PHY101 LECTURE NOTES
PHY101 LECTURE NOTES
Mechanics can be define as that science which describes and predicts the
state of rest or motion of a body or bodies under the action of forces.
Mechanics is divided into three parts:
Fluid mechanics
i. Statics
ii. Dynamics
Statics is related to the bodies at rest. Statics considers the effect and
distribution of force on a rigid body that are either in a state of rest or Uniform
motion , and these also divided into two.
Kinematics
Kinetics
Kinetics these deals with the relationship between forces and resulting
motion in which they act on.
Fluid mechanics these is a part of applied mechanics which deals with the
application of principle of fluids, its also subdivided into two
i. Hydrostatics
ii. Hydrodynamics
Hydrostatics deals with the action of forces on materials that is partly or
wholly fluid and are in equilibrium.
Hydrodynamics also known as hydro-kinetics it deals with the action of forces
on a material that are partly or wholly fluid and in motion.
Y
(x,y,z)
X
(0,0,0)
Z
Fig 1.1 Three dimensional coordinate system
Time: is what clock measures , the concept of time can be use to place events in
sequence one after the other, so that we can compare how long an event last
and when an event occurs, there are three key features of time t.
2
Space and Time assumption in Newtonian mechanics
i. Space is isotropic: in space there is no preferred direction
ii. Space and time are homogeneous: these tell us that every regions or
points in space are the same that is no special instant of time in every
regions and points.
iii. Time is absolute: the time interval between two events does not change
, always does not depend on the observer
Space is three dimensional and time is one dimensional, adding the time
coordinate t, to space coordinate (x,y,z) we have a space and time coordinate
(x,y,z,t) which is a four dimensional vector components where t is the time
coordinate.
Coordinate System
Each point in the 3- dimensional space is specified by an ordered set of three real
numbers, (x,y,z), that represent the coordinates of the point. Each of these points
has a unique set of coordinate relative to a given coordinate system.
.P(x,y,z)
X
(0,0,
Z
Fig 1.2 coordinaten system
3
Coordinate system consist of an origin and coordinate surfaces, on which a given
coordinate is held fixed and other two coordinates are allowed to vary, the basic
example of a coordinate
B(x2,y2,z2)
A(x1,y1,z1)
X
0
(0,0,0)
Z
Fig 1.3 of cordininate system
The coordinate surface are x - y plane, x - z plane, y - z plane and the distance
2 2 2
between A and B is given as AB = (x2-x1) +(y2-y1) +(z2-z1) ………………..1.2
Other system of coordinate are cylindrical polar coordinate and spherical polar
coordinate.
4
(ρ,∅,z)
Y
∅
.P(x,y,z)
θ
r
X
B
X
Now we have seen that point has a unique set of coordinate relative to a given
coordinate system. So a specified coordinate system is known as the frame of
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reference.
Measurement
Like all other Science, physics is based on experimental observations and
quantity measurement. Science and Engineering are based on measurements
and comparisons. Thus we need rules about how things are measured and
compared, so we need experiment to establish the units for those measurements
and comparisons. We can say measurement is a comparison of a physical
quantity with standard of that same physical quantities.
UNITS
A unit is a definite magnitude of a quantity defined and adopted by convection or
by law that is used as a standard for measuring of the same quantity. The
systems of unit commonly used are
Meter – kilogram – second in this system of unit the length, mass and
time are expressed in meter, kilogram and second respectively.
mass
Density = , Momentum p = mass ×veelocity,
volume
distance
Velocity =
time
velocity
And Acceleration =
time
Dimension
Dimension is a measure of a physical variable without numerical value, i.e for
length L is the dimension, but its measured in unit of meter(m) or centimeter
(cm). To have a clear understanding of dimension let us consider some
examples.
Example 1.7
7
Find the dimension of the following
Solutions
distance L -1
i) Velocity = = = LT
time T
-1
velocity LT -1 -1 -2
ii) Acceleration = = = LT T = LT
time T
mass M M -3
iii) Density = = = 3 = ML
volume L×L×L L
-2 -2
iv) Force = mass ×acceleration = M × LT = MLT
To derive a relation
Example 1.9
Suppose we are told that the acceleration of a particle moving with uniform
n
speed V in a circle of radius r is proportional to some power of r, say r and some
m
power of V say V . Determine the value of n and m, and write the simplest form
of the equation for the acceleration.
8
Solution
n m n m L L
a ∝ r V ⇒a = Kr V But a = 2 and v =
T T
()
m m+n
L n L L
⇒ 2 = KL = m
T T T
Therefore
2
-1 V 2
a = Kr V = K , (This is the equation of acceleration of a circular motion
r
( K = m)
Exercises 1:
1. Which of the following sets have different dimensions?
Ans: d
1 2 -2 1 1
2. The dimension of ε0E (ε0: permittivity of free space) is? Ans: L T A
2
3. One student uses a meter stick to measure the thickness of a textbook and
obtains 4.3 cm 6 0.1 cm. Other students measure the thickness with vernier
calipers and obtain four different measurements: (a) 4.32 cm 0.01 cm, (b)
4.31 cm 6 0.01 cm, (c) 4.24 cm 6 0.01 cm, and (d) 4.43 cm 6 0.01 cm.
Which of these four measurements, if any, agree with that obtained by the
first student? Ans: (a) 4.32 cm 0.01 cm
9
4. The tropical year, the time interval from one vernal equinox to the next
vernal equinox, is the basis for our calendar. It contains 365.242 199 days.
Find the number of seconds in a tropical year. Ans: 31556926.0s
5. A rectangular plate has a length of (21.3 ± 0.2) cm and a width of (9.8 ± 0.1)
cm. Calculate the area of the plate, including its uncertainty. Ans (209 4)cm
Introduction to motion
Motion is the change of body’s position with respect to its surrounding over time.
Straight line motion is one dimensional problem, among the types of motion
dealing with kinematic part in which the source or cause of the motion is not
considered. This is the case of motion in one dimension. The motions may be of
the following types.
ii. Rest: A body is said to be at rest if its position with respect to the
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surrounding objects remain unchanged.
iii. Speed: This is the rate of change of position with respect to the
surroundings, irrespective of direction.
Rate of change of distance ∆s
Speed = =
Time taken ∆t
⇒s = V×t = ( )
u+v
2
×t……………….. 2.1
vii. Acceleration: This is the rate of change of velocity of the particle, and is
denoted by ‘a’. If u, v and t are variable then the acceleration of the
particle will be given as
Rate of change of velocity ∆v v-u 2
a= = = , and has a unit of m/s . This
Tine taken ∆t t
shows that if the velocity of a body remains constant its acceleration
will be zero.
viii. Uniform Acceleration: In this case if the velocity of the particle changes
equal amount in equal time interval, the acceleration is said to be
uniform.
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Distance Time Graph
i.
Displaceme
0
Tim
Fig 2.1
In Fig 2.1 above the displacement is not changing with time, the slope of the
graph is zero because the y-axis is constant. And the body has no velocity is at
rest.
ii.
Displaceme
0
Fig 2.2 Time
In the Fig 2.2 displacement increases with time by equal amount in equal interval
of time i.e the
iii.
12
Displaceme
0
Fig 2.3 Tim
The Fig 2.3 above is Curve, Which shows that displacement is not changing
over equal time interval. The velocity is changing, i.e the motion is accelerated.
i.
0
Time
Fig. 2.4
In Fig 2.4 above the velocity of the body increases linearly with time, Slope is
constant and the acceleration is constant. Also at t = 0 the velocity is finite thus
the body is moving with finite initial velocity having a constant acceleration.
i.
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Velocity
0 Tim
Fig 2.5
The Fig 2.5 above the body has a finite velocity, as time passes, the velocity
decreases linearly with time until its final velocity becomes, i.e the body has a
retardation since its slope is negative, (-ve).
ii.
Velocity
0 Tim
Fig 2.6
In The Fig 2.6 above the graph is curve, the slope of the graph is different at
different point and time, we can say that the velocity and acceleration are not
constant.
Equations of motion
These are the equations that are used in solving problems in a straight
line motion. To derive the equations we consider the graph below.
V
ii
14
1 t
Fig 2.7
y2-y1 v-u
From fig 2.7 above the slope = = =a
x2-x1 t
v-v
∴a = , ⇒ at = v - u, or v = u + at…………………….. 2.2
t
S= ( )
u+v
2
t , substituting equation 2.2 in 2.1 we have
( ) ( )
2
u+u+at at at
s= t = u+ t = ut + …………………………… 2.3
2 2 2
2 2
⇒ v = u + 2aS……………………………………. 2.4
th
Distance covered by the body in n second by a body moving with a uniform
velocity
This is the distance covered by the particle at a particular instant of
time. We know that from equation 2.3.
2
at
S = ut + ,
2
th
Let Sn be the distance covered by the body in n second. Substituting in the
equation we have
2
an
Sn = un + (t = n), also
2
2
a(n-1)
Sn-1 = u(n-1) +
2
15
Sn = Sn - Sn-1
th
a
∴ Sn = u +
th (2n-1)…………………………..2.5
2
Example 2.1
A car starts from rest and accelerate uniformly to a speed of 80km/hr over a
distance of 500m. Calculate the acceleration and time taken.
Solution:
80km 80×1000
u = 0, S = 500 and v = = = 22.22m/s
hr 60×60
Using the relation
2 2
2 2 v -u
v = u + 2aS, To solve for the acceleration we have a = =
2S
22.22
= 0.494m/s
2×500
For the time using the equation, v = u + at To solve for time we have
v-u 22.22
t= = = 45s
a 0.494
Using the Velocity Time Graph
Note: In velocity time graph the area under the graph is the distance covered by
the body, and the slope is the acceleration.
Solution
V
22.2
500
0 t
Fig 2.8
16
b×h t×22.22
S= = = 500
2 2
2×500 1000
⇒t = = = 45s
v 22.22
The slope which is the acceleration
y2-y1 v-u 22.22-0 0.494m
slope = a = = = = 2
x2-x1 t t s
Example 2.2
A car starting from rest and accelerate uniformly for 2min, runs at constant
speed for 4min. After this the car comes to stop with uniform retardation for
3min and thus covers a distance of 5km, find:
i) It’s constant speed ii) It’s acceleration iii) It’s retardation
Solution:
Using the V-T Graph we have
Vel
(x2,y2) (x3,y3)
i ii iii (x4,y4)
120 540 t
0 360
(x1,y1)
Fig 2.9 Velocity time graph
Solution:
Total distance S = Area (i) + Area (ii) + Area (iii) = 5km = 5000m
b×h 120×h
i) Area i = = = 60h
2 2
17
Area ii = b×h = (360-120)×h = 240h
b×h (540-360)×h
Area iii = = = 90h
2 2
5000
∴ 390v = 500, ⇒v = = 12.8m/s
390
y2-y1 12.8-0 2
ii) Acceleration Slope = a = = = 0.107m/s
x2-x1 120-0
Example 2.3
On turning a corner a car is moving at 15m/s, finds a child on the road 40m
ahead. He instantly applies brake, so as to stop the car 5m away from the child.
Calculate:
Solution:
2 2
i) Using the relation v - u = 2aS
2 2 2
v -u 0-15 2
⇒a = = = - 3.21m/s
2S 2×35
v = u + at
18
0 = 15 - 3.21×t
-15
⇒t = = 4.67s
-3.12
a = +g
v = u + gt
2
gt
h = ut +
2
2 2
v = u + 2gh
a = -g
v = u - gt
2
gt
h = ut -
2
2 2
v = u - 2gh
Example 2.8
A stone is drop from a clip 200m high after what will it strike the ground? what
will be it’s final velocity
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Solution
2
gt
i) h = ut +
2
2 2
gt gt
⇒ h=0+ =
2 2
2h 2×200
∴t = = = 6.39s
g 9.8
v = u + gt
v = 0 + 9.81×6.39 = 62.70m/s
Example 2.9
A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 100m high. Another stone is
projected upward at the same time from the foot of the tower, and meets the
first stone at a height of 40m. find the velocity with which the second stone is
projected upward.
Solution: U=0
First stone
100m 60m
40m
U =? For second
20
Fig 2.13
H = 100m, u = 0m/s
2
gt
Using the equation h = ut +
2
2 2
gt gt
⇒ h=0+ =
2 2
2h 2×60
∴t = = = 3.5s = t1 = t2
g 9.8
The initial velocity of the second stone can be obtain by using h=40m and
t2 = 3.5s
2
gt
h = ut - , for upward motion
2
2
9.81×3.5
40 = u×3.5 -
2
2
9.81×3.5
⇒3.5u = 40 +
2
u = 28.6m/s
Exercise 2.
1. A train starting from rest and moving with a uniform acceleration attains a
speed of 108km/hr in 2.5 minute. Find (i) Acceleration (ii) The distance the
train travels in this time
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2. The Brake applied to a car produce a uniform retardation of 0.5m/s2. The
car covers a distance of 16m before stopping. How long were the brakes
applied?
Ans. 8sec
4. A cyclist riding at 36km/hr passes a car which just starts to move with an
2
acceleration of 0.2m/s . How far will he ride before the car overtakes him?
Ans. 100m
5. A stone is dropped from a cliff 500m high after what time will it strike the
ground? What will be its final velocity?
Ans. 11.35m
Physical quantity
Any quantity that can be measured is known as the physical quantity. We have
two types of physical quantities.
i) Scalar quantity
Fig. 3.1
The vectors can also be represented by a bold capital letter (A) or by a letter with
⃗
an arrow on top, as ( a ). The magnitude of the vector is a positive number of
units corresponding to the length of the vector in those units. Hence the
magnitude of a vector A is given as:
⃗
| |
2 2
A = A = Axi+Ayj …………………………………………………3.1
Where |A| is called the magnitude or the absolute value. And is a positive scalar
quantity
⃗
∴ A= A =A | | ……………………………………………………3.2
Bold letters represent vectors and capital letters represent the magnitude
Types of vectors
Basically there are three types of vectors as follows:
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i. Zero vector
Zero vector : This is a vector with zero magnitude and no direction, and is
also called as null vector
Equal vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal if and only if they have
magnitude and are moving in same direction. But not necessarily the same
notation. Eg
⃗
A
⃗
B
Fig 3.2
Negative vectors: These are define as vectors of same magnitude but are
moving in opposite direction. They are refers to as equal and opposite
vectors.
⃗
A
⃗
-A
Fig 3.3
⃗ ⃗
( )
A + - A = 0 ………………………………………………..3.4
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Geometrical Addition of vectors
⃗
Two or more vectors may be added geometrically by drawing the vectors, say P
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
and Q . Then the vector P + Q is the vector that runs from the initial point
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
(tail) of P to the final point (head) of Q ( P + Q ) is a single vector. This is
known as the head to tail arrangement of vectors.
Example 3.1
⃗ ⃗
P Q
Fig 3.4
⃗ ⃗
By drawing the head of P to the tail of Q we have
⃗
Q
⃗ ⃗
P + Q
O
⃗
P
Fig 3.5
B
⃗ ⃗ ̅
Where the resultant vector P + Q is the line BA and will have two arrows on it.
25
Alternatively
A
⃗
P
O ⃗ ⃗
fig 3.6 Q + P
⃗
Q
B
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
The vector P + Q and Q + P as shown in fig 3.4 and 3.5 respectively, shows
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
same direction and are the same. Also, if we have three vectors say a , b , c
then they can be simplified as:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
a + b + c = a+b ( ) + ⃗c ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
= a + ( b + c )………………………………………………………
……………..3.5
Unit Vector
Unit vector is a vector having a unit magnitude or length, the unit vector is by a
̂
letter with a cap on top as A , and the value of the unit vector can be given as:
̂ ⃗
A = A .............................................................................................................3.6
|A|
26
Component of Vector
Component of a vector is a projection of the vector on an axis. There are two
types of vector’s component projection.
i. Rectangular component
ay
⃗ ay
a
⃗
θ a
θ
0 ax X
ax
⃗
From the fig 3.7 and 3.8 above ax is a component of vector a along x- axis and ay
⃗
is a component of vector a along y-axis. Fig 3.7 is known as rectangular
component or mutually perpendicular component. From the right angle formed in
the fig 3.8 above, by using trigonometric identity the components are;
ax = acos θ ………………………………………………………………………….3.7
ay = asin θ……………………………………………………………………….3.8
⃗
The magnitude and direction of vector a will be given as
2 2
a = ax -ay …………………………………………………………………..3.9
And the angle in between the component is
a
tan θ= y …………………………………………………………………………………..3.10
ax
i. Non – Perpendicular component
27
D C
⃗
⃗ R ⃗
β b
α
A
⃗ B
a
j
A
x
Fig i
Let i be the vector of unit length in positive x- direction and, let j be the unit vector
in positive y direction.
28
∴ A = Axi + Ayj ………………………………………………………….3.13
A vector in three component (Vector in space), is a vector having a component
along the x,y and
Z axes.
z
j γ A
α β
i x
Fig
K is a vector of unit length along the positive z-axis. The vector is 3 dimensions
can be written as
∴ A = Axi + Ayj + Azk ………………………………………………….3.14
Resolution of Vectors/Forces
The process of resolving vector into its component is known as the resolution of
vectors
Example 3.2
A child pulls on a rope attached to a sled with a force of 60N. The rope makes an
angle of 400 to the ground.
a) Compute the effective value of the pull tending to move to sled along the
ground
b) Compute the force tending to lift the sled vertically.
Solution:
60N
0
b) fy = 60sin 40 = 39N
29
40
0
a) fx = 60cos 40 = 46N
Fig 3.12
Vector operations
Basically there are three operations in vectors
⃗ ⃗
Let A = Axi + Ayj + Azk and B = Bxi + Byj + Bzk …………………….3.15
⃗ ⃗
A + B = (Ax+Bx)i + (Ay+By)j + (Az+Bz)k ………………………….3.16
⃗ ⃗
A - B = (Ax-Bx)i + (Ay-By)j + (Az-Bz)k ………………………………3.17
Example 3.3
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
If d 1 = 3i - 3j + 4k and d 2 = -5i + 2j - 20k find d1 + d2
Solution:
⃗ ⃗
d 1 + d 2 = (3-5)i + (-3+2)j + (4-20)k
= -2i - j - 16k
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
| || |
⃗
A ∙ B = A B cos θ……………………………………………….3.18
30
⃗ ⃗
A∙B
And ∴ cos θ= …………………………………….3.19
⃗
A B
⃗
| || |
Where i ∙ i = j ∙ j = k ∙ k = 1 and any other operation i ∙ j = j ∙ k = k ∙ i = 0
⇒A ∙ B = ABcos θ ……………………………………………………..3.20
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
| || |
A × B = A B sin θ………………………………………………3.21
| |
i j k
⃗ ⃗
Where A × B = Ax Ay Az ……………………………………….3.22
Bx By Bz
⃗ ⃗
∴ A × B = (AyBz-AzBy)i - (AxBz-AzBx)j + (AyBx-AyBx)k ……………3.21
Example 3.4
⃗ ⃗
A = 4i - 3j - 2k and B = 2i + 2j + 4k
Solution:
⃗ ⃗
The resultant R = A + B = (4+2)i + (2-3)j + (4+2)k
R = 6i - j + 6k
31
̂ ⃗
6i-j+6k 6i-j+6k
A = A = =
|A| 2 2
6 +(-1) +6
2
73
Example 3.5
⃗ ⃗
Find the dot product of the vector A and B , given that the vectors
⃗ ⃗
A = 4i - 12j - 6k and B = 8i + 6j - 2k, also find the angle between
the vectors.
Solution:
i. Dot product
A ∙ B = 32 - 72 + 12 = -28
⃗⃗
A∙B
Cos θ=
⃗
| || |
A B
⃗
|⃗ A | = A = 2 2
4 +(-12) +(-6) = 14
2
|⃗ B | = B = 2 2
8 +6 +(-2) = 10.2
2
-28 o
∴ cos θ = = 101.3
14×10.2
32
Example 3.6
⃗ ⃗
Determine the cross product of vectors A = 4i - 12j - 6k and B = 8i + 6j - 2k,
also find the angle between the vectors.
Solution:
⃗ ⃗ i
A×B = 4
8
| j
-12
6
k
-6
-2
|
Using equation 3.21
⃗ ⃗
A × B = (AyBz-AzBy)i - (AxBz-AzBx)j + (AyBx-AyBx)k
Therefore
60i-40j+120k 60i-40j+120k
R= =
2 2
60 +(-40) +(120)
2
19600
60i-40j+120k
R=
140
3i 2i 6k
R= - +
7 7 7
The angle between the vectors from equation 3.21 is given as;
sin θ =
|A×B| = 140
|⃗ A ||⃗ B | 14×10.2
Sin θ = 0.9804
-1 o
θ = sin (0.9804) = 78.6
33
Exercise
1. A river is flowing from west to east at a speed of 5m/min. A man on the
south bank of the river, capable of swimming at 10m/min in still water,
wants to swim across the river in the shortest time. He should swim in the
direction?
2. Two forces act on a point object as follows: 100N at 1700 and 100N at 500.
Find their resultant
0
Ans. 100N, 110
3. A force (15i - 16j + 27k)N is added to a force (23j - 40k)N. What is the
magnitude of the resultant?
Ans. 21N
4. Find the angle between the vectors (i) A = -2i + 6j and B = 2i - 3j (ii)
A = 3i + 5i and B = 10i + 6j.
0 0
Ans. (i)θ = 165 , (ii)θ = 28
0
5. A Ship leaves an island and sails 285km at 40 north of west. In which
direction must it now head and how far must it sail so that its resultant
displacement will be 115km directly east of the island.
34
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION
Projectile Motion:
A projectile is a particle thrown into the space at a certain angle, the curved path
followed by it is unknown as trajectory, and the velocity with which the particle is
thrown has two components namely horizontal and vertical components. The
horizontal component moves the body horizontally while the vertical component
projects the body vertically upwards; the combined effect of both the
components is to moves the particle along a parabolic path. The horizontal
component remains constant while the vertical component of motion is always
subjected to gravitational acceleration.
Important Definitions:
The definition of some important terms relating to projectile motion is given
below:
2. Angle of projection: the angle which the initial velocity makes with the
horizontal or at which is projected is called an angle of projection.
3. Range: the distance covered by the body along the horizontal from the
35
point of projection is called the range.
4. Time of Flight: this is the time taken by the particle when it remains in
space.
Motion of Projectile
Consider a particle a particle thrown upward from a point O. with initial
velocityu, at an angle α with the horizontal as shown in the figure 4.1 below,
the particle after attaining the maximum height h, it descends and finally hits
the plane of its origin at R. the distance
Y
Q
Trajector
P
x u
uy = usin α
Max. height
y
α
0 X
ux = ucos α T R
r
36
Ux = ucos α (Horizontal component)----------------------4.1a
2 2
⇒v - u = -2gh (Particle is moving upward) and vy
2
2 u
∴ -u = -2gh or h = y
2g
2 2
u sin α
⇒h = -----------------------------------------------4.3
2g
2usinα 2usinα
r = ux × = ucos α×
g g
2
2u sinαcos α
⇒r =
g
2
u sin2α
∴ range r = (Since sin2α = 2sinαcosα)
g
37
2
u sin2α
r= -----------------------------------4.4
g
From equation 4.4 above, the range will be maximum if sin2α=1. It will be so if
2
0 u
2α=90. Implies α=45 , in these case the maximum range(rmax = ), hence the
g
projectile will cover a maximum range when it is directed at an angle of 450.
Equation of Trajectory
Trajectory is the path followed by the particle, considering figure 4.1, when the
particle is thrown at a certain angle α from a point O it will move along certain
path OPQR in the air and will fall down at R, let t be the time taken and
coordinates of P be x and y, considering motion along X-axis.
x
x = ux×t = ucos α×t ⇒t =
ucos α
2 2
gt gt
y = uy×t - = usinα ∙ t -
2 2
2
x g∙x
We have y = usinα ∙ - 2 2
ucos α 2u cos α
2
g∙x
⇒ y = xtan α - 2 2 -----------------------------------------------------------4.5
2u cos α
The equation 4.5 above is parabola equation. Hence the path of a projectile is a
parabola.
Example 4.1
A stone is thrown with initial velocity of 30m/s at an angle of 400. What is the
38
initial horizontal and vertical velocity?
Solution:
u = 30m/s
uy = usin α
ux = ucos α
Fig 4.2 A particle undergoing Projectile motion
uy = usin α= 19.3m/s
Example 4.2
0
A short is fired into space at an angle of 60 with a velocity of 60m/s determine
i. Time of flight
iii. Range
iv. At what angle should it be fired to have a maximum range and what would
be its magnitude
Solution:
2usinα
i. T= u=60m/s, α=60°
g
2×60×sin60
T= = 10.6sec
9.81
39
2 2 2 2
u sin α 60 ×(sin60)
h= = = 137.6m
2g 2×9.81
iii. Range
2 2
u sin2α 60 ×sin (2×60)
r= = = 366.9m
g 9.81
iv. The range will be maximum when we have maximum value sin2α, and the
maximum value is 1. Therefore sin2α=90 and sinα will be =1 when angle α
is 90°
90
2α = 90 ⇒ α= = 45°
2
2 2
u (60)
Maximum range rmax = = = 366.97m
g 9,81
Example 4.3
A riffle bullet is fired at and hits a target 100m distant, if the bullet rises to a
maximum height of 0.03m above the horizontal line between the muzzle of the
riffle and the point of impact on the target, find the muzzle velocity.
Solution:
u
0.03m
0 100m x
40
2 2 2 2
u sin α u sin α
h= = 0,03 ⇒ = 0.03 -------------------------i
2g 2g
2 2
u sin2α u sin2α
r= = 100 ⇒ = 100 -----------------------ii
g g
Dividing equation i by ii
2 2
u sin α g 0.03
2 × = But sin2α = 2sinαcosα
u sin2α g 100
2
u (sinα)(sinα) (sinα)(sinα)
2 = = 0.0003 ⇒ tan α=0.0012
u ×2sinαcosα 2×2sinαcosα
-1
∴ α = tan (0.0012) = 0.069°
2 2
u sin α 2 0.03×9.81×2
= 0.03 ⇒u = 2 = 408750
2g (0.0012)
∴ u = 408750 = 639.3m/s
A rotating motion is a moving particle in circular path, its position at any instant
can be defined by the angle θ covered by it with respect to x or y axis (generally
with respect to x-axis)
S – Arc length
R
θ
41
Fig. 4.5 a particle moving in a circular motion
dθ θ 2πN
Angular velocity: denoted as ω = = =ω= rad/s which is for a
dt t 60
rotating path in revolution.
v = u + at
2
at
S = ut +
2
2 2
v = u + 2aS
ω = ω0 + αt --------------------------------------------------4.13
42
αt
θ = ωo + ------------------------------------------------------4.14
2
2 2
ω = ωo + 2αθ -----------------------------------------------------4.15
Note: v = ω, u = ωo, s = θ, a = α
θ
Arc length S = x2πr, but 360 = 2πrad
360
θ
S= x2πR = Rθ ------------------------------------------------4.16
2π
S
Linear velocity v = , using equation 4.16
t
⇒v =
Rθ
t
=R
θ
t () but (ω = θ/t)
v
v = Rω ⇒ω = -----------------------------------------------4.17
R
v u
Angular velocity ω = ω0 + αt using equation 4.17 we can write = + αt
R R
v u
⇒αt = -
R R
∴α =
1 v-u
R t ( ) also a = (
v-u
t
)
a
α= ⇒a = αR ---------------------------------------------------4.18
R
Example 4.5
43
angular velocity of the wheel of 600mm in diameter at 15second.
Solution:
d=600mm = 600/1000=0.6m
v
ω= =15/0.3 = 50rad/s
R
ω = ω0 + αt ⇒ 50 = 0 + (α×30)
50 2
∴α = = 1.67rad/s
30
ω = ω0 + αt = 0 + 1.67×15 = 25.05rad/s
Example 4.6
Solution:
44
Angular displacement at interval of 10 sec
2 2
ω - ωo = 2αθ
(26.35)2- (6π)2
⇒θ = = 22rad
2x0.75
226rad
N= = 35.97
2πrad
Example 4.7
A wheel is spinning at 5000rev/min, what constant acceleration must hit to come
to rest in 4s, (i.e. deceleration)
Solution:
5000x2πrad
ωo= 5000rev/min = = 523.7rad/s
60
α=? t=4s ω=0
ω = ω0 + αt ⇒ ω0 = -αt
-ωo -523.7 2
∴α = = = -130.9rad/s
t 4
Radial Acceleration
2
mv
Centripetal force f = , but v = rω,
r
2 2
mr ω
f = ma = -----------------------------------------4.19
r
2
a = ω r (centripetal or radial acceleration) ------------4.20
Example 4.8
45
Solution:
2
mv
v = rω And f =
r
30
ω = rω = = 30rad/s
1
2 2
mv 4×30
f= = = 4×900 = 3600N
r 1
Y
46
A ω
B
θ
r
θ
D
c X
0
x
When the particle moves from A to B in time t to make angle θ, the projection
displacement is;
x = 0D = rsin θ But θ = ωt
⇒ x = rsin ωt --------------------------------4.21
Velocity of projection at a distance x from 0 is obtain by differentiating the
displacement x with respect to time
dy
= vx = ωrcosωt
dt
D
but cosθ = ⇒ rcosθ = D,
r
vx = ωD ----------------------------------------4.22
0 D
dvx 2
ax = = -ω rsin ωt ----------------------------------------4.24
dx
ax a
, but ω = 2πf then ω = (2πf)2 = x
2 2 2
∴ ax = ω x ⇒ ω =
x x
ax 1 ax
⇒2πf = ⇒ f= --------------------------------------------4.25
x 2π x
1 displacement
since T = ⇒ T = 2π x/ax = 2π ------------------------4.26
f acceleration
Example 4.9
The amplitude of a body moving in a SHM is 0.6m and its period is 2.4 second.
Find v and a after 0.5seconds
Solution:
A= r =0.6m, T = 2.4seconds
2π 2π π
T= ⇒ω = = rad/s
ω T 1.2
vx = ωrcosωt =
π
1.2
×0.6cos (
180
1.2 )
× 0.5 = 0.4m/s
( ) ( )
2
2 π 180 2
ax = -ω rsinwt = - ×0.6sin ×0.5 = 8m/s
1.2 1.2
Example 4.10
48
b. The frequency in hertz
Solution:
12
a. T = = 2.4sec
5
1 1
b. F = = = 0.416Hz
T 2.4
2π 2π
c. ω = = = 2.61rad/s
T 2.4
Example 4.11
a. Frequency
Solution:
3
⇒f = Hz
2
1 2
b. T = = sec
f 3
c. A = r = 4m
49
d. Phase angle ∅ = π
Exercise 4
1. A circular ring of mass M and radius r is rotating about its axis with a
constant angular velocity ω. Two objects, each of mass m, are attached
gently to the opposite ends of a diameter of the ring. Show that the ring
now rotates with angular velocity of. Ans: ωM/(M + 2m)
4. A football kicker can give the ball an initial speed of 25m/s. What are the
(a) least
(b) greatest elevation angles at which he can kick the ball to score a field
goal from a point 50m in front of the goalposts whose horizontal bar is
0 o
3.44m above the ground? Ans(a) 31 (b) 63
5. A diver makes 2.5 revolutions on the way from a 10-m-high platform to the
water. Assuming zero initial vertical velocity, the average angular velocity
during the dive is? Ans: 11rad/ses
50
Introduction to Dynamics
Kinematics as we discuss in chapter one deals with only the effect of force i.e.
motion, but in kinetics deals with the relationship between motion and the forces
is define by the laws of dynamics. Among other laws, Newton’s law of motion is
most prominent.
Important terms
Weight: it’s the force by which the body is attracted towards the centre of
the earth, its expressed in N, KN etc. or a magnitude of a gravitational force
(g).
Inertia: it’s the reluctant (resistance) to a body to change in its state of rest
or uniform motion.
First law:
51
This law is called law of inertial, since inertial is the reluctant of a body to start or
stop moving.
Second law:
This law enables us to measure a force and establish the fundamental equation
of dynamics.
Let.
m= mass of a body
u = initial velocity
v= final velocity
a= constant acceleration
Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum = mv
52
Change in momentum of a body = mv - mu
dP
Rate at change of momentum of a body =
dt
dP mv-mu m(v-u)
⇒ = = = ma -------------------------------------------------5.1
dt t t
v-u
Since a =
t
dP
∴ ∝ ma
dt
dP
= kma But k = 1
dt
dP
We can write = ma = F-----------------------------------------------------------5.2
dt
P = mat, But v = at
P = mv --------------------------------------------------------------------5.3
⃗ ⃗
In term of force, F net = m a ------------------------------------------------------5.4
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
F net, x = m a x; F net, y = m a y, and F net, z = m a z, -----------------------------5.5
⃗
In the case of more than one force acting on a body, F net is same as the vector
53
⃗ ⃗
sum of all the force. The net force will also be given as ( F net = m a );
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
F 1 + F 2 + F 3……………….. + F n = F net ---------------------------------5.6
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
F net = m1 a 1 + m2 a 2 + m3 a 3 + ……………… + mn a n
⃗ ⃗
⇒ F net = ∑ni=1mi a i ------------------------------------------------------5.7
Third law:
Action means the force, which a body exerts on another, where as reaction
means the equal and opposite force, which a second body exerts on the first i.e.
when a horse draws a stone tied by a rope the horse will be equally drawn back
towards the stone.
Example 5.1
2
A horse pulls a cart of mass 500kg and produces an accelerator of 4m/s , find
the force exerted by the horse
Solution:
2
M=500kg a= 4m/s
Example 5.2
A body of mass 200kg is found to move with a velocity of 20m/s when a force of
100N acts on it for 90s. Determine the velocity of the body:
ii. When the force acts in the opposite direction of the motion.
54
Solution:
F 100 2
F = ma ⇒a = = = 0.5m/s
m 200
v = u + at = 20 + 0.5(90) = 70m/s
v = u - at = 20 - 0.5(90) = -20m/s
Example 5.3
A body of mass 150kg has its velocity changed from 10m/s to 20m/s in the
same direction in 50s find
Solution
i. Change in momentum
F = ma = m ( )
v-u
t
= 150 (
20-10
50 )
= 3×10 = 30N
Example 5.4
The weight of the body on earth is 490N, if the acceleration due to gravity on
earth is 9.8m/s2. What will be the weight of the body on (a) The moon where the
55
gravitational acceleration is 1.4m/s2 and (b) The sun where g =270m/s2
Solution:
w = mg Since w=490N given
w 490
⇒m = = = 50kg
g 9.81
a. Weight of the body on moon g =1.4m/s2
w = mg = 50×1.4 = 70N.
w = mg
∑Fy=may ⇒T - w = ma
2
a = 2.7m/s ∴ We take the right direction, since our answer is positive
v1
m1
A u1
56
A
B u2
Collisio
m2 v2
After
Before
From fig. 5.4, let us take a case of collision of two balls A and B before collision
balls A, of mass m1 moving with velocity u1, and B of mass m2 moving with
velocity u2, after the collision the ball A has final velocity v1 and B has final
velocity v2 we can say;
For A = m1u1
For B = m2u2
For A = m1v1
For B = m2v2
57
Collision
Collision is defined as the striking of two particles with each other, in this
process the initial momentum of two particles allow them to approach each
other and make a direct physical contact. After very long short time interval, the
colliding objects move away from each other. There are some conditions for
collision to occur, as follows;
The body which rebounds to a greater height is said to be more elastics than a
body which rebounds to a lesser height, while body which does not rebound at all
after the impact is called an inelastic body.
Types of collision
1. Perfectly elastics collision: whenever a collision takes place in which
the total kinetic energy (K.E) is conserved is called perfectly elastic
collision.
A ball of mass 8kg moving with a velocity of 10m/s, collide directly on another of
mass 24kg, moving at speed of 2m/s in opposite direction. Find the velocity of
the ball after impact, if e=1/2.
Solution:
u1=10m/s u2=2m/s
80 – 48 = 8v1 + 24v2
32=8v1 + 24v2
v1+3v2 = 4 ----------------------------------------5.37
v1 - v2 = -e(u1 - u2)
1
v2 - v1 = (10 - ( - 2))
2
⇒ v2 - v1 = 6 --------------------------------------5.38
59
Example 5.8
Two cars approaching each other at right angle collide and stick together, one
car has mass of 1200kg and a speed of 30km/h in positive x direction before the
collision, and the second has a mass of 1500kg and was travelling in positive y
direction. After the collision the two cars moves up at an angle of 64o to the x
axis what was the speed of the second car?
Solution:
y
P = m2u 2 (m2+m1)
m2 =1500kg
(m2+m1)vsin64°
m1 = 1200kg
6
x
P = m1u1 (m2+m1)vcos64°
m1u1 = (m2+m1)vcos64°--------------------------------------------------5.39
m2u2 = (m2+m1)vsin64°---------------------------------------------------5.40
60
m1u1 1200×30
v= = = 30.4km/hr
(m2+m1)cos64° (1500+1200)×30.4×0.4383
Substituting v in equation 5.40 we have:
u2 =
(m2+m1)vsin64° =
(1500+1200)×30.4×0.8987
= 49km/hr
m2 1500
Example 5.9
A 1500kg car travelling eat with a speed of 25m/s collide at an intersection with
a 2500kg truck traveling worth at a speed of 20m/s. find the direction and
magnitude of the velocity of the wreckage after the collision assuming the
vehicle stick together after collision.
Solution: N
m1+m2
θ
W 25m/ E
1500kg
20
m/ 2500kg
s
S
Resolving the momentum P in fig 5.9 along the X and Y axis we get:
61
∆Py = 0, ∑Pyi = ∑Pyp = m2u2 = (m1 + m2)vfsin θ----------------------5.42
(m1+m2)Vfsin θ mu 20×2500
⇒ = 2 2 = tan θ = = 0.75
(m1+m2)Vfcos θ m1u1 25×1500
-1
⇒θ = tan 0.75 = 53.1°
And to get the final velocity we substitute θ in either equation 5.41 or 5.42 to get
Vf
Impulse
This is the change of momentum of an object, is the integral of a force with
respect to time, for which it acts. Impulse is a vector quantity and the impulse
applied to an object produces an equivalent vector change in its linear
momentum. Impulse is symbolized by J or Imp.
∆P = F∆t = J --------------------------------------------------------------------5.43
Friction
The force of friction may be defined as the opposing force which is called into
play in between the surface of contact of two bodies, when one body moves over
the surface of another.
R= normal reaction
F = Applied Force
Ff = Frictional Force
w = mg
62
Fig 5.10 A force applied on a bon on a floor
TYPES OF FRICTION
Friction of un lubricated surface i.e. sliding friction and rolling friction
Static Friction: the static friction is the friction offered by the surfaces
subjected to external force until there is no motion between them.
Limiting Friction: this is the force required to just start the object sliding
over the surface of other body.
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
Coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of frictional force to the normal
reaction between the bodies, denoted by μ.
F
Then μ = ⇒F = μR------------------------------------------------5.44
R
Example 5.10
63
ii. If the create is pulled along a constant speed V and force required to
maintain is 330N applied at 30o to the horizontal, what will be µ at the
speed v?
Solution:
R
F 30o fy = fsin θ
fx = fcos θ
w = mg
⇒ R + fsin 30 - w = 0
FL = μR = fcos θ --------------------------------------------5.47
392
⇒f = = 369.8N
1.06
64
∴ fcos 30 - μdR = 0
Incline Plane
The coefficient of limiting or static friction µs can be found in an inclined plane
as shown below i.e. when placing a block on a plane surface.
R FL
mgsin θ mgcos θ
mgsin θ
θ w = mg
The normal reaction R of the surface and the limiting force FL, which prevents
the block from slopping, these forces are at equilibrium, and we can resolve
the w into components:
FL - mgsin θ - ma = 0 ButFL = μR
If a = 0 then FL - mgsin θ = 0
μR = mgsin θ -------------------------------------------5.48
R - mgcos θ = 0
⇒R = mgcos θ----------------------------------------------------------------5.49
65
mgsin θ μR
=
mgcos θ R
⇒tan θ = μ ----------------------------------------------------------5.50
Example 5.11
A 8kg box is released on a 30o inclined and accelerates down the inclined at
0.03m/s2 find dynamic frictional force Fd and coefficient of dynamic friction µd.
Solution:
Consider Fig 5.12 above, with mass sliding down the inclined plane. The sum
of forces parallel to the plane is equals to the mass of the box and
acceleration of the box.
∑F ||
= mgsin θ - fd = ma||
To find μd
fd 36.24 36.24
fd = μdR ⇒R = = = = 0.54
μd mgcos θ 8×9.81×cos 30
⃗
Where L = angular momentum of particle
“The angular momentum of a particle is conserved if and only if the net external
torque acting on a plane is zero”.
66
The torque which is the moment of force around a reference point is equal to the
rate of change of angular momentum of particle about the same reference point.
The angular momentum of a particle is conserve if the total torque applies in the
particle is equal to zero.
⃗
dL ⃗
Torque is define as the rate of change of angular momentum τ = --------------
dt
-5.52
Exercise 5
1. A body of mass of mass 500kg, initially at rest, is acted upon by a force of
200N. Find the velocity of the body after the force has been acting for 5sec.
And the distance through which the body the body will travel in these 5sec.
Ans: 2m/s; 5m
2. An elevator is required to lift a body of mass 65kg. Find the acceleration of the
2
elevator, which could cause a pressure of 800N on the floor. Take g=9.8m/s .
2
Ans: a=2.5m/s
3. A ball is dropped from a height of 25m upon a horizontal floor. Find the
coefficient of restitution between the floor and the ball, if it rebound to a
height of 16m. Ans: 0.8
4. A ball of mass 1kg moving with a velocity of 2m/s, strike directly on another
ball of mass 2kg at rest. The first ball after striking comes to rest. Find the
velocity of the second ball after striking and the coefficient of restitution. Ans:
1m/s, 0.5
67
WORK
In mechanics work means accomplishment, a force is said to have done work if
it moves the body on which it acts, through certain distance.
Work is measured by the product of force (f) and displacement (s) both being in
68
the same direction.
Work has a unit of joule or Nm, That is (1j = 1Nm). If the force is acting an angle
θ to the direction of displacement as shown in fig 6.1 below
θ
Fcos θ
1
ds = r1 - r2
r1
2
r2
∫ mvdv = m∫ vdv = m( 2 v )|
2 2 2
dv 1
∫
2 2
∴ m .vdt =
1
dt 1 1
1
1 2 1 2 1 2
⇒w12 = mv2 × mv1 But T = mv
2 2 2
69
⇒w12 = T2-T1 ------------------------------------------6.4
Therefore work done by the particle in moving from point 1 to 2 is equal to the
difference in K.E of the two particle, that is work done is independent of path
taking by the particle. If the path is a close loop (∮ds) then the work done is zero.
Power
Power is defined as rate of doing work. If an agent perform w units of work in t
seconds, then
power =
work done
time
=
w
t
=
f×s
t
=f
s
t ()
= fv-------------------------------------6.5
Energy
The energy of a body is its capacity of doing work,
The unit of energy is same as that of work; the energy may exist in the following
form.
Mechanical energy
Electrical energy
Light energy
Heat energy
Chemical energy
Mechanical energy
A body may possess any or both of the following types of energies
1. Potential energy
70
2. Kinetic energy
Potential energy (P.E): the energy which a body possesses by virtue of its
position or configuration is called potential energy. Example: if a body of
mass m is raised through a height h above a level, then work done in its
mgh and this is stored in the body as potential energy P.E = mgh ---------------
--------------------------6.6
Kinetic energy (K.E): the energy which a body possesses by virtue of its
motion is called K.E it is measured by the amount of work required to be
done to bring the body to rest.
Let a body of mass m moving with velocity v be brought to rest by the application
of constant force f which causes a retardation ‘a’ if ‘s’ be the distance through
which the body moves in this period
2 2
But v = u + 2as (previous)
2
2 v
⇒v = 2as or s =
2a
2 2
v mv
∴ K.E = (m×a)× = ---------------------------------------------6.8a
2a 2
2 2
v -u
Also; = as
2
m(v -u )
2 2
1 2 1 2
⇒K.E = m(as) = = mv - mu
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
f.s = mv - mu --------------------------------------------6.9
2 2
71
dv
If the force is variable: f = m v ,
ds
w y
C h
w
h-y
72
B
1 2 1
K.E at C = mv = m(2gy) = mgy -----------------------------------------6.12
2 2
That is part of P.E is converted to K.E but the sum of two energies is the same.
Example 6.3
A body of mass 5kg is thrown up vertically with a velocity of 9.8m/s what its K.E
73
g=9.8m/s2
Solution:
1 2 1
i. K.E = mv = × 5 × (9.8)2 = 240.1 Nm
2 2
ii. v = u - gt = 4.985m/s
1 2
K.E = mv = 59.9Nm
2
Example 6.4
A ball weighting 4.5N is thrown with a velocity of 20m/s it first touches the
ground and then bumps up. It loses 30Nm of energy when it touches the ground,
what is the velocity after it bumps?
Solution:
w
w = 4.5N, v = 20m/s, loss of energy= 30Nm Note: m =
g
1 w
K.E of the balls before it touches the ground = × ×
2 g
2 1 4.5 2
v = × ×20 = 91.71Nm
2 9.81
K.E after the bumps = 91.71-30 = 61.74Nm
Let v1 be the velocity of the ball after the bump then,
1 w 2
K.E of the ball after the bump = × ×v1
2 g
1w 2 2 61.74×g×2
⇒ v1 = 61.74 ∴ v1 =
2g w
61.74x2x9.81
⇒ v1 = = 16.41m/s
4.5
Example 6.5
A particle moving in x-y plane undergoes a displacement given by
⃗ ⃗
∆ r = (2.0i + 5j)m as a constant force of F = (5i+2j)N acts on the particle
calculate the work done by F’ on the particle.
74
Solution:
⃗
w = F×∆ r = [(5i+2j)∙(2.0i+3j)] = [(5∙2)i∙i+(2∙3)j∙j] = 16Nm
Example 6.6
A 6kg block initially at rest is pulled to the right angle along a frictionless,
horizontal surface by a constant horizontal force of magnitude 12N. Find the
block speed after it has moved through a horizontal distance of 3.0m
Solution:
vf
⃗
F
w = mg ∆x
2w 2fdx
vf = = ⇒ vf = 3.5m/s
m m
Energy in a Pendulum
In a simple pendulum with no friction, mechanical energy is always conserved.
As the pendulum swings back and forth, there is a constant exchange between
K.E and gravitational P. With a total energy of;
Potential Energy
The potential energy of the pendulum can be given as normal P.E of equation
6.10 as
P.E = mgh, all terms have their usual meaning.
However the pendulum is constrained by the rod or string and is not in free
fall, thus we must express the height in terms of θ the angle, L the length of the
pendulum. Thus from Fig 6.5 below;
75
h = L(1 - cos θ) -------------------------------------------------------6.15
Ceiling
L L Lcos θ
Kinetic Energy
2
mv
The K.E would be (K.E = ) as in equation 6.8, at highest point the pendulum
2
is motionless. All the energy is gravitational potential energy and there is no
kinetic energy at lowest point, the pendulum has its greatest speed, all energy
now is K.E. However the total energy now is constant as a function of time, but if
there is friction we have a damped pendulum which exhibits damped harmonic
motion.
Damped harmonic motion: illustrating the position against time of object moving
in S.H.M. In small damped, the amplitude decrease slowly over time, the damping
force is directly proportion to quantity slightly less than the square of the body’s
velocity.
All of the mechanical energy eventually becomes other forms of energy such as
heat or sound.
76
a
Fig 6.6 A spring (a) Stretch (b) at rest/ equilibrium (c) compress
From Hooke’s law which states that ‘’the force F needed to extend or compress a
spring by some distance x is proportional to that distance’’. As shown in figure
6.6 above
Where fR is known as restoring force, considering the force along x-axis we have:
∑f x
= max→ - kx = max
kx
thus ax = - ----------------------------------------------------6.20
m
2
dx kx 2
Also 2 = ax = - , And also ax = -ω x (previous)
dt m
kx 2
∴ - = -ω x
m
k
⇒ω = --------------------------------------------------------6.21
m
Example 6.7
A 200g block connected to a spring for which the force constant is 5N/m is free
to oscillate in a frictionless horizontal surface. The block is displaced 5cm and
released from rest find the period of the motion.
Solution:
77
k 5
w= = = 25 = 5 rad/s
m 0.2
2π 2×3.142
T= = = 1.26s
ω 5
1 2 1 2 2 2
K.E = mv = mω A cos ωt, where v = ωAcosωt (Previous)
2 2
And the elastic potential energy stored in the spring for any elongation x is
2
kx 1 2 2
U= = kA sin ωt, where x = Asinωt (Previous)
2 2
1 2 2 2 1 2 2
Total Energy E = K.E + P.E = mω A cos ωt + kA sin ωt -------------6.22
2 2
2 k
From equation 6.21 ω = substitute in 6.22
m
1 k 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2
⇒E = m A cos ωt + kA sin ωt = kA (cos ωt + sin ωt)
2 m 2 2
2 2
But cos ωt + sin ωt = 1 (from trigonometry)
1 2
∴E = kA -----------------------------------------6.23
2
Exercise 6
3
1. A train of mass 500×10 kg starts from rest and accelerate uniformly to a
speed of 90km/hr in 50 sec. The total frictional resistance to motion is
15kN. Determine: (i) The maximum power required (ii) The power require
to maintain the speed of 90km/hr. Ans: (i) 6.625MW (ii) 375kW
78
which makes an angle of 30o with the horizontal. Find the work done in
pulling the block up for a length of 5m. Ans: 400Nm
79
Rigid body
A rigid body is a system of mass points under constraints, such that the distance
between any pair of point remains always constant at any instant of time, a rigid
body does not change its shape or size due to application of force.
r1
θ
m1
v1
Fig. 7.1 A rigid body with mass m rotating about fixed axis O
v1 = rω (Previous)
1 2 1 2 2
K.E = m1v1 = m1r1ω1 -----------------------------------------7.1
2 2
Moment of Inertia
Is define as product of the mass of the body and square of the distance of the
body from a fixed line, and it’s denoted as I.
2kg
1m
2kg 3kg
2m 2m
1m
1k
P
2
I = 20kgm
2 2 2 2
ii. I = m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + m4r4
81
2 2 2 2
I = 1×1 + 3×2 + 2×1 + 2×2
2
I = 23kgm
x dx
Q
Fig 7.3 A uniform rod rotates about its center
Length of rod =L
Mass of rod =M
The mass is uniformly distributed along the whole length of the rod.
M
λ = mass per unit lenght = --------------------------7.4
L
82
M
Mass of small element dm = λdx = dx.
L
The small element is distant x from the axis passing through the center of the
rod.
2
Therefore the moment of inertia of the small element is I = mx
2 M
dI = dmx where dm = dx
L
Integrating both sides we get the moment of inertia for the whole rod about
an axis through it centre which is twice one side.
|
L
L 3 2
M 2 2M 2L 2 2M x 2 ML
I = 2∫ x dx=
2 ∫0 x dx= [ = ---------------------------7.5
L 0 L L 3 0 12
M r
c = 2πr, λ= dx
2πr
83
Moment of inertia of a circular disc
x
r
2 M
A = πr , σ= 2 surface charge density ---------------7.9
πr
Radius of Gyration
Is defined as the distance from the axis of the reference where the entire mass
of the body is
assumed to be concentrated
K
c. at
84
c.m= center mass of the body
If k is the distance from the given axis of a point where the whole mass of the
body is supposed to be concentrated then;
2 I
I = Mk ⇒k = , ----------------------------------------------------7.12
M
I= moment of inertia, M = total mass of body
In case of circular disc
2
Mr r
k= = ---------------------------------------------------------------7.13
2M 2
2
2Mr 2
Incase of solid sphere k = = r . ------------------------7.14
5M 5
Example 7.2
Find the moment of inertia of a rectangular body of side L and b about an axis
through one corner perpendicular to its plane.
Solution:
1 2
About the edge of length b is ML
3
1 2
About the edge of length L is Mb
3
1 2 1 2 1 2 2
I = Ix + Iy = ML + Mb = M(L + b )
3 3 3
Example 7.3
85
0.1m what is its total K.E ?
Solution:
v 0.2
v = rω⇒ω = = = 2rad/s
r 0.1
2
mr 0.1×(0.1)2 2
Total moment of inertia ⇒ I = = = 0.0005kg/m
2 2
1 2 1 2 2
Total K.E = mv + Iw = 0.03kg/m
2 2
Example 7.4
A flywheel of mass 1500kg has a radius of gyration 1.2m find K.E when its
rotating at 250r.p.m, and the uniform torque which will be given the wheel this
speed in 100revolution.
Solution:
2
I = mk = 1500×(1.2)2 = 2160
2πN 250
ω= = 2π × = 26.18rad/s
60 60
1 2
K.E = Iw = 740223Nm
2
Also K.E = τθ and θ = 100rev = 100×2πrad
K.E 740223
τ= = = 1178Nm.
θ 200π
Moment of a Force
The product of a force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of
the force to the point, is known as the moment of force or torque about a point
e.g rotation of a door opening and closing the turning effect about the hinges,
water tap etc.
86
Parallel force
P R=P+Q Q
A C B
The moment of R about C is zero, so the sum of moment about P and Q must be
zero.
P×AC = Q×BC ------------------------------------------------------7.17
B
C A
Principle of moments
d1 d2
F1 Pivot F2
87
Anticlock wise moment(ACWM) = F1×d1
Clock wise moment(CWM) = F2×d2
∴ ∑CWM=∑ACWM= F1×d1 = F2×d2 ------------------------------7.18
Similarly for action of several forces
R S
d1 d2 d3 d4
A B
F1 w F2
The total ACWM of all the force about the pivot is equal to the total CWM of all
forces about the pivot.
∑CWM=∑ACWM
F1 + w + F2 = R + SF1 -----------------------------------------------------7.20
88
Example 7.5
A uniform beam of length 4m weight 200N and holds a 450N weight as shown in
figure 7.13 below. Find the magnitude of the forces exerts on the beam by two
supports at it end.
R S
2m 1m 1m
A 200N 450N B
Solution:
Applying the principle of moment “Sum forces in one direction = sum of force in
opposite direction”
∑CWM=∑ACWM
⇒(200 × 2) + (450 × 3) = S × 4 ------------------------------------7.22
1750
∴ 400 + 1350 = 4S ⇒S = = 437.5N
4
Substitute S in 7.21
89
Example 7.6
l
200N 100 500N
Where must fulcrum be placed if a 500N wieght at one end is to balanced 200N
weight at the other end, what load must the support hold ?
Solution:
S = load
Upward force = down ward force
S= 200 + 100 + 500 = 800N
Couple
A couple is a pair of two equal and opposite forces acting on a body in such away
that the line of action of the two forces are not in same staright line.
P
A B
90
Q
Center of Gravity
Is the point of application of the resultant force due to earth attarction on it. The
center of gravity of a body may be defined as a point through which the whole
weight of a body may assumed to act. And is usually denoted as c.g. or simply by
G. The position of c.g depends upon shape of the body and this may or may not
necessarily be within the boundary of the body, the center of gravity of some
object may be found by balancing the object on a point.
Torque
Torque is eqaul to the product of force and the perpendicular distance between
the line of action of the force and the point of rotation.
τ = F×r (previous)
In rotational mechanics
τ = Iα -------------------------------------------------------------------------7.23
Exercise 7
1. Fourn forces 3,4,5 and 6N respectively act in a clockwise directionalong
the sides of a square each of side of which is 0.5m. Find the value of the
moments of these forces about (i) the center of the square (ii) the point of
intersection of the force 3N and 6N. Ans: (i) 450N.m (ii) 450N.m
91
200mm from one of the force. Ans: 240N
5. A bicyclist of mass 70kg puts all his mass on each downward moving
pedal as he pedals up a steep road. Take the diameter of the cycle in which
the pedal rotate to be 0.40m, and determine the magnitude of the
maximum torque he exerts about the rotation axis of the aligned? Ans:
2
1.4×10 N.m
92
.
Static Equilibrium
When an object is at rest and remains at rest we say that the object is at static
equilibrium. This deals with equilibrium of force.
When several forces acting on a point in order to have equilibruim we use several
statement established axioms) base in principle of state equilibrium.
Q Q
θ θ
θ
A A B
P P
Fig 8.1 Paralellogram of forces
P Q R
using sine rule: = = ----------------8.2
sin c sin A sin B
93
This is equivalent to lami’s theorem.
F1 F2
θ3
θ1 θ2
F3
In general
F1 F2 F3
= = ----------------------------------------------------8.3
sin θ1 sin θ2 sin θ3
Example 8.1
94
A mass of 12kg is hung by two string of length 3m and 4m. the other ends of the
string being attached to points in a horizantal line 5m apart calculate the tension
in each string.
Solution:
5m
A B
3m 4m
β α
180 - β C 180 - α
12kg
w = mg = 12×10 = 120N
2 2 2
In ∆ABC, angle C is a right angle becouse AB = AC + BC
2 2 2
i.e.5 = 3 + 4
⇒25 = 9 + 16 = 25,
3 4 5
by using 8.2 ⇒ = =
̂ ̂ ̂
sin B sin A sin C
3 4 5
∴ = =
̂ ̂ sin90
sin B sin A
̂ 3 3
therefore sin B = ( )sin90 = = 0.6
5 5
̂ -1 o
⇒ B = sin 0.6 = 36.87
̂ o
Similarly A = 53.13
95
Using lamis theorem at C we get
T1 T2 w
= =
sin (180-α) sin (180-β) sin90
120
T1 = × sin53.13 = 120×0.7999
sin90
T2 = 12N
Coplanar forces act in the same plane, the sum R of the forces in the
system will also lie in the plane
Concurrent force are applied at the same point and can therefore be added
directly to obtain their resultant R.
Condition
Example 8.3
W=50N
96
Find the T in fig 8.6 above
Solution:
⇒T = 50N
Example 8.4
A B
3
5
T1 T2
T3
m
w = mg = 122N
Solution:
T1 T2
37 53
x
T3
97
∑fy = 0
T3 - fg = 0
T3 = fg = 122N
x-component y-component
T1 = - T1cos37 T1sin37
T2 = T2cos53 T2sin53
⇒T1 = 73.4N
Exercisen 8
1. A body of weight 4.5N is suspended by two strings 18cm and 61cm long
and other end beign fastened to the extremist of rod of length 63.6cm. If
the rod be so held that the body hangs immediately below its middle point,
find out the tension in the strings. Ans:4.32N and 1.26N
3. The angle between the two forces of magnitude 40N and 30N is 60o; the
40N force beign horizontal. Determine the resultant in magnitude and
direction; if (i) the force are pulls and (ii) the 30N force is push and 40N is
pull. Ans: (i) 60.8N, 25o (ii) 36N, 46o
98
Newtons inverse square law/ Newton’s law of Gravitation
Newtons law of gravitation states that the force of attraction between two
masses seperated by a distance r is directly proportional to the product of the
masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
m1m2
Mathematically the first statement: f α --------------------------------9.1
1
1
Second statement: f α 2 ------------------------------------------------9.2
r
99
m1m2
fα 2 ---------------------------------9.3
r
Gm1m2
⇒ f= 2 ---------------------------------------------9.4
r
-11 2 2
G = 6.67×10 Nm /kg known as the gravitational constant.
Gravitational Field
Earth
Fig 9.1 gravitational field lines of equal strengh towards the earth
The gravitational field or gravitational field strenght is the force exerted by gravity
on an object per unit massof the object, its given as;
fgrav
g= , ---------------------------------------------------------------9.5
m
A field is something that has a magnitude and a direction at every point in space.
Acceleration due to gravity down at all point in this place is 9.8m/s2, the field is
uniform near the surface of the earth and has equal space field lines.
Example 9.1
Three 0.300kg balls are placed on a table at the corners of a right triangle as
shown in fig 9.2 below, the side of the triangle are of length a=0.4m b=0.3m and
100
c=0.5m. Calculate the gravitational force vector on the m1 ball resulting from the
other two balls as well as the magnitude and direction of this force.
Solution:
yj
m2
a C
f21
f
m1 xi m3
f31 b
⃗ Gm1m2 -11
6.67×10 ×0.300×0.300 -11
f 21 = 2 j= 2 j = 3.75×10 jN.
a (0.4)
⃗ Gm1m3 -11
6.67×10 ×0.300×0.300 -11
f 31 = 2 i = 2 i = 6.67×10 iN.
b (0.3)
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
= (6.67i+3.75j)×10 N
-11
f = f 31 + f 21
2 2 -11
magnitude F = f21+f31 = 7.66×10 N
fy 3.7x10
-11
direction⇒tanθ = = -11 = 0.562
fx 6.67x10
o
θ = tan (0.562)=29.4
-1
Example 9.2
An astronant standing on the surface of ceres, the largest asteriod, drops a rock
from a height of 10m, it takes 8.06s to hit the ground .
101
b. Find the mass of the ceres, given that the radius of ceres is Rc=510km.
Solution:
1 2
∆x = ut + at , ∆x = -10m(coming down), u = 0, a = -gc and t = 8.06s
2
1 20
⇒ - 10 = - gc(8.06)2⇒gc =
2 64.96
2
gc = 0.308m/s
2
GmCm gcRc 21
mgc = 2 ⇒ mc = = 120×10 kg
Rc a
c. gc at 50km
Gmcm
mgc = 2 but is 50km away then r = 510km + 50km = 560km
r
Gmc 2
⇒gc = = 0.255m/s
(560)2
Period of Moon
Moon r
102
d
Earth
Gmemmoon
f= 2 -----------------------9.4
R
2
mv
fmoon = ma = ---------------------------------------------9.7
R
2
Gmemmoon m v
2 = moon
2
R R
2 Gme Gme
V = ⇒V = ---------------------------------------------------------9.8
R R
8
R + d + r = 3.84 × 10 m
24
ms = 6×10 kg
-11 8
G = 6.67×10 Rtotal = 3.84×10 m
-11 24
6.67×10 ×6×10 3
⇒V = 8 = 1.62×10 m/s
3.84×10
103
3
v 1.62×10 -6
But v = Rω⇒ω = = 8 = 2.65×10 rads
R 3.84×10
2π 2π 2π 6
ω= ⇒T = = -6 = 2.36×10 s
T ω 2.65×10
6
2.46×10
T= = 27.3day
24×60x60
Example 9.3
A proposed communication setalite will revolve round the earth in a circular orbit
in eqautorial planes at a height of 35,880km above the earth surface. Find the
period of revolution of the setalite in hours and comment on the result.
24 -11
Re=6370km, Me=5.98x10 kg, G=6.66x10 T=?
Solution:
2
mv
The force that keep the setalite is centripetal force f = s
R
me Re
2
Gmems mv
f= 2 = s
R R
104
-11 24
2 Gme 6.66x10 ×5.98x10 6
v = = 7 = 9.5×10
R 4.2×10
3
v = 3.1×10 m
3
v 3.1×10 -5
v = Rω⇒ω = = 7 = 7.3×10 rads
R 4.2×10
2π 2π 2×3.142
ω= ⇒T = = -5
T ω 7.3×10
4
T = 8.5×10 sec
4
8.5x10
= h.s = 23.8h ≅ 24h it has the same period with earth
60x60
105
2
GMsMe 2 mrs4π
2 = mrsω = 2
rs T
2 2 2 11 2
4π rs 4×(3.142) ×(1.5×10 ) 30
⇒ Ms = 2 = -11 7 2 = 2×10 kg
GT 6.7×10 ×(3.1×10 )
Earth
r
F
Sun
Parking Orbits
Earth
Satellite
Space
Consider a satelite of mass m, circling the earth in the plane of the equator in an
concentric orbit with the earth as shwon in fig 9.6 above. Suppose the direction
of rotation is the same, at a distance R from the centre of the earth. If V is the
velocity in orbit then;
2
mv Gmm 2
= 2 but Gm = gr (9.9) r = radius of earth
R R
2 2 2
mv mgr 2 gr
therefore = 2 ⇒v = ----------------------------------9.11
R R R
106
if T is the period of satelite in its orbit then
2πR 2π
v= from v = Rω and ω =
T T
2 2 2 2 3
4π R gr 2 4π R
2 = ⇒ T = 2 --------------------------------------------------9.12
T R gr
If the period of the satelite in its orbit is same as rotation of earth in its axis (24hr)
the satelite will stay over the same place on the earth while the earth rotate, this
is called a parking orbit. Relay satelite can be placed in parking orbit so that the
television programmes can be transmitted continiously from one part of the
world to another since T= 24hour the radius R can be found from equation 9.12
2 2
3 T gr
as R= 2 = 42400km ----------------------------9.13
4π
2πR
In the orbit, the velocity of the satelite ωs = = 3.1km
T
107
' 2
g r
⇒ = 2 -----------------------------------------------------------------9.16
g R
Thus above the earth the acceleration varies. For a heigh h above the earth we
get;
( )
2 -2
r ' h
R = h + r⇒g = 2 g = 1+ g ------------------------9.17
(r+h) r
r1
B
r2
Re
Fig 9.7 A particle moving from point A to B above the surface of earth
From the potential energy equation P.E = mgh, we can find the gravitational P.E
the gravitational P.E energy associated with an object of m at a distance r from
GMem
the centre of earth is : P.E = - to be prove
r
Rf
∆u = Uf - U1 =
∫ f(r)dr
ri
The particle moving from A – B above the earth surface, we can express the
108
force as;
GMem
F(r) = - 2 (-ve sign indicate the force is attractive) from eqn. 9.4
r
dr 1 1
⇒ Uf - U1 = GMem∫rfri 2 =-GMem ( - ) ----------------------9.20
r rf ri
GMem
u(r) = - ---------------------------9.21a (proved)
r
-Gm1m2
for two particle u(r) = ----------------------------9.21b
r
1 2 GMm 1 2 GMm
mvi - = mvf - ------------------------------------------------9.23
2 ri 2 rf
2
GMm mv
f = mac⇒ 2 =
r r
GMm 2
∴ = mv -------------------------------------------------------------9.24
r
GMm 1 2
⇒ = mv ---------------------------------------------------9.25
2r 2
109
substitute 9.25 in 9.23
1 2 GMm
∴E = mv = - -------------------------------------------9.26
2 2r
1.3 Potential
Potential is defined as the work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to that
point, the potential at infinity is taking as zero.
work = force ×distance. The force of attraction on a unit mass outside the earth
Gm
is thus 2 .
r
a Gm Gm
Va = ∫∞ 2 dr=- ----------------------------------------------------------9.27a
r a
Gm
⇒V =- -------------------------------------------------------------------------9.27b
r
Escape Speed
If an object is projected upward from earth’s surface with a large enough speed,
it can soar off into space and never return. This speed is called earth’s escape
speed or escape velocity.
1 2 GMEm
E = Ki + Ui = mv - (9.23) we neglet air resistance
2 i RE
110
1 2 GMem
⇒ mvesc -
2 RE
2Gme
⇒ Vesc = -----------------------------------------------9.28
RE
2. Second law state that a line drawn from the sun to any planet sweep equal
areas in equal time intervals
3. Third law state that the square of the orbital period of any planet is
proportional to the cube of the average distance from the planet to the sun.
thus;
2
2 3 4π -19 2 3
T = kSr where ks = = 2.97×10 s /m
Gms
Excercise 9
1. An object takes 2.4s to fall 5m on a certain planet. Find (a) the acceleration
due to gravity on the planet (b) the planets masses if its radius is 5250km.
Ans: (a) 1.74m/s2 (b) 7.19x1023kg.
2. If g is the acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface, Show that the
gain in the potential energy of an object of mass m raised from the surface
1
of the earth is mgR.
2
3. If the distance between the earth and the sun were half the present value,
Find the number of days that will be in a year. Ans: 129
111
4. A geostationary satelite orbits around the earth in a circular orbit of radius
36000km. Then, Find the time period of a spy satelite orbiting a few
hundred km above the earth’s (Re = 6400km). Ans: 2h
112