General Introduction

Mechanics can be define as that science which describes and predicts the
state of rest or motion of a body or bodies under the action of forces.
Mechanics is divided into three parts:

 Mechanics of rigid bodies/Newtonian Mechanics

 Mechanics of deformable bodies

 Fluid mechanics

The Mechanics of rigid bodies also known as the Newtonian mechanics is

again subdivided into two main groups.

i. Statics

ii. Dynamics

Statics is related to the bodies at rest. Statics considers the effect and
distribution of force on a rigid body that are either in a state of rest or Uniform
motion , and these also divided into two.

 Kinematics

 Kinetics

 Kinematics is a case where by the reference point of the motion is not

taking into consideration.

 Kinetics these deals with the relationship between forces and resulting
motion in which they act on.

Mechanics of deformable bodies: in this case we consider the

1
deformation/motion of a body ( solid, liquid or gas).

Fluid mechanics these is a part of applied mechanics which deals with the
application of principle of fluids, its also subdivided into two
i. Hydrostatics
ii. Hydrodynamics
Hydrostatics deals with the action of forces on materials that is partly or
wholly fluid and are in equilibrium.
Hydrodynamics also known as hydro-kinetics it deals with the action of forces
on a material that are partly or wholly fluid and in motion.

Space and Time

Space is a three dimensional boundless extent in which object and events
occurs,’’ event is a happening that occurs at a particular instant of time’’. In space
there is relation between position and direction. The 3- dimensional space can be
described in same way as the three dimensional vector space
⃗
r = xi + yj + zk……………………………….1.1
The three dimensional plane in an xyz plane can be drawn as

Y
(x,y,z)

X
(0,0,0)

Z
Fig 1.1 Three dimensional coordinate system

Time: is what clock measures , the concept of time can be use to place events in
sequence one after the other, so that we can compare how long an event last
and when an event occurs, there are three key features of time t.

2
Space and Time assumption in Newtonian mechanics
i. Space is isotropic: in space there is no preferred direction

ii. Space and time are homogeneous: these tell us that every regions or
points in space are the same that is no special instant of time in every
regions and points.

iii. Time is absolute: the time interval between two events does not change
, always does not depend on the observer

iv. Spatial displacement is absolute: the displacement between of events

is always the same for all the observers.

Space is three dimensional and time is one dimensional, adding the time
coordinate t, to space coordinate (x,y,z) we have a space and time coordinate
(x,y,z,t) which is a four dimensional vector components where t is the time
coordinate.

Coordinate System
Each point in the 3- dimensional space is specified by an ordered set of three real
numbers, (x,y,z), that represent the coordinates of the point. Each of these points
has a unique set of coordinate relative to a given coordinate system.

.P(x,y,z)

X
(0,0,

Z
Fig 1.2 coordinaten system

3
Coordinate system consist of an origin and coordinate surfaces, on which a given
coordinate is held fixed and other two coordinates are allowed to vary, the basic
example of a coordinate

system is the cartesean coordinate sytem as shown in fig 1.3 below.

Cartesian Coordinate system

Y

B(x2,y2,z2)

A(x1,y1,z1)

X
0
(0,0,0)

Z
Fig 1.3 of cordininate system

The coordinate surface are x - y plane, x - z plane, y - z plane and the distance
2 2 2
between A and B is given as AB = (x2-x1) +(y2-y1) +(z2-z1) ………………..1.2
Other system of coordinate are cylindrical polar coordinate and spherical polar
coordinate.

Cylindrical coordinate system

In cylindrical coordinate (ρ,∅,z) are define with respect to (x,y,z) which
gives

x = pcos∅, y = psin∅ and z = z

4
 (ρ,∅,z)

Y
∅

X Fig1.3 of cylindrical coordinate

Spherical polar coordinate system

The spherical coordinate system is commonly use in physics, to every point in
space with a radial distance r, polar angle θ and azimuthal angle∅,
Wherex = rsinθcos∅, y = rsinθsin∅ and z = rcosθ.

.P(x,y,z)

θ
r
X

B
X

Fig1.4 Spherical polar coordinate

Now we have seen that point has a unique set of coordinate relative to a given
coordinate system. So a specified coordinate system is known as the frame of
5
reference.

Measurement
Like all other Science, physics is based on experimental observations and
quantity measurement. Science and Engineering are based on measurements
and comparisons. Thus we need rules about how things are measured and
compared, so we need experiment to establish the units for those measurements
and comparisons. We can say measurement is a comparison of a physical
quantity with standard of that same physical quantities.

UNITS
A unit is a definite magnitude of a quantity defined and adopted by convection or
by law that is used as a standard for measuring of the same quantity. The
systems of unit commonly used are

i. Centimeter- Gram – Second (C.G.S)

ii. Meter – Kilogram- second (M.K.S)

iii. International system of units (SI Units)

 Centimeter – Gram – Second system of units is a system of length, mass

and time. That are expressed as centimeter, gram and second respectively.

 Meter – kilogram – second in this system of unit the length, mass and
time are expressed in meter, kilogram and second respectively.

 International system of units this system consider three more fundamental

unit of electrics current, temperature and luminous intensity in addition to
fundamental units of length, mass and time.

Fundamental Quantities, derived quantities and units

 Fundamental Quantity are also known as the basics quantities of
mechanics that cannot be expressed in terms of one another. The table
below list the basics or fundamental quantities
6
 Table 1. Fundamental Quantities

S/N QUANTITIES UNITS(SI) UNIT NOTATION

C.G.S
1 MASS Kilogram (Kg) g M
2 LENGTH Meter (m) cm L
3 TIME Second (s) s T
4 TEMPERATURE Kelvin(k) ℃ K
5 CURRENT Ampere(A) A I or A
6 LUMINOUS INTENSITY Candela(Cd) - Cd
7 AMOUNT OF Mole(Mol) - MOL
SUBSTANCE

 Derive Quantities: all other quantities except the basic or fundamental

quantities are derived with the help of fundamental units and thus they
are known as derived quantities. For example density, momentum,
velocity and acceleration

mass
Density = , Momentum p = mass ×veelocity,
volume
distance
Velocity =
time

velocity
And Acceleration =
time

Dimension
Dimension is a measure of a physical variable without numerical value, i.e for
length L is the dimension, but its measured in unit of meter(m) or centimeter
(cm). To have a clear understanding of dimension let us consider some
examples.

Example 1.7

7
 Find the dimension of the following

i) Velocity ii) Acceleration iii) Density iv) Force

Solutions

distance L -1
i) Velocity = = = LT
time T

-1
velocity LT -1 -1 -2
ii) Acceleration = = = LT T = LT
time T

mass M M -3
iii) Density = = = 3 = ML
volume L×L×L L

-2 -2
iv) Force = mass ×acceleration = M × LT = MLT

Dimension has two important uses in physics

 To derive a relation

 To check the correctness of an equation: In checking the correctness of

an equation , the dimension of the quantities in each sides of the
equation must match.
Example 1.8
Show that the equation for impulse Ft = mv - mu = ∆P
Solution
-2 -1 -1 -1
Ft = MLT ×T = MLT , P = mass×velocity = M×LT = MLT = ∆P
-1 -1
⇒ MLT = MLT

Example 1.9

Suppose we are told that the acceleration of a particle moving with uniform
n
speed V in a circle of radius r is proportional to some power of r, say r and some
m
power of V say V . Determine the value of n and m, and write the simplest form
of the equation for the acceleration.

8
Solution

n m n m L L
a ∝ r V ⇒a = Kr V But a = 2 and v =
T T

()
m m+n
L n L L
⇒ 2 = KL = m
T T T

Comparing the powers we obtain m=2 and m+n= 1, ⇒ n=-1

Therefore

2
-1 V 2
a = Kr V = K , (This is the equation of acceleration of a circular motion
r
( K = m)

Exercises 1:
1. Which of the following sets have different dimensions?

a. Pressure, Young’s modulus, stress

b. Emf, Potential difference, Electric Potential

c. Heat, Work done, Energy

d. Dipole moment, Electric flux, Electric field

Ans: d

1 2 -2 1 1
2. The dimension of ε0E (ε0: permittivity of free space) is? Ans: L T A
2

3. One student uses a meter stick to measure the thickness of a textbook and
obtains 4.3 cm 6 0.1 cm. Other students measure the thickness with vernier
calipers and obtain four different measurements: (a) 4.32 cm 0.01 cm, (b)
4.31 cm 6 0.01 cm, (c) 4.24 cm 6 0.01 cm, and (d) 4.43 cm 6 0.01 cm.
Which of these four measurements, if any, agree with that obtained by the
first student? Ans: (a) 4.32 cm 0.01 cm

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 4. The tropical year, the time interval from one vernal equinox to the next
vernal equinox, is the basis for our calendar. It contains 365.242 199 days.
Find the number of seconds in a tropical year. Ans: 31556926.0s

5. A rectangular plate has a length of (21.3 ± 0.2) cm and a width of (9.8 ± 0.1)
cm. Calculate the area of the plate, including its uncertainty. Ans (209 4)cm

Introduction to motion
Motion is the change of body’s position with respect to its surrounding over time.
Straight line motion is one dimensional problem, among the types of motion
dealing with kinematic part in which the source or cause of the motion is not
considered. This is the case of motion in one dimension. The motions may be of
the following types.

i. Rectilinear/Translational/ Straight line motion: in this case the

particles or the body moves in a straight line as explain above.

ii. Non – Linear: This is divided into two as;

a) Curvilinear Translational/Oscillatory motion: In this type the

particles of a body move along a circular arcs or curve path.

b) Rotational/Circular motion: In this case the particles moves

along concentric circle and the displacement of the particle is
measured in terms of angle in radians or revolution.

Definitions of terms associated with motion

i. Displacement: This is the total change of position during any interval of
time in a specified direction.

ii. Rest: A body is said to be at rest if its position with respect to the

10
 surrounding objects remain unchanged.

iii. Speed: This is the rate of change of position with respect to the
surroundings, irrespective of direction.
Rate of change of distance ∆s
Speed = =
Time taken ∆t

iv. Velocity: Is the rate of change of displacement with respect to its

Displacement
surroundings in a particular time. Velocity =
Time taken

v. Uniform velocity: If a body travels equal distance in equal time interval

of time in the same direction. E.g if a car moves 30m with constant
30
velocity in 3s, its velocity is v = = 10m/s
3
vi. Average velocity: This is the velocity which travels by the body in the
same time interval. If n object starts with an initial velocity u and attains
u+v
a final velocity v, the average velocity is V = , but the velocity
2
s
V=
t

⇒s = V×t = ( )
u+v
2
×t……………….. 2.1

vii. Acceleration: This is the rate of change of velocity of the particle, and is
denoted by ‘a’. If u, v and t are variable then the acceleration of the
particle will be given as
Rate of change of velocity ∆v v-u 2
a= = = , and has a unit of m/s . This
Tine taken ∆t t
shows that if the velocity of a body remains constant its acceleration
will be zero.
viii. Uniform Acceleration: In this case if the velocity of the particle changes
equal amount in equal time interval, the acceleration is said to be
uniform.

11
Distance Time Graph
i.

Displaceme

0
Tim
Fig 2.1
In Fig 2.1 above the displacement is not changing with time, the slope of the
graph is zero because the y-axis is constant. And the body has no velocity is at
rest.
ii.

Displaceme

0
Fig 2.2 Time
In the Fig 2.2 displacement increases with time by equal amount in equal interval
of time i.e the

body is moving with uniform velocity. That is the slope is constant.

iii.

12
 Displaceme

0
Fig 2.3 Tim

The Fig 2.3 above is Curve, Which shows that displacement is not changing
over equal time interval. The velocity is changing, i.e the motion is accelerated.

Velocity time graph

This is the one of the method used in solving a kinematics problem, is
also known as the graphical method. In this case the velocity is on the
vertical axis and the time on the horizontal axis as shown below.

i.

0
Time
Fig. 2.4

In Fig 2.4 above the velocity of the body increases linearly with time, Slope is
constant and the acceleration is constant. Also at t = 0 the velocity is finite thus
the body is moving with finite initial velocity having a constant acceleration.

i.

13
 Velocity

0 Tim

Fig 2.5

The Fig 2.5 above the body has a finite velocity, as time passes, the velocity
decreases linearly with time until its final velocity becomes, i.e the body has a
retardation since its slope is negative, (-ve).
ii.

Velocity

0 Tim
Fig 2.6

In The Fig 2.6 above the graph is curve, the slope of the graph is different at
different point and time, we can say that the velocity and acceleration are not
constant.

Equations of motion
These are the equations that are used in solving problems in a straight
line motion. To derive the equations we consider the graph below.
V

ii

14
 1 t

Fig 2.7

y2-y1 v-u
From fig 2.7 above the slope = = =a
x2-x1 t

v-v
∴a = , ⇒ at = v - u, or v = u + at…………………….. 2.2
t

From equation 2.1

S= ( )
u+v
2
t , substituting equation 2.2 in 2.1 we have

( ) ( )
2
u+u+at at at
s= t = u+ t = ut + …………………………… 2.3
2 2 2

From equation 2.1

2 2
⇒ v = u + 2aS……………………………………. 2.4

th
Distance covered by the body in n second by a body moving with a uniform
velocity
This is the distance covered by the particle at a particular instant of
time. We know that from equation 2.3.

2
at
S = ut + ,
2

th
Let Sn be the distance covered by the body in n second. Substituting in the
equation we have

2
an
Sn = un + (t = n), also
2

2
a(n-1)
Sn-1 = u(n-1) +
2

The distance covered in the nth second is

15
 Sn = Sn - Sn-1
th

a
∴ Sn = u +
th (2n-1)…………………………..2.5
2

Example 2.1
A car starts from rest and accelerate uniformly to a speed of 80km/hr over a
distance of 500m. Calculate the acceleration and time taken.
Solution:
80km 80×1000
u = 0, S = 500 and v = = = 22.22m/s
hr 60×60
Using the relation
2 2
2 2 v -u
v = u + 2aS, To solve for the acceleration we have a = =
2S
22.22
= 0.494m/s
2×500
For the time using the equation, v = u + at To solve for time we have
v-u 22.22
t= = = 45s
a 0.494
Using the Velocity Time Graph
Note: In velocity time graph the area under the graph is the distance covered by
the body, and the slope is the acceleration.
Solution
V

22.2

500

0 t
Fig 2.8

The figure 2.8 is a right angle triangle. S=500, V= 22.22m/s

16
 b×h t×22.22
S= = = 500
2 2
2×500 1000
⇒t = = = 45s
v 22.22
The slope which is the acceleration
y2-y1 v-u 22.22-0 0.494m
slope = a = = = = 2
x2-x1 t t s

Example 2.2
A car starting from rest and accelerate uniformly for 2min, runs at constant
speed for 4min. After this the car comes to stop with uniform retardation for
3min and thus covers a distance of 5km, find:
i) It’s constant speed ii) It’s acceleration iii) It’s retardation
Solution:
Using the V-T Graph we have

Vel
(x2,y2) (x3,y3)

i ii iii (x4,y4)
120 540 t
0 360
(x1,y1)
Fig 2.9 Velocity time graph

Solution:

Total distance S = Area (i) + Area (ii) + Area (iii) = 5km = 5000m

b×h 120×h
i) Area i = = = 60h
2 2

17
Area ii = b×h = (360-120)×h = 240h

b×h (540-360)×h
Area iii = = = 90h
2 2

But hieght = velocity

⇒ 60v + 240v + 90v = 5000

5000
∴ 390v = 500, ⇒v = = 12.8m/s
390

y2-y1 12.8-0 2
ii) Acceleration Slope = a = = = 0.107m/s
x2-x1 120-0

y4-y3 0-12.8 -12.8 2

iii) Retardation = a = = = = 0.07m/s
x4-x3 540-360 180

Example 2.3

On turning a corner a car is moving at 15m/s, finds a child on the road 40m
ahead. He instantly applies brake, so as to stop the car 5m away from the child.
Calculate:

i) Retardation ii) Time taken before the car stop

Solution:

u= 15m/s, v=0 and S = 40m (from the child)

S = 40 - 35 = 5m (where the car will stop)

2 2
i) Using the relation v - u = 2aS

2 2 2
v -u 0-15 2
⇒a = = = - 3.21m/s
2S 2×35

ii) Time taken t.

v = u + at

18
 0 = 15 - 3.21×t

-15
⇒t = = 4.67s
-3.12

Freely falling body ( Motion under gravity)

The free fall motion is a vertical motion under gravitational influence, is a one
dimensional motion in which acceleration is constant and directed vertically
2 2
downward and is given as g = 9.81m s or 10m s . In a free fall motion when
an object is thrown upward it’s acceleration g is negative and in known as the
upward motion, and when a body is release to fall free is known as the
downward motion and acceleration due to gravity is positive.

Equation for downward motion

a = +g

v = u + gt

2
gt
h = ut +
2

2 2
v = u + 2gh

Equation of upward motion

a = -g

v = u - gt

2
gt
h = ut -
2

2 2
v = u - 2gh

Example 2.8

A stone is drop from a clip 200m high after what will it strike the ground? what
will be it’s final velocity

19
 Solution

u= 0, this is a downward equation

2
gt
i) h = ut +
2

2 2
gt gt
⇒ h=0+ =
2 2

2h 2×200
∴t = = = 6.39s
g 9.8

v = u + gt

v = 0 + 9.81×6.39 = 62.70m/s

Example 2.9

A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 100m high. Another stone is
projected upward at the same time from the foot of the tower, and meets the
first stone at a height of 40m. find the velocity with which the second stone is
projected upward.

Solution: U=0
First stone

100m 60m

40m
U =? For second
20
Fig 2.13
 H = 100m, u = 0m/s

Height h= 100 – 40 =60m

Time to meet will t1=t2 since they start at same time

2
gt
Using the equation h = ut +
2

2 2
gt gt
⇒ h=0+ =
2 2

2h 2×60
∴t = = = 3.5s = t1 = t2
g 9.8

The initial velocity of the second stone can be obtain by using h=40m and
t2 = 3.5s

2
gt
h = ut - , for upward motion
2

2
9.81×3.5
40 = u×3.5 -
2

2
9.81×3.5
⇒3.5u = 40 +
2

u = 28.6m/s

Exercise 2.
1. A train starting from rest and moving with a uniform acceleration attains a
speed of 108km/hr in 2.5 minute. Find (i) Acceleration (ii) The distance the
train travels in this time

Ans. 0.2m/s2, 2.25km

21
 2. The Brake applied to a car produce a uniform retardation of 0.5m/s2. The
car covers a distance of 16m before stopping. How long were the brakes
applied?

Ans. 8sec

3. An automobile accelerates from a velocity of 24km/hr to a velocity of

72km/hr in a distance of 160m. Compute the average acceleration and the
time required.

Ans. 1.11m/s2, 12sec

4. A cyclist riding at 36km/hr passes a car which just starts to move with an
2
acceleration of 0.2m/s . How far will he ride before the car overtakes him?

Ans. 100m

5. A stone is dropped from a cliff 500m high after what time will it strike the
ground? What will be its final velocity?

Ans. 10.09s, 98.98m/s

6. A ball is projected vertically upward with a velocity of 20m/s. Three second

later a second ball is projected vertically upward with a velocity of 30m/s.
At what height will they meet above the earth’s surface?

Ans. 11.35m

Physical quantity
Any quantity that can be measured is known as the physical quantity. We have
two types of physical quantities.
i) Scalar quantity

ii) Vector quantity

 A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has a magnitude only, that is

no direction. Eg mass, volume, time, density etc
22
  A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude as well as
direction. eg force, velocity, acceleration, momentum etc

A vector quantity is represented by a straight line carrying an arrow head at

one end, the line together with the arrow defines the direction of the vectors.
And the length of the line equals to the magnitude of the vector.
⃗
A

Fig. 3.1

The vectors can also be represented by a bold capital letter (A) or by a letter with
⃗
an arrow on top, as ( a ). The magnitude of the vector is a positive number of
units corresponding to the length of the vector in those units. Hence the
magnitude of a vector A is given as:

⃗
| |
2 2
A = A = Axi+Ayj …………………………………………………3.1

Where |A| is called the magnitude or the absolute value. And is a positive scalar
quantity
⃗
∴ A= A =A | | ……………………………………………………3.2
Bold letters represent vectors and capital letters represent the magnitude

Multiplication of vector by a scalar

A vector quantity can be multiplied by a scalar quantity to obtain a vector quantity.
⃗
i.e if (P) is a given scalar quantity and A is a given vector quantity, then vector A
multiplied by scalar (P) is :
⃗ ⃗
A *P = PA ……………………………………………………………………3.3

Types of vectors
Basically there are three types of vectors as follows:

23
 i. Zero vector

ii. Equal vectors

iii. Negative or opposite vectors

 Zero vector : This is a vector with zero magnitude and no direction, and is
also called as null vector

 Equal vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal if and only if they have
magnitude and are moving in same direction. But not necessarily the same
notation. Eg

⃗
A

⃗
B
Fig 3.2

 Negative vectors: These are define as vectors of same magnitude but are
moving in opposite direction. They are refers to as equal and opposite
vectors.

⃗
A

⃗
-A

Fig 3.3

⃗ ⃗
( )
A + - A = 0 ………………………………………………..3.4

24
Geometrical Addition of vectors
⃗
Two or more vectors may be added geometrically by drawing the vectors, say P
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
and Q . Then the vector P + Q is the vector that runs from the initial point
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
(tail) of P to the final point (head) of Q ( P + Q ) is a single vector. This is
known as the head to tail arrangement of vectors.

Example 3.1

Find the resultant of the vectors in figure 3.4 below

⃗ ⃗
P Q

Fig 3.4

⃗ ⃗
By drawing the head of P to the tail of Q we have

⃗
Q
⃗ ⃗
P + Q
O

⃗
P
Fig 3.5
B

⃗ ⃗ ̅
Where the resultant vector P + Q is the line BA and will have two arrows on it.

25
Alternatively
A

⃗
P

O ⃗ ⃗
fig 3.6 Q + P

⃗
Q

B
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
The vector P + Q and Q + P as shown in fig 3.4 and 3.5 respectively, shows
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
same direction and are the same. Also, if we have three vectors say a , b , c
then they can be simplified as:

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
a + b + c = a+b ( ) + ⃗c ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
= a + ( b + c )………………………………………………………
……………..3.5

We cannot joint 3-vectors at once geometrically; we therefore add two vectors to

get the resultant and then add the resultant with the last vector.

Unit Vector
Unit vector is a vector having a unit magnitude or length, the unit vector is by a
̂
letter with a cap on top as A , and the value of the unit vector can be given as:

̂ ⃗
A = A .............................................................................................................3.6
|A|

26
Component of Vector
Component of a vector is a projection of the vector on an axis. There are two
types of vector’s component projection.

i. Rectangular component

ay
⃗ ay
a
⃗
θ a
θ

0 ax X
ax

Fig 3.7 Fig 3.8

⃗
From the fig 3.7 and 3.8 above ax is a component of vector a along x- axis and ay
⃗
is a component of vector a along y-axis. Fig 3.7 is known as rectangular
component or mutually perpendicular component. From the right angle formed in
the fig 3.8 above, by using trigonometric identity the components are;
ax = acos θ ………………………………………………………………………….3.7
ay = asin θ……………………………………………………………………….3.8
⃗
The magnitude and direction of vector a will be given as
2 2
a = ax -ay …………………………………………………………………..3.9
And the angle in between the component is
a
tan θ= y …………………………………………………………………………………..3.10
ax
i. Non – Perpendicular component

27
 D C

⃗
⃗ R ⃗
β b
α

A
⃗ B
a

Fig 3.9 A parallelogram of vectors

The figure 3.9 above is a vector in non – perpendicular component. Let AC be

the resultant vector R, fig 3.9 is a parallelogram ABCD. Using parallelogram law
which state that if two vectors are acting by the adjacent side of a parallelogram,
the resultant will be obtain by the diagonal of the parallelogram and can be
calculated using the cosine rule as;
2 2 2
R = a + b - 2abcos (α+β) ………………………………………...3.11
And using sine rule in fig 3.9 above
a R b
= = ……………………………………………….3.12
sin β sin (α+β) sin α

Vector in two and three component

A vector in two components is as follows

j
A

x
Fig i

Let i be the vector of unit length in positive x- direction and, let j be the unit vector
in positive y direction.

28
∴ A = Axi + Ayj ………………………………………………………….3.13
A vector in three component (Vector in space), is a vector having a component
along the x,y and
Z axes.
z

j γ A

α β

i x

Fig

K is a vector of unit length along the positive z-axis. The vector is 3 dimensions
can be written as
∴ A = Axi + Ayj + Azk ………………………………………………….3.14

Resolution of Vectors/Forces
The process of resolving vector into its component is known as the resolution of
vectors
Example 3.2
A child pulls on a rope attached to a sled with a force of 60N. The rope makes an
angle of 400 to the ground.
a) Compute the effective value of the pull tending to move to sled along the
ground
b) Compute the force tending to lift the sled vertically.

Solution:

60N
0
b) fy = 60sin 40 = 39N
29
 40

0
a) fx = 60cos 40 = 46N
Fig 3.12

Vector operations
Basically there are three operations in vectors

i. Vectors addition and subtraction

Two or more vectors can be added or subtracted together component wise.

⃗ ⃗
Let A = Axi + Ayj + Azk and B = Bxi + Byj + Bzk …………………….3.15

Then the addition is:

⃗ ⃗
A + B = (Ax+Bx)i + (Ay+By)j + (Az+Bz)k ………………………….3.16

And the subtraction is:

⃗ ⃗
A - B = (Ax-Bx)i + (Ay-By)j + (Az-Bz)k ………………………………3.17

Example 3.3

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
If d 1 = 3i - 3j + 4k and d 2 = -5i + 2j - 20k find d1 + d2

Solution:

⃗ ⃗
d 1 + d 2 = (3-5)i + (-3+2)j + (4-20)k

= -2i - j - 16k

ii) Dot/Scalar product: This is a vector operation which gives a scalar

quantity as the result. And is given as ;

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
| || |
⃗
A ∙ B = A B cos θ……………………………………………….3.18

30
 ⃗ ⃗
A∙B
And ∴ cos θ= …………………………………….3.19
⃗
A B
⃗
| || |
Where i ∙ i = j ∙ j = k ∙ k = 1 and any other operation i ∙ j = j ∙ k = k ∙ i = 0

⇒A ∙ B = ABcos θ ……………………………………………………..3.20

iii) Cross product or Vector product is a vector operation that gives a

vector quantity as a resultant, and is given as;

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
| || |
A × B = A B sin θ………………………………………………3.21

| |
i j k
⃗ ⃗
Where A × B = Ax Ay Az ……………………………………….3.22
Bx By Bz

To find the result of the above we find a determinant of a 3 × 3 matrices

⃗ ⃗
∴ A × B = (AyBz-AzBy)i - (AxBz-AzBx)j + (AyBx-AyBx)k ……………3.21

Example 3.4

Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of the vectors.

⃗ ⃗
A = 4i - 3j - 2k and B = 2i + 2j + 4k

Solution:

⃗ ⃗
The resultant R = A + B = (4+2)i + (2-3)j + (4+2)k

R = 6i - j + 6k

The unit vector in the direction of the resultant is

31
 ̂ ⃗
6i-j+6k 6i-j+6k
A = A = =
|A| 2 2
6 +(-1) +6
2
73

Example 3.5

⃗ ⃗
Find the dot product of the vector A and B , given that the vectors
⃗ ⃗
A = 4i - 12j - 6k and B = 8i + 6j - 2k, also find the angle between
the vectors.

Solution:

i. Dot product

A ∙ B = AXBx + AyBy + AzBz

A ∙ B = [(4×8) + (6×-12) + (-6×-2)]

A ∙ B = 32 - 72 + 12 = -28

ii. The angle between the vectors θ

From equation 3.19 the angle is given as

⃗⃗
A∙B
Cos θ=
⃗
| || |
A B
⃗

|⃗ A | = A = 2 2
4 +(-12) +(-6) = 14
2

|⃗ B | = B = 2 2
8 +6 +(-2) = 10.2
2

-28 o
∴ cos θ = = 101.3
14×10.2

32
Example 3.6
⃗ ⃗
Determine the cross product of vectors A = 4i - 12j - 6k and B = 8i + 6j - 2k,
also find the angle between the vectors.
Solution:
⃗ ⃗ i
A×B = 4
8
| j
-12
6
k
-6
-2
|
Using equation 3.21

⃗ ⃗
A × B = (AyBz-AzBy)i - (AxBz-AzBx)j + (AyBx-AyBx)k

Therefore

|⃗ A ×⃗ B | = [(-12×-2)-(6×-6)]i - [(4×-2)-(-6×8)]j + [4×6-(-12×8)]k

= 60i - 40j + 120k

The unit vector in the direction of the resultant R

60i-40j+120k 60i-40j+120k
R= =
2 2
60 +(-40) +(120)
2
19600

60i-40j+120k
R=
140

3i 2i 6k
R= - +
7 7 7

The angle between the vectors from equation 3.21 is given as;

sin θ =
|A×B| = 140
|⃗ A ||⃗ B | 14×10.2

Sin θ = 0.9804

-1 o
θ = sin (0.9804) = 78.6

33
Exercise
1. A river is flowing from west to east at a speed of 5m/min. A man on the
south bank of the river, capable of swimming at 10m/min in still water,
wants to swim across the river in the shortest time. He should swim in the
direction?

Ans. Due north

2. Two forces act on a point object as follows: 100N at 1700 and 100N at 500.
Find their resultant
0
Ans. 100N, 110

3. A force (15i - 16j + 27k)N is added to a force (23j - 40k)N. What is the
magnitude of the resultant?

Ans. 21N

4. Find the angle between the vectors (i) A = -2i + 6j and B = 2i - 3j (ii)
A = 3i + 5i and B = 10i + 6j.

0 0
Ans. (i)θ = 165 , (ii)θ = 28

0
5. A Ship leaves an island and sails 285km at 40 north of west. In which
direction must it now head and how far must it sail so that its resultant
displacement will be 115km directly east of the island.

Ans. 28.80 south of east, and 380km

34
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION

Projectile Motion:
A projectile is a particle thrown into the space at a certain angle, the curved path
followed by it is unknown as trajectory, and the velocity with which the particle is
thrown has two components namely horizontal and vertical components. The
horizontal component moves the body horizontally while the vertical component
projects the body vertically upwards; the combined effect of both the
components is to moves the particle along a parabolic path. The horizontal
component remains constant while the vertical component of motion is always
subjected to gravitational acceleration.

Important Definitions:
The definition of some important terms relating to projectile motion is given
below:

1. Velocity of Projectile: the velocity with which the projectile is projected in

space is called the velocity of projection and has vertical and horizontal
component.

2. Angle of projection: the angle which the initial velocity makes with the
horizontal or at which is projected is called an angle of projection.

3. Range: the distance covered by the body along the horizontal from the

35
 point of projection is called the range.

4. Time of Flight: this is the time taken by the particle when it remains in
space.

5. Maximum height: this is the maximum vertical distance covered by the

particle from the point of projection.

Motion of Projectile
Consider a particle a particle thrown upward from a point O. with initial
velocityu, at an angle α with the horizontal as shown in the figure 4.1 below,
the particle after attaining the maximum height h, it descends and finally hits
the plane of its origin at R. the distance

covered OR is known as range.

Y
Q
Trajector
P
x u
uy = usin α
Max. height

y
α
0 X
ux = ucos α T R
r

Fig 4.1 Sketch of a particle path in projectile motion

Resolving the initial velocity U into its component

36
Ux = ucos α (Horizontal component)----------------------4.1a

Uy = ucos α (Vertical component)------------------------4.1b

Where Ux remains constant throughout by neglecting air resistance, and Uy is
subjected to retardation g due to gravitational force.

Equations use in Projectile Motion

i. Time of Flight: the time taken for OT will be the same as that of TR
We know that from Equation 2.2 vy = uy + at
∴ At Q = vy = 0
⇒0 = uy - gt
uy usinα
∴t = =
g g
2usinα
∴The time of flight T = 2t = ------------------------4.2
g
ii. Maximum Height Attained:
2 2
From equation 2.4 v - u = 2aS with a = g and h = s

2 2
⇒v - u = -2gh (Particle is moving upward) and vy

2
2 u
∴ -u = -2gh or h = y
2g

2 2
u sin α
⇒h = -----------------------------------------------4.3
2g

iii. Range: The horizontal range r = horizontal velocity×time of flight

2usinα 2usinα
r = ux × = ucos α×
g g

2
2u sinαcos α
⇒r =
g

2
u sin2α
∴ range r = (Since sin2α = 2sinαcosα)
g

37
 2
u sin2α
r= -----------------------------------4.4
g

From equation 4.4 above, the range will be maximum if sin2α=1. It will be so if
2
0 u
2α=90. Implies α=45 , in these case the maximum range(rmax = ), hence the
g
projectile will cover a maximum range when it is directed at an angle of 450.

Equation of Trajectory
Trajectory is the path followed by the particle, considering figure 4.1, when the
particle is thrown at a certain angle α from a point O it will move along certain
path OPQR in the air and will fall down at R, let t be the time taken and
coordinates of P be x and y, considering motion along X-axis.

x
x = ux×t = ucos α×t ⇒t =
ucos α

Now considering motion along Y-axis

2 2
gt gt
y = uy×t - = usinα ∙ t -
2 2

Since particle is moving upwards

2
x g∙x
We have y = usinα ∙ - 2 2
ucos α 2u cos α

2
g∙x
⇒ y = xtan α - 2 2 -----------------------------------------------------------4.5
2u cos α

The equation 4.5 above is parabola equation. Hence the path of a projectile is a
parabola.

Example 4.1

A stone is thrown with initial velocity of 30m/s at an angle of 400. What is the

38
initial horizontal and vertical velocity?

Solution:

u = 30m/s

uy = usin α

ux = ucos α
Fig 4.2 A particle undergoing Projectile motion

ux = 30cos 40= 23.0m/s

uy = usin α= 19.3m/s

Example 4.2

0
A short is fired into space at an angle of 60 with a velocity of 60m/s determine

i. Time of flight

ii. Maximum height

iii. Range

iv. At what angle should it be fired to have a maximum range and what would
be its magnitude

Solution:

2usinα
i. T= u=60m/s, α=60°
g

2×60×sin60
T= = 10.6sec
9.81

ii. Maximum height

39
 2 2 2 2
u sin α 60 ×(sin60)
h= = = 137.6m
2g 2×9.81

iii. Range

2 2
u sin2α 60 ×sin (2×60)
r= = = 366.9m
g 9.81

iv. The range will be maximum when we have maximum value sin2α, and the
maximum value is 1. Therefore sin2α=90 and sinα will be =1 when angle α
is 90°

90
2α = 90 ⇒ α= = 45°
2

2 2
u (60)
Maximum range rmax = = = 366.97m
g 9,81

Example 4.3

A riffle bullet is fired at and hits a target 100m distant, if the bullet rises to a
maximum height of 0.03m above the horizontal line between the muzzle of the
riffle and the point of impact on the target, find the muzzle velocity.

Solution:
u

0.03m

0 100m x

Fig 4.3 A fired bullet diagram on Projectile motion

u=? h=0.03m r =100m

40
 2 2 2 2
u sin α u sin α
h= = 0,03 ⇒ = 0.03 -------------------------i
2g 2g

Also the range will be given as:

2 2
u sin2α u sin2α
r= = 100 ⇒ = 100 -----------------------ii
g g

Dividing equation i by ii

2 2
u sin α g 0.03
2 × = But sin2α = 2sinαcosα
u sin2α g 100

2
u (sinα)(sinα) (sinα)(sinα)
2 = = 0.0003 ⇒ tan α=0.0012
u ×2sinαcosα 2×2sinαcosα

-1
∴ α = tan (0.0012) = 0.069°

If α is very small sinα = tanα now substitute α in equation i or ii to find the

muzzle velocity.

2 2
u sin α 2 0.03×9.81×2
= 0.03 ⇒u = 2 = 408750
2g (0.0012)

∴ u = 408750 = 639.3m/s

Rotational / Circular Motion

A rotating motion is a moving particle in circular path, its position at any instant
can be defined by the angle θ covered by it with respect to x or y axis (generally
with respect to x-axis)

S – Arc length
R
θ

41
 Fig. 4.5 a particle moving in a circular motion

Terms Associated to Circular Motion

 Angular displacement: when a particles moves in circular path it angle of

rotation varies with time, (or angle of displacement) thus we can say θ=f(t)
θ usually expressed in radian

dθ θ 2πN
 Angular velocity: denoted as ω = = =ω= rad/s which is for a
dt t 60
rotating path in revolution.

 Angular acceleration: Is define as the rate of change of angular velocity

dω
α= , and a normal acceleration or centripetal acceleration ac =
dt
2
v 2 2
= ω r (rad/s )
r

Equations of Linear and Circular Motion

Linear motion Equation as previously derived

v = u + at

2
at
S = ut +
2

2 2
v = u + 2aS

Circular motion Equation

ω = ω0 + αt --------------------------------------------------4.13

42
 αt
θ = ωo + ------------------------------------------------------4.14
2

2 2
ω = ωo + 2αθ -----------------------------------------------------4.15

Note: v = ω, u = ωo, s = θ, a = α

Relation between Linear and Circular Motion

θ
Arc length S = x2πr, but 360 = 2πrad
360

θ
S= x2πR = Rθ ------------------------------------------------4.16
2π

S
Linear velocity v = , using equation 4.16
t

⇒v =
Rθ
t
=R
θ
t () but (ω = θ/t)

v
v = Rω ⇒ω = -----------------------------------------------4.17
R

v u
Angular velocity ω = ω0 + αt using equation 4.17 we can write = + αt
R R

v u
⇒αt = -
R R

∴α =
1 v-u
R t ( ) also a = (
v-u
t
)

a
α= ⇒a = αR ---------------------------------------------------4.18
R

Example 4.5

A car starting a rest reaches a velocity of 54km/h in 30second; determine the

43
angular velocity of the wheel of 600mm in diameter at 15second.

Solution:

u=0 v= 54km/h = (54x1000)/(60x60) = 15m/s t=15sec and t=30sec

d=600mm = 600/1000=0.6m

Angular velocity v = Rω, and r = d/2 = 0.6/2=0.3

v
ω= =15/0.3 = 50rad/s
R

Angular acceleration in 30sec is obtained using the equation below.

ω = ω0 + αt ⇒ 50 = 0 + (α×30)

50 2
∴α = = 1.67rad/s
30

Angular velocity of wheel at interval t=15sec

ω = ω0 + αt = 0 + 1.67×15 = 25.05rad/s

Example 4.6

A flywheel rotating at 3 revolution per second has its speed increased at a

constant rate of 45rad/min2 each second during an interval of 10 seconds,
through how many revolutions does it rotate in this time ?

Solution:

ω = 3r.p.s t=10s α= 45rad/min2, in each second = 45× ( )

1
60
= 0.75sec

ωo = 2πω = 2πx3 = 6π, N is number of revolutions

Now ω = ωo + αt = 6π + 0.75×10 = 26.35rad/s

44
Angular displacement at interval of 10 sec

2 2
ω - ωo = 2αθ

(26.35)2- (6π)2
⇒θ = = 22rad
2x0.75

1rev = 2πrad = 360°

226rad
N= = 35.97
2πrad

Example 4.7
A wheel is spinning at 5000rev/min, what constant acceleration must hit to come
to rest in 4s, (i.e. deceleration)
Solution:
5000x2πrad
ωo= 5000rev/min = = 523.7rad/s
60
α=? t=4s ω=0
ω = ω0 + αt ⇒ ω0 = -αt
-ωo -523.7 2
∴α = = = -130.9rad/s
t 4
Radial Acceleration
2
mv
Centripetal force f = , but v = rω,
r
2 2
mr ω
f = ma = -----------------------------------------4.19
r

2
a = ω r (centripetal or radial acceleration) ------------4.20

Example 4.8

m= 4kg R=100cm =1m v=30m/s find the ω and f

45
Solution:

2
mv
v = rω And f =
r

30
ω = rω = = 30rad/s
1

2 2
mv 4×30
f= = = 4×900 = 3600N
r 1

Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M)

Simple harmonic motion: if a body moves in straight line, such that its
acceleration is always directed toward fixed point in the line and is proportional
to its distance from the fixed point is known as a simple harmonic motion.
Examples are pendulum, spring, loaded test tube, up and down motion of a mass
suspended by an elastic string, piston of an engine e cetera.
Important Term Related to S.H.M
2π
 Period T : time taken to complete one full circle T =
ω
 Amplitude : maximum displacement of a body from its rest position
 Frequency : number of circle / oscillation completed in one second
I ω
f= = .
T 2π

Velocity and Acceleration of a Particle Moving In S.H.M.

Let consider a particle moving around the circumference of a circle

Y
46
 A ω
B
θ
r
θ
D
c X
0
x

Fig. 4.6 a particle performing a SHM

When the particle moves from A to B in time t to make angle θ, the projection
displacement is;
x = 0D = rsin θ But θ = ωt
⇒ x = rsin ωt --------------------------------4.21
Velocity of projection at a distance x from 0 is obtain by differentiating the
displacement x with respect to time
dy
= vx = ωrcosωt
dt
D
but cosθ = ⇒ rcosθ = D,
r
vx = ωD ----------------------------------------4.22

From Pythagoras theorem in fig 4.7 below

B

0 D

Fig. 4.7 Triangle OBD

2 2 2 2 2
Gives r = x + D ⇒D = r -x

Substitute D in equation 4.22

2 2
∴ vx = ω r -x -----------------------------------------------4.23
47
Acceleration/Retardation in SHM
The acceleration is obtained by differentiating the velocity with respect to time;

dvx 2
ax = = -ω rsin ωt ----------------------------------------4.24
dx

The –ve is indicating that the particle is under retardation.

Since x = rsin ωt from equation 4.21

ax a
, but ω = 2πf then ω = (2πf)2 = x
2 2 2
∴ ax = ω x ⇒ ω =
x x

ax 1 ax
⇒2πf = ⇒ f= --------------------------------------------4.25
x 2π x

1 displacement
since T = ⇒ T = 2π x/ax = 2π ------------------------4.26
f acceleration

Example 4.9

The amplitude of a body moving in a SHM is 0.6m and its period is 2.4 second.
Find v and a after 0.5seconds

Solution:

A= r =0.6m, T = 2.4seconds

2π 2π π
T= ⇒ω = = rad/s
ω T 1.2

Velocity after 0.5 second

vx = ωrcosωt =
π
1.2
×0.6cos (
180
1.2 )
× 0.5 = 0.4m/s

( ) ( )
2
2 π 180 2
ax = -ω rsinwt = - ×0.6sin ×0.5 = 8m/s
1.2 1.2

Example 4.10

A SHM oscillator takes 12second to undergo five complete vibrations find

a. The period of its motion

48
 b. The frequency in hertz

c. The angular frequency in radians per second

Solution:

12
a. T = = 2.4sec
5

1 1
b. F = = = 0.416Hz
T 2.4

2π 2π
c. ω = = = 2.61rad/s
T 2.4

Example 4.11

The position of a particle is given by the expression x = 4cos (3πt + π) where x

is in meters and t is in second determined

a. Frequency

b. Period of the motion

c. The amplitude of the moment

d. The phase angle

e. The position of the particle at t=0.250seconds

Solution:

Compare x = 4cos (3πt + t) with equation 4.21

x = 4cos (3πt+π) = Acos (ωt + ∅) ---------------------------------4.27

a. ω = 2πf but from 4.27 ω = 3π = 2πf

3
⇒f = Hz
2

1 2
b. T = = sec
f 3

c. A = r = 4m

49
 d. Phase angle ∅ = π

e. x = 4cos (3πt+π) = 4cos (3π×0.250+π) = 4cos (315) = 2.83m

Exercise 4
1. A circular ring of mass M and radius r is rotating about its axis with a
constant angular velocity ω. Two objects, each of mass m, are attached
gently to the opposite ends of a diameter of the ring. Show that the ring
now rotates with angular velocity of. Ans: ωM/(M + 2m)

2. A mass M attached to a spring oscillates with a period of 2s. If the mass is

increased by 2kg the period increases by one sec. Find the initial mass M
assuming that Hooke’s law is obeyed. Ans: M = 1.6kg

3. A riffle that shoots bullets at 460m/s is to be aimed at a target 45.7m

away. If the center of the target is level with the riffle , how high above the
target must the riffle barrel be pointed so that the bullet hits dead center.
Ans: 4.84cm

4. A football kicker can give the ball an initial speed of 25m/s. What are the
(a) least
(b) greatest elevation angles at which he can kick the ball to score a field
goal from a point 50m in front of the goalposts whose horizontal bar is
0 o
3.44m above the ground? Ans(a) 31 (b) 63

5. A diver makes 2.5 revolutions on the way from a 10-m-high platform to the
water. Assuming zero initial vertical velocity, the average angular velocity
during the dive is? Ans: 11rad/ses

50
Introduction to Dynamics
Kinematics as we discuss in chapter one deals with only the effect of force i.e.
motion, but in kinetics deals with the relationship between motion and the forces
is define by the laws of dynamics. Among other laws, Newton’s law of motion is
most prominent.

Important terms

 Mass: its defined s the matter contained in a body, its expressed in

kilogram etc.

 Weight: it’s the force by which the body is attracted towards the centre of
the earth, its expressed in N, KN etc. or a magnitude of a gravitational force
(g).

 Momentum : it’s the quantity of a motion possessed by a body moving in a

straight line, it’s the product of mass and velocity of the body, i.e.
momentum P= mv and it has a unit of kgm/s

 Force: its define as an agent which produced or tends to produce, destroys

or tends to destroy motion, its expressed in N etc.

 Inertia: it’s the reluctant (resistance) to a body to change in its state of rest
or uniform motion.

Newton’s Laws of Motion (Dynamics)

In 1688 Isaac Newton states the following three laws of motion; the laws are
stated as follows:

First law:

It states that: “Everybody continues in it state of rest or uniform motion, in a

straight line, unless it is acted upon by some external force to change that state”.

51
This law is called law of inertial, since inertial is the reluctant of a body to start or
stop moving.

An experimental demonstration of the law is when a body moves in horizontal

surface, there is always the force of friction and air resistance acting on the body
which bring it to rest after some time, if to say this force is absent the body
would have gone on moving in a straight line with uniform velocity indefinitely, a
partial demonstration is that the smoother the surface the longer will be the
distance travelled by the body.

Second law:

It state that: “The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to

the applied force and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the
force acts”.

This law enables us to measure a force and establish the fundamental equation
of dynamics.

Let.

m= mass of a body

u = initial velocity

v= final velocity

a= constant acceleration

t = time required to change velocity from u to v.

Initial momentum = mu

Final momentum = mv

52
Change in momentum of a body = mv - mu

dP
Rate at change of momentum of a body =
dt

dP mv-mu m(v-u)
⇒ = = = ma -------------------------------------------------5.1
dt t t

v-u
Since a =
t

dP
∴ ∝ ma
dt

dP
= kma But k = 1
dt

dP
We can write = ma = F-----------------------------------------------------------5.2
dt

From equation 5.2 dP = madt

Integrating both side

⇒∫dP = ∫madt = ma∫dt

P = mat, But v = at

P = mv --------------------------------------------------------------------5.3

⃗ ⃗
In term of force, F net = m a ------------------------------------------------------5.4

Like other vector quantities equation 5.4 is equivalent to 3- component equation,

one for each axis of an XYZ coordinate system.

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
F net, x = m a x; F net, y = m a y, and F net, z = m a z, -----------------------------5.5

⃗
In the case of more than one force acting on a body, F net is same as the vector

53
 ⃗ ⃗
sum of all the force. The net force will also be given as ( F net = m a );

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
F 1 + F 2 + F 3……………….. + F n = F net ---------------------------------5.6

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
F net = m1 a 1 + m2 a 2 + m3 a 3 + ……………… + mn a n

⃗ ⃗
⇒ F net = ∑ni=1mi a i ------------------------------------------------------5.7

Third law:

It state that:”To every action there is equal and opposite reaction”.

Action means the force, which a body exerts on another, where as reaction
means the equal and opposite force, which a second body exerts on the first i.e.
when a horse draws a stone tied by a rope the horse will be equally drawn back
towards the stone.

Example 5.1
2
A horse pulls a cart of mass 500kg and produces an accelerator of 4m/s , find
the force exerted by the horse

Solution:
2
M=500kg a= 4m/s

F=ma = 500x4 = 2000N.

Example 5.2

A body of mass 200kg is found to move with a velocity of 20m/s when a force of
100N acts on it for 90s. Determine the velocity of the body:

i. When the force act in the direction of motion

ii. When the force acts in the opposite direction of the motion.

54
Solution:

M=200kg u=20m/s F= 100N t=90S

F 100 2
F = ma ⇒a = = = 0.5m/s
m 200

i. When acts in the direction of the motion a = 0.5m/s2

v = u + at = 20 + 0.5(90) = 70m/s

ii. Acts in opposite direction a = -0.5m/s2

v = u - at = 20 - 0.5(90) = -20m/s

Example 5.3

A body of mass 150kg has its velocity changed from 10m/s to 20m/s in the
same direction in 50s find

i. Change in the momentum

ii. Force responsible for this change

Solution

M=150kg u=10m/s v=20m/s t=50s

i. Change in momentum

∆P = m(v-u) = 150(20-10) = 150×10 = 1500kg

ii. Force responsible for the change

F = ma = m ( )
v-u
t
= 150 (
20-10
50 )
= 3×10 = 30N

Example 5.4

The weight of the body on earth is 490N, if the acceleration due to gravity on
earth is 9.8m/s2. What will be the weight of the body on (a) The moon where the

55
gravitational acceleration is 1.4m/s2 and (b) The sun where g =270m/s2
Solution:
w = mg Since w=490N given
w 490
⇒m = = = 50kg
g 9.81
a. Weight of the body on moon g =1.4m/s2
w = mg = 50×1.4 = 70N.

b. Weight of the body in the sun g =270m/s2

w = mg = 50×270= 13800N.
Example 5.5
A 20kg create hang at the end of a long rope, find its acceleration when the
tension in the rope is 250N.
Solution:

20k Fig 5.1 A suspended create

w = mg

∑Fy=may ⇒T - w = ma

∴ 250 - 20(9.81) = 20a

2
a = 2.7m/s ∴ We take the right direction, since our answer is positive

Law of Conservation of Momentum

The law conservation of momentum state that: The total momentum of two
bodies remain constant after their collision or any other mutual action.
Consider fig. 5.4 below;

v1
m1
A u1
56
 A

B u2
Collisio
m2 v2
After
Before

Fig. 5.4 Two Balls Collides with each other

From fig. 5.4, let us take a case of collision of two balls A and B before collision
balls A, of mass m1 moving with velocity u1, and B of mass m2 moving with
velocity u2, after the collision the ball A has final velocity v1 and B has final
velocity v2 we can say;

Momentum before collision;

For A = m1u1

For B = m2u2

Total momentum for A and B before collision = m1u1 + m2u2 --------------------5.14

Momentum after collision;

For A = m1v1

For B = m2v2

Total momentum for A and B after collision = m1v1 + m2v2 --------------------5.15

The law of conservation of momentum requires that;

Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ---------------------------------------------5.16

57
Collision
Collision is defined as the striking of two particles with each other, in this
process the initial momentum of two particles allow them to approach each
other and make a direct physical contact. After very long short time interval, the
colliding objects move away from each other. There are some conditions for
collision to occur, as follows;

1. A large force most act for a very short time interval

2. The motion of at least one of the particle must change suddenly

3. The momentum of the particles must be conserved.

The body which rebounds to a greater height is said to be more elastics than a
body which rebounds to a lesser height, while body which does not rebound at all
after the impact is called an inelastic body.

1.1.1 Terms associated with collision

 Restitution: when collision the bodies tend to compress each other
immediately after this they try to regain their original shapes due to
elasticity, this is known as restitution.

 Time of restitution: time taken by the bodies to regain to there original

shapes after the compression.

 Time of compression: time taken by bodies to compress

 Time of collision: is the sum of time of restitution and compression also

called as period of impact.

Types of collision
1. Perfectly elastics collision: whenever a collision takes place in which
the total kinetic energy (K.E) is conserved is called perfectly elastic
collision.

2. In elastic collision: If there is loss of K.E of the whole system due to

formation of heat, sound, light etc. is known as in elastic collision.
58
Example 5.7

A ball of mass 8kg moving with a velocity of 10m/s, collide directly on another of
mass 24kg, moving at speed of 2m/s in opposite direction. Find the velocity of
the ball after impact, if e=1/2.

Solution:

u1=10m/s u2=2m/s

m1= 8kg m2= 24kg

Fig 5.7 Two bodies collides in opposite direction

Using the law of conservation of momentum

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

8×10 + 24×(-2) = 8v1 + 24v2

80 – 48 = 8v1 + 24v2

32=8v1 + 24v2

v1+3v2 = 4 ----------------------------------------5.37

According to the Newton’s law of impact

v1 - v2 = -e(u1 - u2)

1
v2 - v1 = (10 - ( - 2))
2

⇒ v2 - v1 = 6 --------------------------------------5.38

Solving equation 5.36 and 5.37 simultaneously gives;

v2 =2.5m/s and v1 = -3.5m/s

59
Example 5.8

Two cars approaching each other at right angle collide and stick together, one
car has mass of 1200kg and a speed of 30km/h in positive x direction before the
collision, and the second has a mass of 1500kg and was travelling in positive y
direction. After the collision the two cars moves up at an angle of 64o to the x
axis what was the speed of the second car?

Solution:
y

P = m2u 2 (m2+m1)
m2 =1500kg
(m2+m1)vsin64°
m1 = 1200kg
6
x
P = m1u1 (m2+m1)vcos64°

Fig 5.8 example on an oblique collision

Considering fig 5.8, momentum along x-axis

m1u1 = (m2+m1)vcos64°--------------------------------------------------5.39

Momentum along y axis

m2u2 = (m2+m1)vsin64°---------------------------------------------------5.40

From equation 5.39

60
 m1u1 1200×30
v= = = 30.4km/hr
(m2+m1)cos64° (1500+1200)×30.4×0.4383
Substituting v in equation 5.40 we have:

u2 =
(m2+m1)vsin64° =
(1500+1200)×30.4×0.8987
= 49km/hr
m2 1500

Example 5.9

A 1500kg car travelling eat with a speed of 25m/s collide at an intersection with
a 2500kg truck traveling worth at a speed of 20m/s. find the direction and
magnitude of the velocity of the wreckage after the collision assuming the
vehicle stick together after collision.

Solution: N

m1+m2

θ
W 25m/ E

1500kg
20
m/ 2500kg
s
S

Fig 5.9 an indirect collision example for two cars

Resolving the momentum P in fig 5.9 along the X and Y axis we get:

∆Px = 0, ∑Pxi = ∑Pxp = m1u1 = (m1 + m2)vfcos θ---------------------------5.41

61
∆Py = 0, ∑Pyi = ∑Pyp = m2u2 = (m1 + m2)vfsin θ----------------------5.42

Dividing equation 5.42 by 5.41,

(m1+m2)Vfsin θ mu 20×2500
⇒ = 2 2 = tan θ = = 0.75
(m1+m2)Vfcos θ m1u1 25×1500

-1
⇒θ = tan 0.75 = 53.1°

And to get the final velocity we substitute θ in either equation 5.41 or 5.42 to get
Vf

m2u2 20×2500 50000

∴ Vf = = = = 15.65m/s
(m1+m2)sin θ (1500+2500)sin 53.1 3194.5

Impulse
This is the change of momentum of an object, is the integral of a force with
respect to time, for which it acts. Impulse is a vector quantity and the impulse
applied to an object produces an equivalent vector change in its linear
momentum. Impulse is symbolized by J or Imp.

∆P = F∆t = J --------------------------------------------------------------------5.43

Friction
The force of friction may be defined as the opposing force which is called into
play in between the surface of contact of two bodies, when one body moves over
the surface of another.

R= normal reaction

F = Applied Force

Ff = Frictional Force
w = mg

62
 Fig 5.10 A force applied on a bon on a floor

TYPES OF FRICTION
 Friction of un lubricated surface i.e. sliding friction and rolling friction

 Friction of lubricated surface i.e. greasy friction and viscous friction

In this sub chapter we are going with friction of un-lubricated surface.

 Static Friction: the static friction is the friction offered by the surfaces
subjected to external force until there is no motion between them.

 Dynamic Friction: this is the friction experience by a body

 when is in motion, it is also known as kinetic friction and is always less

than the static friction, dynamic friction is 40 - 70% limiting static
friction.

 Limiting Friction: this is the force required to just start the object sliding
over the surface of other body.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
Coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of frictional force to the normal
reaction between the bodies, denoted by μ.

F
Then μ = ⇒F = μR------------------------------------------------5.44
R

Where µs = coefficient of static friction and µk = coefficient of dynamic

friction.

Example 5.10

A wooden create of mass 100kg at rest on wooden floor, a force is applied to

start, it sliding at an angle of 30o if µs = 0.4

i. What is the force that will start it sliding

63
 ii. If the create is pulled along a constant speed V and force required to
maintain is 330N applied at 30o to the horizontal, what will be µ at the
speed v?

Solution:
R

F 30o fy = fsin θ

fx = fcos θ
w = mg

Fig. 5.11 wooden create pulled by applied force

i. At equilibrium from the figure ∑fy = (vertical component)

fy = fsin θ = fsin 30 = 0.5f

∑fy = R + fsin 30 - w = 0 --------------------------------------5.45

⇒ R + fsin 30 - w = 0

R = 980 - 0.5f -----------------------------------------------5.46

Horizontal components ∑fy = 0

FL = μR = fcos θ --------------------------------------------5.47

Substitute 5.46 into 5.47

μs(980-0.5f) = fcos 30 But μs = 0.4 (given)

0.4×980 - (0.4×0.5×f) = 0.8660f

392 = 0.8660f + 0.2f = 1.06f

392
⇒f = = 369.8N
1.06

iii. Constant v⇒ax = 0 and ∑fy = 0

64
 ∴ fcos 30 - μdR = 0

fcos 30 369.8×0.8660 320

⇒μd = = = = 0.33
R 100×9.81 981

Incline Plane
The coefficient of limiting or static friction µs can be found in an inclined plane
as shown below i.e. when placing a block on a plane surface.

R FL

mgsin θ mgcos θ
mgsin θ
θ w = mg

Fig 5.12 a body on an Incline Plane

The normal reaction R of the surface and the limiting force FL, which prevents
the block from slopping, these forces are at equilibrium, and we can resolve
the w into components:

At equilibrium the sum force = 0 (parallel components)

FL - mgsin θ - ma = 0 ButFL = μR

If a = 0 then FL - mgsin θ = 0

μR = mgsin θ -------------------------------------------5.48

Also the sum of perpendicular forces =0

R - mgcos θ = 0

⇒R = mgcos θ----------------------------------------------------------------5.49

Dividing 5.48 by 5.49 we get

65
 mgsin θ μR
=
mgcos θ R

⇒tan θ = μ ----------------------------------------------------------5.50

Example 5.11

A 8kg box is released on a 30o inclined and accelerates down the inclined at
0.03m/s2 find dynamic frictional force Fd and coefficient of dynamic friction µd.

Solution:

m=8kg θ=30° a = 0.3m/s

Consider Fig 5.12 above, with mass sliding down the inclined plane. The sum
of forces parallel to the plane is equals to the mass of the box and
acceleration of the box.

∑F ||
= mgsin θ - fd = ma||

⇒8×9.81×sin 30° - fd = 8×0.3

∴ fd = 39.24 - 2.4 = 36.84N

To find μd

fd 36.24 36.24
fd = μdR ⇒R = = = = 0.54
μd mgcos θ 8×9.81×cos 30

Conservation of angular momentum

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
The angular momentum is defined as L = r × p ----------------------------------------5.51

⃗
Where L = angular momentum of particle

“The angular momentum of a particle is conserved if and only if the net external
torque acting on a plane is zero”.

66
The torque which is the moment of force around a reference point is equal to the
rate of change of angular momentum of particle about the same reference point.
The angular momentum of a particle is conserve if the total torque applies in the
particle is equal to zero.

⃗
dL ⃗
Torque is define as the rate of change of angular momentum τ = --------------
dt
-5.52

Exercise 5
1. A body of mass of mass 500kg, initially at rest, is acted upon by a force of
200N. Find the velocity of the body after the force has been acting for 5sec.
And the distance through which the body the body will travel in these 5sec.
Ans: 2m/s; 5m

2. An elevator is required to lift a body of mass 65kg. Find the acceleration of the
2
elevator, which could cause a pressure of 800N on the floor. Take g=9.8m/s .
2
Ans: a=2.5m/s

3. A ball is dropped from a height of 25m upon a horizontal floor. Find the
coefficient of restitution between the floor and the ball, if it rebound to a
height of 16m. Ans: 0.8

4. A ball of mass 1kg moving with a velocity of 2m/s, strike directly on another
ball of mass 2kg at rest. The first ball after striking comes to rest. Find the
velocity of the second ball after striking and the coefficient of restitution. Ans:
1m/s, 0.5

5. A body which weights 100N rest on a horizontal plane, the coefficient of

friction between the body and the plane being 0.1. Find the force, which
acting at 30o to the horizontal will just move the body. Ans: 10.92

67
WORK
In mechanics work means accomplishment, a force is said to have done work if
it moves the body on which it acts, through certain distance.

Work is measured by the product of force (f) and displacement (s) both being in

68
the same direction.

Work = force x displacement in the direction of force = F×s ----------------6.1

Work has a unit of joule or Nm, That is (1j = 1Nm). If the force is acting an angle
θ to the direction of displacement as shown in fig 6.1 below

w = fcos θ×s = fscos θ --------------------------------------6.2

θ
Fcos θ

Fig 6.1 A body pushed by a force F on a horizontal surface

Example 6.1
A trolley of mass 225kg moves on a level track for a distance of 250cm if the
resistance of the track is 200N. Find the work done in moving the trolley.
Solution:
w = f×s = 200×250 = 50000N
6.1 Work done

1
ds = r1 - r2
r1
2
r2

Fig 6.2 body moving from point 1 to 2

Let us consider a particle of mass m moving under the influence of an external

force f, the work done when moving from 1 to 2 can be;

w12 = ∫21f.ds --------------------------------------------------6.3

2
dv ⃗
w12 =
∫ 1
m
dt
.ds but v = ds/dt

∫ mvdv = m∫ vdv = m( 2 v )|
2 2 2
dv 1
∫
2 2
∴ m .vdt =
1
dt 1 1
1

1 2 1 2 1 2
⇒w12 = mv2 × mv1 But T = mv
2 2 2

69
⇒w12 = T2-T1 ------------------------------------------6.4

Therefore work done by the particle in moving from point 1 to 2 is equal to the
difference in K.E of the two particle, that is work done is independent of path
taking by the particle. If the path is a close loop (∮ds) then the work done is zero.

A force F acting on a particle A is said to be conservative if its work w12 is

independent of the path followed by the particle A as it moves from 1 to 2 as
shown in fig. 6.2 above. where non conservative force depend on the path follow
by the particle A.

Power
Power is defined as rate of doing work. If an agent perform w units of work in t
seconds, then

power =
work done
time
=
w
t
=
f×s
t
=f
s
t ()
= fv-------------------------------------6.5

The S.I unit of power is watt equal to 1N.m/s

Energy
The energy of a body is its capacity of doing work,
The unit of energy is same as that of work; the energy may exist in the following
form.
 Mechanical energy

 Electrical energy

 Light energy

 Heat energy

 Chemical energy

 Sound energy etc

Each one of the above energies is convertible to another form, in mechanics we

are only concern with mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy
A body may possess any or both of the following types of energies

1. Potential energy

70
 2. Kinetic energy

 Potential energy (P.E): the energy which a body possesses by virtue of its
position or configuration is called potential energy. Example: if a body of
mass m is raised through a height h above a level, then work done in its
mgh and this is stored in the body as potential energy P.E = mgh ---------------
--------------------------6.6

 Kinetic energy (K.E): the energy which a body possesses by virtue of its
motion is called K.E it is measured by the amount of work required to be
done to bring the body to rest.

Let a body of mass m moving with velocity v be brought to rest by the application
of constant force f which causes a retardation ‘a’ if ‘s’ be the distance through
which the body moves in this period

K.E = work done by force = f×s = (m×a)×s-------------------6.7

2 2
But v = u + 2as (previous)

Sincev = u and a = -a in this case

2
2 v
⇒v = 2as or s =
2a

Substitute s in equation 6.7

2 2
v mv
∴ K.E = (m×a)× = ---------------------------------------------6.8a
2a 2

2 2
v -u
Also; = as
2

m(v -u )
2 2
1 2 1 2
⇒K.E = m(as) = = mv - mu
2 2 2

1 2 1 2
f.s = mv - mu --------------------------------------------6.9
2 2

71
 dv
If the force is variable: f = m v ,
ds

Work done by f in moving a very small distance ds is -fds

dv 1 2
Then K.E = -∫fds = -∫mv ds= - ∫0vmvdv = mv ----------6.8b
ds 2
Example 6.2
A bullet of mass 0.08kg moving with a velocity of 250m/s is fired into a block of
wood and gets embedded in it to a depth of 0.2m. What will be the resistance
offered by the wood?
Solution:
Loss of K.E of bullet = work done by resistance
1 2
mv = fR × s
2
1 2
× 0.08 ×(250) = fR×0.2,
2
0.08×62500
⇒fR = = 12500N
2×0.2

Law of conservation of energy

This law states that: The total amount of energy in the universe is constant;
energy cannot be created or destroyed but it may be converted into various
forms”

Proof of law of conservation of energy

Let a body of mass ‘m’ be lifted from the ground to a position A, so that it is at a
height ‘h’
above the ground

w y

C h

w
h-y
72
 B

Fig 6.3 A ball falling from height h under gravity

 Energy at A: Since the body is at rest at A, P.E at A = mgh and K.E at A =

0

Total energy at A= mgh + 0 = mgh ---------------------------------------6.10a

 Energy at C: When the body is allowed to fall it begins to move, thus

acquiring K.E so P.E at C = mg(h - y) ------------------------------------------------------
6.11

Let v be the velocity when the body reaches point C, therefore

2 2
v - u = 2aS but u = 0, s = y, a = g
2
⇒v = 2gy

1 2 1
K.E at C = mv = m(2gy) = mgy -----------------------------------------6.12
2 2

Hence total energy at C will be equal to

C = mg(h-y) + mgy = mgh - mgy + mgy = mgh (Same as at A)----6.10b

That is part of P.E is converted to K.E but the sum of two energies is the same.

 Energy at B: When the body reaches B y = h

P.E at B = mg(h-y) = mg(h-h) = 0

K.E at B = mgy = mgh ------------------------------------6.10c

Total = 0 + mgh = mgh or wh, since w = mg ----------6.13

Example 6.3

A body of mass 5kg is thrown up vertically with a velocity of 9.8m/s what its K.E

i. At the moment of propulsion (pushing forward)

ii. After half second

iii. After one second

73
 g=9.8m/s2

Solution:

1 2 1
i. K.E = mv = × 5 × (9.8)2 = 240.1 Nm
2 2

ii. v = u - gt = 4.985m/s

1 2
K.E = mv = 59.9Nm
2

iii. After 1 second

⇒ v = u - gt = 9.8 - 9.81×1 = 0, thus K.E = 0.

Example 6.4

A ball weighting 4.5N is thrown with a velocity of 20m/s it first touches the
ground and then bumps up. It loses 30Nm of energy when it touches the ground,
what is the velocity after it bumps?
Solution:
w
w = 4.5N, v = 20m/s, loss of energy= 30Nm Note: m =
g
1 w
K.E of the balls before it touches the ground = × ×
2 g
2 1 4.5 2
v = × ×20 = 91.71Nm
2 9.81
K.E after the bumps = 91.71-30 = 61.74Nm
Let v1 be the velocity of the ball after the bump then,
1 w 2
K.E of the ball after the bump = × ×v1
2 g
1w 2 2 61.74×g×2
⇒ v1 = 61.74 ∴ v1 =
2g w
61.74x2x9.81
⇒ v1 = = 16.41m/s
4.5
Example 6.5
A particle moving in x-y plane undergoes a displacement given by
⃗ ⃗
∆ r = (2.0i + 5j)m as a constant force of F = (5i+2j)N acts on the particle
calculate the work done by F’ on the particle.

74
Solution:

⃗
w = F×∆ r = [(5i+2j)∙(2.0i+3j)] = [(5∙2)i∙i+(2∙3)j∙j] = 16Nm

Example 6.6

A 6kg block initially at rest is pulled to the right angle along a frictionless,
horizontal surface by a constant horizontal force of magnitude 12N. Find the
block speed after it has moved through a horizontal distance of 3.0m

Solution:

vf
⃗
F

w = mg ∆x

Fig. 6.4 A block pulled from one point to another

w = ∆k = kf - ki But is at rest ⇒ui = 0

2
mv 1 2 1 2 1 2
w= - o = mv Where kf = mvf and ki = mui
2 2 2 2

2w 2fdx
vf = = ⇒ vf = 3.5m/s
m m

Energy in a Pendulum
In a simple pendulum with no friction, mechanical energy is always conserved.
As the pendulum swings back and forth, there is a constant exchange between
K.E and gravitational P. With a total energy of;

E = K.E + P.E -----------------------------------------------------6.14

Potential Energy
The potential energy of the pendulum can be given as normal P.E of equation
6.10 as
P.E = mgh, all terms have their usual meaning.
However the pendulum is constrained by the rod or string and is not in free
fall, thus we must express the height in terms of θ the angle, L the length of the
pendulum. Thus from Fig 6.5 below;

75
 h = L(1 - cos θ) -------------------------------------------------------6.15
Ceiling

L L Lcos θ

Fig. 6.5 A pendulum suspended in a Ceiling

When θ = 90o the pendulum is at its highest since cos90 = 0

P.E = mgh = mgL(1 - cos θ) ----------------------------------------6.16

When θ = 0, P.E = mgl(0) = 0

Kinetic Energy
2
mv
The K.E would be (K.E = ) as in equation 6.8, at highest point the pendulum
2
is motionless. All the energy is gravitational potential energy and there is no
kinetic energy at lowest point, the pendulum has its greatest speed, all energy
now is K.E. However the total energy now is constant as a function of time, but if
there is friction we have a damped pendulum which exhibits damped harmonic
motion.

Damped harmonic motion: illustrating the position against time of object moving
in S.H.M. In small damped, the amplitude decrease slowly over time, the damping
force is directly proportion to quantity slightly less than the square of the body’s
velocity.

All of the mechanical energy eventually becomes other forms of energy such as
heat or sound.

Motion of an Object Attached to a Spring

When a spring is neither stretched nor compresses the block is at rest

76
 a

Fig 6.6 A spring (a) Stretch (b) at rest/ equilibrium (c) compress

From Hooke’s law which states that ‘’the force F needed to extend or compress a
spring by some distance x is proportional to that distance’’. As shown in figure
6.6 above

Mathematically fR = -kx --------------------------------------6.19

Where fR is known as restoring force, considering the force along x-axis we have:

∑f x
= max→ - kx = max

kx
thus ax = - ----------------------------------------------------6.20
m
2
dx kx 2
Also 2 = ax = - , And also ax = -ω x (previous)
dt m

kx 2
∴ - = -ω x
m

k
⇒ω = --------------------------------------------------------6.21
m

Example 6.7

A 200g block connected to a spring for which the force constant is 5N/m is free
to oscillate in a frictionless horizontal surface. The block is displaced 5cm and
released from rest find the period of the motion.

Solution:

77
 k 5
w= = = 25 = 5 rad/s
m 0.2

2π 2×3.142
T= = = 1.26s
ω 5

Energy in Simple harmonic Motion S.H.M

The total energy in S.H.M is the sum of kinetic and potential energies as:

1 2 1 2 2 2
K.E = mv = mω A cos ωt, where v = ωAcosωt (Previous)
2 2

And the elastic potential energy stored in the spring for any elongation x is

2
kx 1 2 2
U= = kA sin ωt, where x = Asinωt (Previous)
2 2

1 2 2 2 1 2 2
Total Energy E = K.E + P.E = mω A cos ωt + kA sin ωt -------------6.22
2 2

2 k
From equation 6.21 ω = substitute in 6.22
m

1 k 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2
⇒E = m A cos ωt + kA sin ωt = kA (cos ωt + sin ωt)
2 m 2 2

2 2
But cos ωt + sin ωt = 1 (from trigonometry)

1 2
∴E = kA -----------------------------------------6.23
2

Exercise 6
3
1. A train of mass 500×10 kg starts from rest and accelerate uniformly to a
speed of 90km/hr in 50 sec. The total frictional resistance to motion is
15kN. Determine: (i) The maximum power required (ii) The power require
to maintain the speed of 90km/hr. Ans: (i) 6.625MW (ii) 375kW

2. A block of wood of weight 1600N is placed on a smooth inclined plane

78
 which makes an angle of 30o with the horizontal. Find the work done in
pulling the block up for a length of 5m. Ans: 400Nm

3. A hammer of mass 1500kg drops from a height of 0.6m on a pile of mass

750kg. Find the depth of penetration of the pile into the ground, if the
average resistance of the ground is 140kN. Ans: 50mm

4. A worker pushes a wheelbarrow with a horizontal force of 50 N on level

ground over a distance of 5.0 m. If a friction force of 43 N acts on the
wheelbarrow in a direction opposite that of the worker, what work is done
on the wheelbarrow by the worker? Ans: 10 J
5. A 2 100-kg pile driver is used to drive a steel I-beam into the ground. The
pile driver falls 5.00 m before coming into contact with the top of the beam,
and it drives the beam 12.0 cm farther into the ground before coming to
rest. Using energy considerations, calculate the average force the beam
exerts on the pile driver while the pile driver is brought to rest. Ans: 878kN
up

79
Rigid body
A rigid body is a system of mass points under constraints, such that the distance
between any pair of point remains always constant at any instant of time, a rigid
body does not change its shape or size due to application of force.

r1

θ
m1

v1

Fig. 7.1 A rigid body with mass m rotating about fixed axis O

From fig.7.1 above

v1 = rω (Previous)

1 2 1 2 2
K.E = m1v1 = m1r1ω1 -----------------------------------------7.1
2 2

Moment of Inertia
Is define as product of the mass of the body and square of the distance of the
body from a fixed line, and it’s denoted as I.

If I = mass moment of inertia

m1,m2,m3,…………….mn = Are masses of various element of a body

And r1,r2,r3,…………….rn = Are distance of the element from the fixed line.
2 2 2 2
Then I=m1r1 + m2r2 + … + mnrn = ∑mr --------------------------------7.2
Suppose a rigid body of masses m1,m2,m3,…………….mn is rotating about a fixed
axis O.
The total kinetic energy K.E
80
K.E = K.E1 + K.E2 + K.E3+ ------------+K.En
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
K.E = m1r1ω1 + m2r2ω2+ ----------------+ mnrnωn
2 2 2
1 2 n 1 2
ω (∑i=1miiri ) = Iω --------------------7.3
2
K.E =
2 2
1 2 2
K.E = Iω Where I = ∑miri
2
Example 7.1
Find the moment of inertia of a system show in fig 7.2 below
|
i. Along axis pp
ii. Along axis perpendicular to point of intersection of the two road
connecting the masses
|
P

2kg

1m

2kg 3kg

2m 2m

1m
1k
P

Fig 7.2 A systems of rods with masses at end

Solution:
i. About axis pp| is
2 2 2 2 2
I = ∑4i=1miri = m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + m4r4

I = (1kg)(0)2 + 3×2 + 2×0 + 2×2

2 2 2

2
I = 20kgm

2 2 2 2
ii. I = m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + m4r4

81
 2 2 2 2
I = 1×1 + 3×2 + 2×1 + 2×2

2
I = 23kgm

Moment of Inertia of Uniform rod

The moment of inertia of a uniform rod about an axis through its certain

x dx

Q
Fig 7.3 A uniform rod rotates about its center
Length of rod =L

Mass of rod =M

The mass is uniformly distributed along the whole length of the rod.

M
λ = mass per unit lenght = --------------------------7.4
L

dx = lenght of small element

82
 M
Mass of small element dm = λdx = dx.
L

The small element is distant x from the axis passing through the center of the
rod.

2
Therefore the moment of inertia of the small element is I = mx

For small element

2 M
dI = dmx where dm = dx
L

Integrating both sides we get the moment of inertia for the whole rod about
an axis through it centre which is twice one side.

|
L
L 3 2
M 2 2M 2L 2 2M x 2 ML
I = 2∫ x dx=
2 ∫0 x dx= [ = ---------------------------7.5
L 0 L L 3 0 12

Moment of inertia of a rod about an axis through one end

L

Fig 7.4 a rod rotating through one end

2
ML
Is given as I = ------------------------------------------------7.6
3

Moment of inertia of a ring

2
The moment of inertia of small element I = Mr ----7.7

M r
c = 2πr, λ= dx
2πr

Fig. 7.5 moment inertia of a ring

83
Moment of inertia of a circular disc

x
r

Fig 7.6 A circular disc with radius r

The moment of Inertia is given by:

2
Mr
I= ---------------------------------------------7.8
2

2 M
A = πr , σ= 2 surface charge density ---------------7.9
πr

dA = 2πxdx and dm = σdA

Moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about the axis of symmetry

1 2
I = Ma ---------------------------------------------------------7.10
2

Where a = radius of the cylinder

Moment of inertia for a solid sphere about an axis through it centre

2 2
I = Mr -----------------------------------------------7.11
5

Where r is the radius of the sphere

Radius of Gyration
Is defined as the distance from the axis of the reference where the entire mass
of the body is

assumed to be concentrated

K
c. at

84
 c.m= center mass of the body

Fig. 7.7 A rigid body fixed at its c.m

If k is the distance from the given axis of a point where the whole mass of the
body is supposed to be concentrated then;
2 I
I = Mk ⇒k = , ----------------------------------------------------7.12
M
I= moment of inertia, M = total mass of body
In case of circular disc
2
Mr r
k= = ---------------------------------------------------------------7.13
2M 2
2
2Mr 2
Incase of solid sphere k = = r . ------------------------7.14
5M 5
Example 7.2

Find the moment of inertia of a rectangular body of side L and b about an axis
through one corner perpendicular to its plane.

Solution:

1 2
About the edge of length b is ML
3

1 2
About the edge of length L is Mb
3

Using perpendicular axis theorem

1 2 1 2 1 2 2
I = Ix + Iy = ML + Mb = M(L + b )
3 3 3

Example 7.3

A uniform homogeneous cylinder rolls without slip along a horizantal level

surface with a transitional velocity of 0.2m/s, if its mass is 0.1kg and radius is

85
0.1m what is its total K.E ?

Solution:

v 0.2
v = rω⇒ω = = = 2rad/s
r 0.1
2
mr 0.1×(0.1)2 2
Total moment of inertia ⇒ I = = = 0.0005kg/m
2 2
1 2 1 2 2
Total K.E = mv + Iw = 0.03kg/m
2 2
Example 7.4
A flywheel of mass 1500kg has a radius of gyration 1.2m find K.E when its
rotating at 250r.p.m, and the uniform torque which will be given the wheel this
speed in 100revolution.
Solution:
2
I = mk = 1500×(1.2)2 = 2160
2πN 250
ω= = 2π × = 26.18rad/s
60 60
1 2
K.E = Iw = 740223Nm
2
Also K.E = τθ and θ = 100rev = 100×2πrad
K.E 740223
τ= = = 1178Nm.
θ 200π

Moment of a Force
The product of a force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of
the force to the point, is known as the moment of force or torque about a point
e.g rotation of a door opening and closing the turning effect about the hinges,
water tap etc.

86
Parallel force
P R=P+Q Q

A C B

Fig 7.9 Two parallel force P and Q

The moment of R about C is zero, so the sum of moment about P and Q must be
zero.
P×AC = Q×BC ------------------------------------------------------7.17

Non Parallel force

R=P+Q P

B
C A

Fig 7.10 Two non Parallel forces P and Q

Taking moment about C we get P×AC = Q×BC

Principle of moments
d1 d2

F1 Pivot F2

Fig 7.11 A body suspended on a pivot with two parallel forces

Principle of Moment of Forces

i. For a system to be in equilibrium the clockwise moment must be equals
to the anti clockwise moment from the figure 7.11 above.

87
 Anticlock wise moment(ACWM) = F1×d1
Clock wise moment(CWM) = F2×d2
∴ ∑CWM=∑ACWM= F1×d1 = F2×d2 ------------------------------7.18
Similarly for action of several forces

R S

d1 d2 d3 d4

A B

F1 w F2

Fig 7.12 A body suspended on two pivots

The total ACWM of all the force about the pivot is equal to the total CWM of all
forces about the pivot.

∑CWM=∑ACWM

Taking a moment about A for each force:

F2(d2+d3+d4) + wd2 = S(d2+d3) + F1d1--------------------------------7.19

Also when an object is in equilibrium under the action of parallel force.

ii. Sum forces in one direction = sum of force in opposite direction

F1 + w + F2 = R + SF1 -----------------------------------------------------7.20

The statement i and ii are known as principle of moment

88
Example 7.5

A uniform beam of length 4m weight 200N and holds a 450N weight as shown in
figure 7.13 below. Find the magnitude of the forces exerts on the beam by two
supports at it end.

R S

2m 1m 1m

A 200N 450N B

Fig 7.13 A beam Suspended on a two pivots A and B

Solution:

Applying the principle of moment “Sum forces in one direction = sum of force in
opposite direction”

R+S = 200+450=650N ----------------------------------------------7.21

Taking a moment about A we have

∑CWM=∑ACWM
⇒(200 × 2) + (450 × 3) = S × 4 ------------------------------------7.22

1750
∴ 400 + 1350 = 4S ⇒S = = 437.5N
4

Substitute S in 7.21

⇒R = 650 - S = 650 - 437.5 = 212.5N

89
Example 7.6

A uniform 100N pipe is used as a lever as shown in 7.14 below

l
S
x l-x

l
200N 100 500N

Fig 7.14 a pipe suspended on a fulcrum

Where must fulcrum be placed if a 500N wieght at one end is to balanced 200N
weight at the other end, what load must the support hold ?
Solution:
S = load
Upward force = down ward force
S= 200 + 100 + 500 = 800N

∑CWM=∑ACWM ⇒(200 ×x) + 100 × x- ( ) L

2
= 500 × (L-x)

200x + 100x - 50L = 500L - 500x

⇒800x = 550L
550L
x= = 0.69L.
800

Couple
A couple is a pair of two equal and opposite forces acting on a body in such away
that the line of action of the two forces are not in same staright line.
P

A B

90
 Q

Fig 7.15 A couple of equal force and opposite forces

Center of Gravity
Is the point of application of the resultant force due to earth attarction on it. The
center of gravity of a body may be defined as a point through which the whole
weight of a body may assumed to act. And is usually denoted as c.g. or simply by
G. The position of c.g depends upon shape of the body and this may or may not
necessarily be within the boundary of the body, the center of gravity of some
object may be found by balancing the object on a point.

Torque
Torque is eqaul to the product of force and the perpendicular distance between
the line of action of the force and the point of rotation.

τ = F×r (previous)

In rotational mechanics

τ = Iα -------------------------------------------------------------------------7.23

Exercise 7
1. Fourn forces 3,4,5 and 6N respectively act in a clockwise directionalong
the sides of a square each of side of which is 0.5m. Find the value of the
moments of these forces about (i) the center of the square (ii) the point of
intersection of the force 3N and 6N. Ans: (i) 450N.m (ii) 450N.m

2. A man and a boy carry a weight of 250N between them by means of a

uniform pole 1.7m long and weighing 90N. Where must the weight be
placed so that man bear twice as much of the weight as that of the boy?
Ans: 0.465m

3. Find the magnitude of two like parallel forces acting at a distance of 1m

apart which is equivalent to a force of 300N acting at a distance of of

91
 200mm from one of the force. Ans: 240N

4. A small ball of mass 0.7kg is attached to one end of a 1.25m long

massless rod, and the other end of the rod is hung from a pivot. When the
resulting pendulum is 30o from the vertical , what is the magnitude of the
gravitational torque calculated about the pivot? Ans: 4.6N.m

5. A bicyclist of mass 70kg puts all his mass on each downward moving
pedal as he pedals up a steep road. Take the diameter of the cycle in which
the pedal rotate to be 0.40m, and determine the magnitude of the
maximum torque he exerts about the rotation axis of the aligned? Ans:
2
1.4×10 N.m

92
.

Static Equilibrium
When an object is at rest and remains at rest we say that the object is at static
equilibrium. This deals with equilibrium of force.

When several forces acting on a point in order to have equilibruim we use several
statement established axioms) base in principle of state equilibrium.

Axiom 1: Parallelogram law of forces

D C
R=
R
resultant

Q Q
θ θ
θ
A A B
P P
Fig 8.1 Paralellogram of forces

Axiom 2: The triangle of force

If three forces are in equilibrium they can be represented in magnitude and
direction by 3-side of a triangle taking in order.
As shown in Fig 8.1 above
P Q R
= = ------------------------------------------------8.1
AB AD AC

P Q R
using sine rule: = = ----------------8.2
sin c sin A sin B

93
This is equivalent to lami’s theorem.

Axiom 3: lami’s theorem

If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium then each force is proportional
to the sine of

the angle between the other two force.

F1 F2

θ3

θ1 θ2

F3

Fig 8.2 Three forces acting at a point

In general

F1 F2 F3
= = ----------------------------------------------------8.3
sin θ1 sin θ2 sin θ3

Example 8.1

94
A mass of 12kg is hung by two string of length 3m and 4m. the other ends of the
string being attached to points in a horizantal line 5m apart calculate the tension
in each string.

Solution:
5m
A B

3m 4m
β α

180 - β C 180 - α

12kg
w = mg = 12×10 = 120N

Fig. 8.3 a weight suspended by two string

2 2 2
In ∆ABC, angle C is a right angle becouse AB = AC + BC

2 2 2
i.e.5 = 3 + 4

⇒25 = 9 + 16 = 25,

3 4 5
by using 8.2 ⇒ = =
̂ ̂ ̂
sin B sin A sin C

3 4 5
∴ = =
̂ ̂ sin90
sin B sin A

̂ 3 3
therefore sin B = ( )sin90 = = 0.6
5 5

̂ -1 o
⇒ B = sin 0.6 = 36.87

̂ o
Similarly A = 53.13

95
Using lamis theorem at C we get

T1 T2 w
= =
sin (180-α) sin (180-β) sin90

120
T1 = × sin53.13 = 120×0.7999
sin90

T1 = 96N Similarlt following the same method implies:

T2 = 12N

Equilibrium condition for coplanar and concurrent forces.

Equilibrium is a state of body at rest or uniform motion in which resultant of all
the force is zero. When several forces act on a particle the particle is said to be in
equilibrium if there is no unbalanced force acting in it. i.e. the resultant of all the
forces acting on the particle is zero.

 Coplanar forces act in the same plane, the sum R of the forces in the
system will also lie in the plane

 Concurrent force are applied at the same point and can therefore be added
directly to obtain their resultant R.

Condition

∑fx = 0 and ∑fy = 0

Example 8.3

W=50N

Fig. 8.6 A weight suspended on a roop by a string

96
Find the T in fig 8.6 above

Solution:

Condition for equilibrium ∑fx = 0 and ∑fy = 0

∑fx = 0 and ∑fy = T - 50 = 0

⇒T = 50N

Example 8.4

Find the tension T1and T2 from the fig 8.7 below

A B
3
5

T1 T2

T3

m
w = mg = 122N

Fig 8.7 a mass suspended in between two points of a string

Solution:

Resolving the tensions in the fig 8.7 we get

T1 T2

37 53
x

T3

97
∑fy = 0

T3 - fg = 0

T3 = fg = 122N

x-component y-component

T1 = - T1cos37 T1sin37

T2 = T2cos53 T2sin53

∑fx = T2cos53 - T1cos37⇒T2 = T1 ( )

cos37
cos53
= 1.33T1

∑fy = T1sin37 - T2sin53 - 122 = T1(0.601) - T1(1.33)(0.7986) = 122

⇒T1 = 73.4N

∴ T2 = 1.33T1 = 1.33×73.4 = 97.4N

Exercisen 8
1. A body of weight 4.5N is suspended by two strings 18cm and 61cm long
and other end beign fastened to the extremist of rod of length 63.6cm. If
the rod be so held that the body hangs immediately below its middle point,
find out the tension in the strings. Ans:4.32N and 1.26N

2. Find the components of a force of 100N in dirctions, inclined to it at angle

of 30o and 400 on opposite sides. Ans 68.41N; 53.2N

3. The angle between the two forces of magnitude 40N and 30N is 60o; the
40N force beign horizontal. Determine the resultant in magnitude and
direction; if (i) the force are pulls and (ii) the 30N force is push and 40N is
pull. Ans: (i) 60.8N, 25o (ii) 36N, 46o

98
Newtons inverse square law/ Newton’s law of Gravitation
Newtons law of gravitation states that the force of attraction between two
masses seperated by a distance r is directly proportional to the product of the
masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

m1m2
Mathematically the first statement: f α --------------------------------9.1
1

1
Second statement: f α 2 ------------------------------------------------9.2
r

Combining the two statements we have;

99
 m1m2
fα 2 ---------------------------------9.3
r

Removing the proportionality sign

Gm1m2
⇒ f= 2 ---------------------------------------------9.4
r

-11 2 2
G = 6.67×10 Nm /kg known as the gravitational constant.

Gravitational Field

Lines of equal field strengh

Earth

Fig 9.1 gravitational field lines of equal strengh towards the earth

The gravitational field or gravitational field strenght is the force exerted by gravity
on an object per unit massof the object, its given as;

fgrav
g= , ---------------------------------------------------------------9.5
m

Where fgrav = force of gravity.

A field is something that has a magnitude and a direction at every point in space.
Acceleration due to gravity down at all point in this place is 9.8m/s2, the field is
uniform near the surface of the earth and has equal space field lines.

Example 9.1

Three 0.300kg balls are placed on a table at the corners of a right triangle as
shown in fig 9.2 below, the side of the triangle are of length a=0.4m b=0.3m and

100
c=0.5m. Calculate the gravitational force vector on the m1 ball resulting from the
other two balls as well as the magnitude and direction of this force.

Solution:

yj

m2

a C
f21
f
m1 xi m3
f31 b

Fig. 9.2 three ball placed ona corners of a triangle

⃗ Gm1m2 -11
6.67×10 ×0.300×0.300 -11
f 21 = 2 j= 2 j = 3.75×10 jN.
a (0.4)

⃗ Gm1m3 -11
6.67×10 ×0.300×0.300 -11
f 31 = 2 i = 2 i = 6.67×10 iN.
b (0.3)

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
= (6.67i+3.75j)×10 N
-11
f = f 31 + f 21

2 2 -11
magnitude F = f21+f31 = 7.66×10 N

fy 3.7x10
-11
direction⇒tanθ = = -11 = 0.562
fx 6.67x10

o
θ = tan (0.562)=29.4
-1

Example 9.2

An astronant standing on the surface of ceres, the largest asteriod, drops a rock
from a height of 10m, it takes 8.06s to hit the ground .

a. Calculate the ace of gravity on ceres

101
 b. Find the mass of the ceres, given that the radius of ceres is Rc=510km.

c. Calculate the gravitational acceleration 50km from the ceres.

Solution:

Applying the kinematics displacement equation to the falling rock.

1 2
∆x = ut + at , ∆x = -10m(coming down), u = 0, a = -gc and t = 8.06s
2

1 20
⇒ - 10 = - gc(8.06)2⇒gc =
2 64.96

2
gc = 0.308m/s

b. mass of the ceres

2
GmCm gcRc 21
mgc = 2 ⇒ mc = = 120×10 kg
Rc a

c. gc at 50km

Gmcm
mgc = 2 but is 50km away then r = 510km + 50km = 560km
r

Gmc 2
⇒gc = = 0.255m/s
(560)2

Period of Moon

Moon r

102
 d

Earth

Fig. 9.3 A moon rotating round the earth

The force that set the moon moving is;

Gmemmoon
f= 2 -----------------------9.4
R

Total distance = R + d + r ---------------------------------9.6

2
mv
fmoon = ma = ---------------------------------------------9.7
R

2
Gmemmoon m v
2 = moon
2
R R

2 Gme Gme
V = ⇒V = ---------------------------------------------------------9.8
R R

Total distance from moon to each is

8
R + d + r = 3.84 × 10 m

24
ms = 6×10 kg

-11 8
G = 6.67×10 Rtotal = 3.84×10 m

Substituting Rtotal, G and ms in 9.8

-11 24
6.67×10 ×6×10 3
⇒V = 8 = 1.62×10 m/s
3.84×10

103
 3
v 1.62×10 -6
But v = Rω⇒ω = = 8 = 2.65×10 rads
R 3.84×10

To find the period

2π 2π 2π 6
ω= ⇒T = = -6 = 2.36×10 s
T ω 2.65×10

To convert the second to hour and to days

6
2.46×10
T= = 27.3day
24×60x60

Example 9.3

A proposed communication setalite will revolve round the earth in a circular orbit
in eqautorial planes at a height of 35,880km above the earth surface. Find the
period of revolution of the setalite in hours and comment on the result.
24 -11
Re=6370km, Me=5.98x10 kg, G=6.66x10 T=?

Solution:

2
mv
The force that keep the setalite is centripetal force f = s
R

ms Neglecting the radius of the

satelite

R = Re + d = 35880 + 6370000 = 6405880

me Re

Fig 9.4 A satelite revolving round the earth

2
Gmems mv
f= 2 = s
R R

104
 -11 24
2 Gme 6.66x10 ×5.98x10 6
v = = 7 = 9.5×10
R 4.2×10

3
v = 3.1×10 m

3
v 3.1×10 -5
v = Rω⇒ω = = 7 = 7.3×10 rads
R 4.2×10
2π 2π 2×3.142
ω= ⇒T = = -5
T ω 7.3×10
4
T = 8.5×10 sec
4
8.5x10
= h.s = 23.8h ≅ 24h it has the same period with earth
60x60

Mass and Density of the earth

At the earth’s surface, the force of attarction on a mass m is mg assuming that
the earth is spherical and of radius r, then the force of attarction of the earth on
GmM
the mass is 2 -------(9.4)
r
2
GmM GM gr
∴ 2 = mg→g = 2 , therefore M = ---------------------------------9.9
r r G
2 6 -11 2
g = 9.8m/s r = 6.4×10 m G = 6.67×10 Nm /kg2
6 2
9.8×(6.4×10 ) 24
M= -11 = 6.0×10 kg
6.7×10
3 2
4πr M gr 3g
The volume of earth (sphere) is ⇒ρ = = 3= ----------------------9.10
3 V G4πr 4πrG
3
3
ρ ≈ 550kg/m

Mass of The Sun

The mass Ms of the sun can be found from the period of a satelite and its
distance from the sun, it period T is about 365 day or 365×24×3600sec; It’s
distance rs from the centre of the sun is about 1.5×1011m, if mass of the earth is
Me then for the circular motion round the sun as shown in fig 9.5 below.To get Ms
we equate 9.4, 9.7 and substitute the angular velocity ω as;

105
 2
GMsMe 2 mrs4π
2 = mrsω = 2
rs T
2 2 2 11 2
4π rs 4×(3.142) ×(1.5×10 ) 30
⇒ Ms = 2 = -11 7 2 = 2×10 kg
GT 6.7×10 ×(3.1×10 )

Earth
r
F

Sun

Fig. 9.5 Earth revolving round the Sun

Parking Orbits
Earth

Satellite

Space

Fig 9.6 A satelite cycling the earth

Consider a satelite of mass m, circling the earth in the plane of the equator in an
concentric orbit with the earth as shwon in fig 9.6 above. Suppose the direction
of rotation is the same, at a distance R from the centre of the earth. If V is the
velocity in orbit then;

2
mv Gmm 2
= 2 but Gm = gr (9.9) r = radius of earth
R R

2 2 2
mv mgr 2 gr
therefore = 2 ⇒v = ----------------------------------9.11
R R R
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if T is the period of satelite in its orbit then

2πR 2π
v= from v = Rω and ω =
T T

Substituting v in 9.11 we get:

2 2 2 2 3
4π R gr 2 4π R
2 = ⇒ T = 2 --------------------------------------------------9.12
T R gr

If the period of the satelite in its orbit is same as rotation of earth in its axis (24hr)
the satelite will stay over the same place on the earth while the earth rotate, this
is called a parking orbit. Relay satelite can be placed in parking orbit so that the
television programmes can be transmitted continiously from one part of the
world to another since T= 24hour the radius R can be found from equation 9.12
2 2
3 T gr
as R= 2 = 42400km ----------------------------9.13
4π

The height above the earth surface of the parking orbit

is= R - r = 42400 - 6400 = 3600km

2πR
In the orbit, the velocity of the satelite ωs = = 3.1km
T

Magnitude of Acceleration due to Gravity

Above the earth surface consider an object of mass m in an orbit of radius R
'
from the centre where R > r the radius of the earth, then if g is the acceleration
due to gravity at this place, we can write:
' GMm
mg = 2 -------------------------------------------------9.14
R
But if g is the acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface then:
GmM
mg = 2 ----------------------------------------------------9.15
r
Dividing the equation 9.14 by 9.15 we have
' 2
mg GMm r
= 2 ×
mg R GmM

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 ' 2
g r
⇒ = 2 -----------------------------------------------------------------9.16
g R
Thus above the earth the acceleration varies. For a heigh h above the earth we
get;

( )
2 -2
r ' h
R = h + r⇒g = 2 g = 1+ g ------------------------9.17
(r+h) r

Using binomial expansion g = 1- ( ) 2h

r
g --------------------------9.18

For a case which is below the earth surface R = r - h.---------------9.19

Gravitational Potential Energy

A

r1
B

r2

Re

Fig 9.7 A particle moving from point A to B above the surface of earth

From the potential energy equation P.E = mgh, we can find the gravitational P.E
the gravitational P.E energy associated with an object of m at a distance r from
GMem
the centre of earth is : P.E = - to be prove
r

Where r > Re (radius of earth)

work done = ∫fdr (previous)

U = mgy = work done

Rf
∆u = Uf - U1 =
∫ f(r)dr
ri

The particle moving from A – B above the earth surface, we can express the

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force as;

GMem
F(r) = - 2 (-ve sign indicate the force is attractive) from eqn. 9.4
r

dr 1 1
⇒ Uf - U1 = GMem∫rfri 2 =-GMem ( - ) ----------------------9.20
r rf ri

taking ui = 0 at ri = ∞, substituting in eqn 9.20 gives:

GMem
u(r) = - ---------------------------9.21a (proved)
r

-Gm1m2
for two particle u(r) = ----------------------------9.21b
r

1.2 Energy in Planetary and Satelite Motion

1 2 GMm
E = K + U, K.E = mv and P.E = U = -
2 r

Total energy is conserved ∆E = 0⇒ ∆k + ∆u = 0, ∴ Ei = Ef ---------9.22

An object moves from A to B will have;

1 2 GMm 1 2 GMm
mvi - = mvf - ------------------------------------------------9.23
2 ri 2 rf

For a particle moving in a circular motion

2
GMm mv
f = mac⇒ 2 =
r r

GMm 2
∴ = mv -------------------------------------------------------------9.24
r

divide equation 9.24 by 2

GMm 1 2
⇒ = mv ---------------------------------------------------9.25
2r 2

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substitute 9.25 in 9.23

1 2 GMm GMm GMm GMm

⇒E = mv - = - =-
2 r 2r r 2r

1 2 GMm
∴E = mv = - -------------------------------------------9.26
2 2r

1.3 Potential
Potential is defined as the work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to that
point, the potential at infinity is taking as zero.

work = force ×distance. The force of attraction on a unit mass outside the earth
Gm
is thus 2 .
r

a Gm Gm
Va = ∫∞ 2 dr=- ----------------------------------------------------------9.27a
r a

Potential at infinity is taking as zero.

Gm
⇒V =- -------------------------------------------------------------------------9.27b
r

where r = radius of earth

Escape Speed
If an object is projected upward from earth’s surface with a large enough speed,
it can soar off into space and never return. This speed is called earth’s escape
speed or escape velocity.

1 2 GMEm
E = Ki + Ui = mv - (9.23) we neglet air resistance
2 i RE

Ei = Ef⇒ Ei - Ef = 0 (9.22), when an object is at infinite distance it K.E is zero and

1
gravitational P.E is also zero becouse goes to zero as r moves to infinity.
r

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 1 2 GMem
⇒ mvesc -
2 RE

2Gme
⇒ Vesc = -----------------------------------------------9.28
RE

Note: Vesc does not depend on the mass of object.

1.4 Kepler’s Laws

1. First law state that all planets move in elliptical orbit with the sun at one of
the focal points

2. Second law state that a line drawn from the sun to any planet sweep equal
areas in equal time intervals

3. Third law state that the square of the orbital period of any planet is
proportional to the cube of the average distance from the planet to the sun.
thus;

2
2 3 4π -19 2 3
T = kSr where ks = = 2.97×10 s /m
Gms

Excercise 9

1. An object takes 2.4s to fall 5m on a certain planet. Find (a) the acceleration
due to gravity on the planet (b) the planets masses if its radius is 5250km.
Ans: (a) 1.74m/s2 (b) 7.19x1023kg.

2. If g is the acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface, Show that the
gain in the potential energy of an object of mass m raised from the surface
1
of the earth is mgR.
2

3. If the distance between the earth and the sun were half the present value,
Find the number of days that will be in a year. Ans: 129

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4. A geostationary satelite orbits around the earth in a circular orbit of radius
36000km. Then, Find the time period of a spy satelite orbiting a few
hundred km above the earth’s (Re = 6400km). Ans: 2h

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