the force on q would be
′
′ qq
F = q E =⇒ F = (which is Coulomb’s law)
4πεo r2

58
6.3 Application of Gauss’s law
Gauss’s law is very useful in calculating electric fields in situations where the charge
distributions have planar, cylindrical, or spherical symmetry. In these charge distribution
systems, one must carefully construct the imaginary Gaussian surface such that it simplifies
the integral. This can be done by trying to satisfy one or more of the following conditions:

(1) The value of the field over the surface is constant, E is constant.
⃗ is Eds because E
⃗ · ds
(2) The dot product of E ⃗
⃗ is parallel to ds.

⃗ is zero because E
⃗ · ds
(3) The dot product of E ⃗
⃗ perpendicular to ds.

(4) The value of the field over the surface is zero, E = 0.

Example 6.5

Using Gauss’s law, find the electric field at a distance r from a positive point charge
q, and compare it with Coulomb’s law.

Solution

We apply Gauss’s law to the spherical Gaussian surface of radius r as shown in the figure
below.

From the symmetry of the problem, we know that at any point, the electric field E ⃗ is
⃗ ∥ d⃗s
perpendicular to the surface and directed outwards from the spherical center. Thus, E
then, we write Gauss’s law as
I I I I
ϕE = E ⃗ · d⃗s = q =⇒ ⃗ · d⃗s = Eds = E ds = 4πr2 E = q
E
εo εo

This leads to:

1 q q
E= 2
=k 2
4πεo r r
which is simply Coulomb’s law. This proves that Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s law are
equivalent.

59
 Example 6.6

Find the electric field due to an infinite plane sheet of charge with a uniform positive
surface charge density σ.

Solution

⃗ outside the infinite plane sheet must be: (1) uniform,

By symmetry, the electric field E
(2) perpendicular to the sheet, (3) of the same magnitude at all points equidistant from
the sheet, and (4) in the opposite direction on the other side of the sheet. The choice that
reflects symmetry is a cylindrical Gaussian surface normal to the sheet as shown in the
figure below, where one end of the cylinder (of area A) is to the right of the sheet while the
other is to its left.

To find the net flux through this cylindrical Gaussian surface, let us consider each of the
four faces of the cylinder. (1) Because E ⃗ ∥ dA⃗ through the left end of the cylinder, then
the flux there is ϕE (1) = EA. (2) Because E ⃗ ⊥ dA⃗ through the left curved surface of the
cylinder then the flux there is ϕE (2) = 0. (3) For the same reason (E ⃗ ⊥ dA),
⃗ and the flux
through the right curved surface of the cylinder is ϕE (3) = 0. (4) Because A ⃗ ∥ dA⃗ through
the right end of the cylinder, then the flux there is ϕE (4) = EA.
Thus, the net flux through the Gaussian surface is

ϕE = EA + 0 + 0 + EA = 2EA, but q = σA

we then can now find the electric field as follows:

I
ϕE = E ⃗ · dA⃗ = q =⇒ 2EA = σA
εo εo

σA σA σ
∴ 2EA = = 2E A = =⇒ E =
εo εo 2εo

60
 Example 6.7

Using Gauss’s law, find the electric field at a distance r from a long thin rod that
has a uniform charge per unit length λ.

Solution

By symmetry, the electric fields outside the rod are radial and lie in a plane perpendicular
to the rod. Additionally, the field has the same magnitude at all points at the same radial
distance from the rod. This suggests that we can construct a cylindrical Gaussian surface
of an arbitrary radius r and height ℓ. Such a cylinder would have its ends perpendicular to
the rod as shown in the figure below:

Here, we divide the flux into two cases: (1) The flux through the two ends of the Gaussian
cylinder is zero because E ⃗ is perpendicular to these surfaces, i.e. (E
⃗ ⊥ dA).
⃗ (2) The flux
through the curved surface of the Gaussian cylinder can be obtained by taking into account
that E = constant and E ⃗ is parallel to dA,
⃗ i.e. E
⃗ ∥ dA.
⃗
I I I
∴ ⃗ · dA
E ⃗= EdA = E dA = EA

where A is the area of the curved cylinder and is given by A = 2πrℓ. The net charge inside
the Gaussian cylinder is given by q = λℓ.
We can now use Gauss’s law to find the electric field as follows:
I I I
⃗ ⃗ q
ϕE = E · dA = =⇒ EdA = E dA
εo

λℓ λ
ℓ
ϕE = E(2πrℓ) = =⇒ E(2πr
ℓ) =
εo εo
1 λ λ
∴ E= = 2k
2πεo r r

61
 Example 6.8

A solid sphere of radius R has a uniform volume charge density ρ and carries a total
positive charge Q. Find and sketch the electric field at any distance r away from the
sphere’s center.

Solution

The solution to the given problem is based on this condition: 0 ≤ r ≤ R, r≥R

(1) 0 ≤ r ≤ R
When dealing with a spherically symmetric charge distribution, we chose a spherical
Gaussian surface of radius r < R concentric with the charged sphere as shown in the
figure below:

By symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field is constant everywhere on the spher-
⃗ ∥ dA.
ical Gaussian surface and normal to the surface at any point, i.e. E ⃗ Thus:
I I I
⃗ · dA
E ⃗= EdA = E dA = E(4πr2 )

′
It is important to notice that the volume, say V , of the Gaussian sphere encloses a
′
net charge q = ρV ; that is: 4 
′
q = ρV = ρ πr3
3
We can now use Gauss’s law to find the electric field as follows:
 
I
q ρ 43 πr3
ϕE = E ⃗ · dA
⃗= =⇒ E(4πr2 ) =
εo εo
 
ρ 43
πr2 · r ρr
E(4πr2 ) =

 =⇒ E =
εo 3εo
ρ
∴ E= r (0 ≤ r ≤ R)
3εo
 
Using the definition Q = ρ 43 πr3 =⇒ ρ =  Q  and k = 1
4πεo we will get:
4 3
3 πr

Q Q
E= r = k 3r (0 ≤ r ≤ R)
4πεo R3 R

62
(2) For r ≥ R
Again, because the charge distribution is spherically symmetric, we can construct a
Gaussian sphere of radius r > R concentric with the charged sphere, as shown in figure
below.

Here also, I I
⃗ · dA
E ⃗=E dA = E(4πr2 )

but, qen = Q. Thus, we can use Gauss’s law to find the electric field as follows:
I
ϕE = E ⃗ = qen =⇒ E(4πr2 ) = Q
⃗ · dA
εo εo

Q Q
∴ E= =k 2 (r ≥ R)
4πr2 r
Note that At r = R, the two cases give identical results

Q
E=k
R2

Study Questions

1. A cubical surface with no charge enclosed and with sides 2.0m long is oriented
with right and left faces perpendicular to a uniform electric field E = (1.6 ×
105 N/C)î. What will be the net electric flux ϕE through this surface?

2. A 40cm diameter circular loop is rotated in a uniform electric field until the
position of maximum electric flux is found. The flux in this position is measured
to be 5.20 × 105 N · m2 /C. What is the magnitude of the electric field?

3. A flat surface of area 3.20m2 is rotated in a uniform electric field of magnitude

E = 56.20 × 105 N/C. Determine the electric flux through this area when the
electric field is parallel to the surface.

4. A hollow spherical shell of radius 5.36cm has a charge of 1.91µC placed at its
center. Calculate the electric flux through a portion of the shell with an area
of 1.20 × 10−2 m2 .

63
 5. An uncharged, nonconducting, hollow sphere of radius 10cm surrounds a 10µC
charge located at the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system. A drill with a
radius of 1mm is aligned along the z-axis, and a hole is drilled in the sphere.
Calculate the electric flux through the hole.

6. Find the net electric flux through the spherical closed surface shown in the
figure below. The two charges on the right are inside the spherical surface.

7. A 4m by 4m square-base pyramid of height 2m is placed in a uniform vertical

electric field of strength 25N/C. What is the total electric flux that goes
through the pyramid’s four faces? Note that there is no charge inside the
pyramid.

8. A cube with a8µC charge in the center. Each of the cube’s sides is 12cm long.
What is the flux through one of the faces of the cube?

9. A particle with a charge of 12µC is placed at the center of a spherical shell of

radius 22cm. What is the total electric flux through the surface of the shell?

10. A sphere with a uniform volume charge distribution ρv = 3C/m3 has a radius
of 1.2m. What is the electric field at point P ?

11. The charge per unit length on a long, straight filament is 290µC/m. Find the
electric field 100 cm from the filament, where distances are measured perpen-
dicular to the length of the filament.

64
 12. A sphere of radius 8cm carries a uniform volume charge density ρ = 500nC/m3 .
What is the electric field magnitude at r = 8.1cm?

13. A large, flat, horizontal sheet of charge has a charge per unit area of 9µC/m2 .
Find the electric field just above the middle of the sheet.

14. A solid sphere of radius 40.0cm has a total positive charge of 26.0µC uniformly
distributed throughout its volume. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field
40cm from the center of the sphere.

15. A long, straight metal rod has a radius of 5cm and a charge per unit length
of 30nC/m. Find the electric field 3cm, axis of the rod, where distances are
measured perpendicular to the rod’s axis.

7 Capacitors
A capacitor is an arrangement of nearby conductors carrying equal and opposite charges.
It is used to store large amounts of electric charges and electrical energy in a small space.
Symbolically, it is represented by the given symbol in the circuit.

Charges are distributed on the surface of the capacitor plates so that each surface be-
comes an equipotential surface. The potential difference between the plates is directly
proportional to the charge Q on either of the plates (conductors).
Mathematically,
Q
Q∝V ∴ Q = CV =⇒ C =
V
The constant of proportionality C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. It is constant
for a given pair of conductors.
The value of C depends upon the following:

(i) Size and shape of the plates.

(ii) Separation between the plates, and

(iii) Nature of the dielectric medium between the plates.

Definition
The capacitance of the capacitor may be defined as the amount of charge in Coulombs
necessary to increase the potential of a conductor by one volt. It is measured in Farad
(F ).
1F = 1CV −1

Note:

65
 (i) For an isolated sphere
Q
C= = 4πεo r
V
(ii) For parallel plate capacitor
Q Aεo
C= =
V d
(iii) If a dielectric of dielectric constant k is placed between the plates, then C becomes

kAεo
C=
d

(iv) For cylindrical capacitor, the capacitor of the capacitance is given as

ℓ
C = 2πεo
ln(b/a)

The capacitance per unit length of this configuration:

C 1
= 2πεo
ℓ ln(b/a)

(v) The capacitance of the spherical capacitor is given by:

ab
C = 4πεo
(b − a)

Example 7.1

When a battery is connected to the plates of a 3µF capacitor, it stores a charge of

27µC. What is the voltage of the battery?

Solution

From the definition of capacitance, we have:

Q Q
C= =⇒ V =
V C

Q (27µC) µC)
(27
V = = = = 9V
C 3µF µF
3

Example 7.2

Two conductors having net charges of +10µC and −10µC have a potential difference
of 10.0V between them. (a) Determine the capacitance of the system. (b) What is the
potential difference between the two conductors if the charges on each are increased
to +100µC and −100µC?

Solution

66
 (a) Given that capacitance of the capacitor, C = 10µC = 10 × 10−6 C, and, ∆V = 10V

Q (10 × 10−6 C)
C= = = 1 × 10−6 F = 1µF
V 10V

(b) Given that Q = 100µC = 100 × 10− 6C and C = 1µF = 1 × 10−6 F

Q (100 × 10−6 ) (100 ×  −6

10 )
∆V = = −6
= = 100V
C (1 × 10 ) (1 ×  −6
10 )

Example 7.3

A parallel plate capacitor has an area of 40cm × 50cm and plate separation of 1cm.
(a) What is the capacitance of this capacitor in units of Farad (F)? (b) If it has a
charge of 3.6 × 10−3 C, what is the potential difference across the capacitor? Given
εo = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m.

Solution

1

2
(a) Given A = 40cm × 50cm = 2000cm2 = 2000 × 100 m = 0.2m2 , d = 1cm =
1 × 10−2 m, εo = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m

A
Using C = εo
d

(0.2m2 )
C = (8.85 × 10−12 F/m) ×
(1 × 10−2 m)
2
m
(0.2 )
C = (8.85 × 10−12 F/
m) × −2
= 1.77 × 10−10 F = 17.7 × 10−11 ≈ 18 × 10−11 F
(1 × 10  m)
(b)
Q (3.6 × 10−3 C)
∆V = = = 2 × 107 V
C (18 × 10−11 F )

Example 7.4

An air-filled spherical capacitor is constructed with inner- and outer-shell radii of

7cm and 14cm, respectively. (a) Calculate the capacitance of the device. (b) What
potential difference between the spheres results in a 4µC charge on the capacitor?

Solution

(a) Given a = 7cm = 0.07m, b = 14cm = 0.14m, k = 9 × 109 N m2 /C

For a spherical capacitor with inner radius a and outer radius b:

ab ab
C = 4πεo =
(b − a) k(b − a)

(0.07m) × (0.14m)
C= = 1.56 × 10−11 F = 15.6 × 10−12 = 15.6pF
(9 × 109 ) × (0.14m − 0.07m)

67
 (b)
Q (4 × 10−6 )
∆V = = = 256 × 103 V
C (1.56 × 10−11 )

Example 7.5

A 50m length of coaxial cable has an inner conductor that has a diameter of 2.58mm
and carries a charge of 8.10µC. The surrounding conductor has an inner diameter
of 7.27mm and a charge of −8.10µC. Assume the region between the conductors is
air. What is the capacitance of this cable?

Solution

The capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor is:

ℓ
C=

2k ln b/a

50
C=
2(9 × 109 N m2 /C 2 ) ln 7.27mm/2.58mm)
50 50
∴ C= =
2(9 × 109 N m2 /C 2 ) ln(2.8178) 1.865 × 10−10
=⇒ C = 2.68 × 10−9 F

7.1 Combination of Capacitors

In many electrical circuits, capacitors are grouped in order to obtain the desired capac-
itance. The most common combinations used are series and parallel combinations.

7.1.1 Capacitors in Series

Capacitors are said to be connected in series if a positive plate of one is connected

to the negative plate of the other and so on. This combination provides only one con-
ducting path for the charge. The diagram below shows three capacitors of capacitance’s
C1 , C2 , and C3 connected in series.

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 If C is the equivalent capacitance of the above combination, it can be calculated from
q = CV , where V is the potential difference between the ends A and G.
q q q
V = V1 + V2 + V3 =⇒ + +
C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1
∴ = + +
Ceq C1 C2 C3

Note:

(1) In series combination the equivalent capacitance (net capacitance of the com-
bination) decreases less than the smallest of the combined capacitors. But the
potential difference V increases.

(2) In general for n capacitors in series

n
1 X 1
=
Ceq i
Ci

If the n−capacitors are identical, then C1 = C2 = C3 = · · · = Cn = C

C
Ceq =
n

7.1.2 Capacitors in Parallel

Capacitors are said to be connected in parallel if the positive plates of all capacitors are
connected at one point and the negative plates are connected together at another point.
The diagram below shows three capacitors connected in parallel.

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 The parallel combination provides an independent path for the flow of charge. But, the
potential difference across each capacitor is the same.
Equivalent capacitor combination is calculated from q = CV

Since q = q1 + q2 + q3

=⇒ CV = C1 V + C2 V + C3 V

∴ C = C1 + C2 + C3

Therefore for n−capacitors in parallel

n
X
Ceq = Ci
i

If the n−capacitors are identical C1 = C2 = C3 = · · · = Cn = C.

∴ Ceq = nC

Example 7.6

Two capacitors, C1 = 5µF andC2 = 12µF , are connected in parallel, and the result-
ing combination is connected to a 9V battery. Find (a) the equivalent capacitance of
the combination, (b) the potential the difference across each capacitor, and (c) the
charge stored on each capacitor

Solution

Given C1 = 5µF = 5 × 10−6 F, C2 = 12µF = 12 × 10−6 F V = 9V

(a) Capacitors in parallel add. Thus, the equivalent capacitor will be

Ceq = C1 + C2 = 5µF + 12µF = 17µF

(b) The potential difference across each branch is the same and equal to the voltage of
the battery.
∆V = 9V

(c)
Q5 = C∆V = (5 × 10−6 )(9V ) = 45 × 10−6 C = 45µF

Q12 = C∆V = (12 × 10−6 )(9V ) = 108 × 10−6 C = 108µC

Example 7.7

Given a 2.5µF capacitor, a 6.25µF capacitor, and a 6V battery, find the charge on
each capacitor if it is connected in series across the battery.

Solution

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Given C1 = 2.5µF, C2 = 6.25µF, potential difference across the battery, V = 6V
When connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is

1 1 1
= +
Ceq C1 C2

1 1 1 1
∴ = + =⇒ = 0.56µF
Ceq 2.5µF 6.25µF Ceq
1
∴ Ceq = ≈ 1.79µF
0.56
Example 7.7

Find the equivalent capacitance of a 4.20µF capacitor and a 8.50µF capacitor when
they are connected in series and parallel.

Solution

When connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is

1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
Ceq C1 C2 4.20µF 8.50µF

1 1
=⇒ = 0.3557µF =⇒ Ceq = µF = 2.81µF
Ceq 0.3557
When connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is

Ceq = C1 + C2 4.20µF + 8.50µF = 12.70µF

Example 7.8

Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and b in the combination of capac-
itors shown in the figure below.

Solution

First, we replace the series capacitors of 5µF and 7µF by its equivalent series capacitance,

1 1 1 1 (7 + 5) 35
= + =⇒ = =⇒ Ceq = ≈ 2.92µF
Ceq 5µF 7µF Ceq 35 12

Now, the capacitors 4µF, 2.92µF and 6µF are connected in parallel, then equivalent

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capacitance will be
Cp = 4 muF + 2.92µF + 6µF = 12.92µF

7.2 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor

Considering an uncharged parallel plate capacitor that is charged by placing small
amounts of charge dq from one plate to the other. The potential difference between the
′
plates is zero, as there is no charge on the plates. Let q (t) be the charge transferred in time
t from one plate to the other and V (t) be the potential difference between the plate at that
point.
If C is the capacitance of the capacitor, then
′
q (t)
V (t) =
C
′
If an additional charge dq is transferred, the work done for that transfer is given as
′
′ q ′
dW = V dq = dq
C
Therefore, the work done for transferring charge Q to the capacitor is

Q ′ Q ′
1  q 2 Q  1 Q2
Z Z Z
q ′ 1 ′ ′
W = dW = dq = q dq = | =
0 C C 0 C 2 0 2 C
Since work done is stored as electric potential energy (U ) in the capacitor, then U = W .
Other expressions of the energy are

1 1
U =W = CV 2 = QV
2 2
U is measured in joule provided Q is in Coulomb, capacitor is in F arad and V is in
volts.
The electric field between the plates increases with an increase in Q or V . E is zero
when Q and V are zero.

7.2.1 Energy Stored in a Combination of Capacitors

As energy is scalar, the total energy stored in a series or parallel combination is obtained
by taking the sum of the energies stored in the individual capacitors.
For series combination with Q constant, the total energy is given as

1 Q2 Q2 1
U= = ·
2 C 2 C

Q2  1 1 1 
U= + + +···
2 C1 C2 C3
1 Q2 1 Q2 1 Q2
= + + +···
2 C1 2 C2 2 C3
=⇒ U = U1 + U2 + U3 + · · ·

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 For parallel combination with V = constant. The total energy of the parallel arrangement

1 V2
U= CV 2 = C
2 2

V2
U= (C1 + C2 + C3 + · · ·)
2
1 1 1
∴ U = C1 V 2 + C2 V 2 + C3 V 2 + · · ·
2 2 2
U = U1 + U2 + U3 + · · ·

Example 7.9

A 12V battery is connected to a capacitor, resulting in 54µC of charge stored on the

capacitor. How much energy is stored in the capacitor?

Solution

The energy stored in the capacitor is given by the following:

Q2 1 1
U= = QV = (54 × 10−6 C)(12V ) = 3.24 × 10−4 J
2C 2 2

Example 7.10

Two capacitors, C1 = 25µF andC2 = 5µF , are connected in parallel and charged
with a 100V power supply. (a) Draw a circuit diagram and (b) calculate the total
energy stored in the two capacitors.

Solution

(a) The circuit diagram for capacitors connected in parallel is shown below

(b) For parallel combination connected to a 100V battery, the total stored energy is

1
U= CV 2
2
But, since capacitors are arranged in parallel, the equivalent capacitor will be

Ceq = C1 + C2 = 25µF + 5µF = 30µF

1
∴ U= (30 × 10−6 F )(100V )2 = 0.15J
2
Therefore the total energy stored in the two capacitors is 0.15J

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7.3 Energy Density
Definition
Energy density U is defined as the energy stored per unit volume of the capacitor.

Using parallel plate capacitor

1
total energy (U) CV 2
U= = 2
Volume A·d
Aεo
where A = area of the plate, d = distance between the plates, C = d , V =E·d

1  Aεo  E 2 d2 
=⇒ U =
2 d A·d
 Aε  E 2 d2  1
o
U= = εo E 2
d

A·d
2
⃗ exists at any point in
From the above equation, we can justify that if an electric field E
space, then that point can be regarded as the site of the stored energy with energy density
equal to 12 εo E 2 .

Example 7.11

The parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by 1.5mm and the voltage across the
plates is 150V . What is the energy density of the electric field within the capacitor?

Solution

The energy density of the electric field within the capacitor is given as:

1 V
U= εo E 2 , and E =
2 d
 2  2
1 V 1 150
∴ U= εo = (8.85 × 10−12 )
2 d 2 1.5 × 10−3
1 1
= [8.85 × 10−12 (1 × 105 )2 ] = (8.85 × 10−12 × 1 × 1010 ) = 0.044J/m3
2 2

Study Questions

1. When a battery is connected to the plates of a 3µF capacitor, it stores a charge

of 27µC. What is the voltage of the battery?

2. If a capacitor of capacitance 2µF is given a charge of 1 × 10−3 C, what will be

the potential difference across the capacitor?

3. An 80nF capacitor is charged to a potential of 500V . How much charge accu-

mulates on each plate of the capacitor?

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 4. A parallel plate capacitor has square plates on the side 8cm separated by
0.80mm. If you charge this capacitor to 15V, what will be the amount of
charge transferred from one plate to the other?

5. How much charge is on each plate of a capacitor 4µF when connected to a

battery 12V ?

6. An air-filled parallel plate capacitor has plates of area 2.3cm2 separated by

1.50mm. Find the value of its capacitance. The capacitor is connected to a
12V battery.

7. An air-filled capacitor consists of two parallel plates, each with an area of

7.60cm2 , separated by a distance of 1.80mm. A 20V potential difference is
applied to these plates. Calculate (a) the electric field between the plates, (b)
the surface charge density,

8. A 78m length of coaxial cable has an inner conductor with a diameter of

3.85mm and carries a charge of 9.2µC. The surrounding conductor has an
inner diameter of 7.72mm and a charge of 28.10µC. Assume the region be-
tween the conductors is air. What is the capacitance of this cable?

9. Find the equivalent capacitance of a 4.20µF, 4.8µF, 8.50µF and 9.40µF

capacitors when they are connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel.
Use the following figure to answer the next two problems:

10. Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and b in the combination of
capacitors shown in Figure (a) above.

11. For the system of four capacitors shown in Figure (b) above, find (a) the
equivalent capacitance of the system, (b) the charge on each capacitor.

12. Three capacitors 2µF, 4µF and 8µF are connected in parallel across a
120V source. What will be the charge on the 4µF capacitor?

13. (a) 6µF capacitor is connected to a 12V battery. How much energy is stored
in the capacitor? (b) Had the capacitor been connected to a 6 V battery, how
much energy would have been stored?

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14. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is 24µF when the plates are sepa-
rated by a material of dielectric constant 2. If this material is removed, leaving
air between the plates, and the separation between the plates is tripled, then
what will be the capacitance?

15. A parallel plate capacitor is constructed using two square metal sheets, each of
side ℓ = 10cm. The plates are separated by a distance d = 2mm and a voltage
applied between the plates. The electric field strength within the plates is
E = 4000V /m. Calculate the energy stored in the capacitor.

16. How much energy is stored in 1m3 of air due to the “fair weather” electric field
of magnitude 150V /m?

17. A charged isolated metal sphere of diameter 10cm has a potential of 8000V
relative to V = 0 at infinity. Calculate the energy density in the electric field
near the surface of the sphere.

18. A 3µF capacitor and a 5µF capacitor are connected in parallel across a 300V
potential difference. Calculate the total energy stored in the capacitors.

19. The energy density in the parallel plate capacitor is given as 2.2 × 10−9 J/m3 .
Calculate the electric field in the region between the plate.

20. A parallel-plate air-filled capacitor having area 40cm2 and plate spacing 1mm
is charged to a potential difference of 600V . Find (a) the capacitance, (b) the
magnitude of the charge on each plate, (c) the stored energy, (d) the electric
field between the plates, and (e) the energy density between the plates.

76