Module-1

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

• The cell: the basic unit of life

• Structure and functions of a cell
• The Plant Cell and animal cell
• Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell
• Stem cells and their application
• Biomolecules: Properties and functions of
Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids.
• Importance of special biomolecules
Enzymes (Classification with one example
each),Properties and functions)
Vitamins and hormones
 What is it that makes
an organism living, or
what is it that an
inanimate thing does
not have which a living
thing has ?

• The presence of the basic unit of life – the cell

in all living organisms.
• All organisms are composed of cells. Some are
composed of a single cell and are called
unicellular organisms
• While others, like us, composed of many cells,
are called multicellular organisms.
 Unicellular organisms are capable of
(i) independent existence and
(ii) performing the essential functions of life.

Anything less than a complete structure of a cell does not ensure independent living.
Hence, cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is

responsible for all of life’s processes.”
Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings.
A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of
life.
Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to
carry out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus, and cell organelles.
Cell Membrane
• Supports and protects the cell.
• Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cells.
• It separates the cell from the external environment.
• The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles,
such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed.
• It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
• A porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective substances
in and out of the cell.
• Protects the cellular component from
damage and leakage.

• Forms the wall-like structure between

two cells as well as between the cell
and its surroundings.
Cell Wall
• The cell wall is the most prominent part of
the plant’s cell structure.
• It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin.
• The cell wall is present exclusively in plant
cells. It protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components.
• The cell wall is also the outermost layer of
plant cells.
• It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding
the cell membrane.
• It provides shape and support to the cells
and protects them from mechanical shocks
and injuries.
Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like
substance present inside the cell membrane.
• Most of the chemical reactions within a cell
take place in this cytoplasm.
• The cell organelles such as endoplasmic
reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,
ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus
• The nucleus contains the hereditary material
of the cell, the DNA.
• It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature,
divide and die.
• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear
envelope that separates the DNA from the
rest of the cell.
• The nucleus protects the DNA and is an
integral component of a plant’s cell
structure.
Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to
carry out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions,
are as follows:

Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the
transportation of substances throughout the cell. It
plays a primary role in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and
proteins.

Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is
involved in the transportation of materials within the
cell.
 Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesizers of the
cell.

Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of
the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP –
the cell’s energy currency.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the
foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s
suicide bags.
 Chloroplast Vacuoles
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste
for photosynthesis. It contains the materials in the cell.
pigment called chlorophyll.

Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an
organism. Important functions of cell are as follows:
• Provides Support and Structure
• Facilitate Growth Mitosis
• Allows Transport of Substances
• Energy Production
• Aids in Reproduction
Plant Cell and Animal Cell
 Plant Cell Animal cell
Cell Shape Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape

Cell Wall Present Absent

Plasma/Cell Present Present
Membrane
Endoplasmic Present Present
Reticulum
Nucleus Present and lies on one side of Present and lies in the center
the cell of the cell
Lysosomes Present but are very rare Present
Golgi Apparatus Present Present
Plastids Present Absent
Vacuoles Few large or a single, centrally Usually small and numerous
positioned vacuole
Mitochondria Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous
Mode of Nutrition Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic
Cilia Absent Present in most of the animal
cells
During the 1950s, scientists
postulated the concept of
prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells, with earlier
groundwork being laid
by Edouard Chatton, a French
Biologist in 1925.
Prokaryotic Cell The pilus is a hair-like appendage found on
The term “prokaryote” is derived from the the external surface of most prokaryotes
Greek word “pro“, (meaning: before) and and it helps the organism to attach itself
“karyon” (meaning: kernel). It translates to to various environments. The pilus
“before nuclei.“ essentially resists being flushed, hence, it
Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient is also called attachment pili.
groups of living organisms on earth, with fossil Below the protective coating lies the cell
records dating back to almost 3.5 billion years wall, which provides strength and rigidity
ago. to the cell. Further down lies the
cytoplasm that helps in cellular growth,
It does not possess membrane-bound cell and this is contained within the plasma
organelles such as a nucleus. Reproduction membrane, which separates the interior
happens through the process of binary fission. contents of the cell from the outside
Capsule enveloping their entire body, and it environment.
functions as a protective coat. This is crucial for
preventing the process of phagocytosis (where Some prokaryotic cells contain special
the bacteria gets engulfed by other eukaryotic structures called mesosomes which assist
cells, such as macrophages) in cellular respiration. Most prokaryotes
also contain plasmids, which contain
Within the cytoplasm, ribosomes exist and it
small, circular pieces of DNA. To help with
plays an important role in protein synthesis.
locomotion, flagella are present, though,
It is also one of the smallest components
pilus can also serve as an aid for
within the cell.
locomotion.
 The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word “eu“, (meaning: good) and
“karyon” (meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to “good or true nuclei.”
Eukaryotes are more complex and much larger than prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the plasma
membrane. The cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane and it
controls the entry and exit of certain substances.

• The nucleus contains DNA, which is • Present in only plant cells, chloroplasts
responsible for storing all genetic are the subcellular sites of
information. The nucleus is surrounded by photosynthesis.
the nuclear membrane. Within the nucleus • The endoplasmic reticulum helps in the
exists the nucleolus, and it plays a crucial transportation of materials. Besides
role in synthesizing proteins. these, there are also other cell
• Eukaryotic cells also contain mitochondria, organelles that perform various other
which are responsible for the creation of functions and these include ribosomes,
energy, which is then utilized by the cell. lysosomes, Golgi bodies, cytoplasm,
chromosomes, vacuoles and
centrosomes.
 Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular

Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in
μm in diameter diameter
Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically simple in
complex in nature nature

Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present

a nucleoid region in the cell
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in size
spherical in shape and linear in shape
DNA Circular Linear
arrangement
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present

Mitochondria Absent Present

Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum

Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes Lysosomes and centrosomes are

are absent present

Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis

Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size

Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual

Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

 Stem cells are cells that can self-
renew and differentiate into other
cell types.

They are found in most tissues of

the body, and are essential for
tissue maintenance and repair.

Stem cells are unique cells with two

key properties:

1. Self-renewal (ability to divide and

produce identical cells)
2. Differentiation (capacity to
develop into specialized cell
types). They play critical roles in
development, tissue repair, and
regeneration.
Hierarchy of cell potency

1. Totipotent stem cells

Totipotent (omnipotent) stem
cells can give rise to any of the
220 cell types found in an
embryo as well as extra-
embryonic cells (placenta).

2. Pluripotent stem cells

Pluripotent stem cells can give
rise to all cell types of the body
(but not the placenta).

3. Multipotent stem cells

Multipotent stem cells can
develop into a limited number of
cell types in a particular lineage.
1. Embryonic stem cells: These stem cells come from embryos that are 3 to 5 days
old. At this stage, an embryo is called a blastocyst and has about 150 cells. These
are pluripotent (ploo-RIP-uh-tunt) stem cells, meaning they can divide into more
stem cells or can become any type of cell in the body.

Uses
1. Research: ESCs are used to study human development, and to identify factors that
affect cell differentiation and reprogramming.
2. Cell therapy: ESCs can be used to regenerate or repair diseased tissue and organs.
3. Drug development: ESCs can be used to test the toxicity of new chemical entities
that could become drugs.

2. Induced pluripotent stem cells: Created in a lab by reprogramming adult cells, such as
skin cells . They can be reprogrammed to have the same properties as embryonic stem
cells (ESCs).

Uses
Drug screening: iPSCs can be used to model diseases and screen drugs.
Cell therapy: iPSCs can be used to create cells that can treat diseases like diabetes,
leukemia, and neurological disorders.
Disease modeling: iPSCs can be used to model diseases like Alzheimer's disease, liver
disease, and spinal cord injury.
3. Adult stem cells: Derived from adult tissue, such as bone marrow or placental
tissue
Conditions treated with adult stem cells
Heart disease: Stem cell therapy can help with heart attacks and cardiac disease.
Rheumatoid arthritis: Mesenchymal stem cells can reduce inflammation and stabilize
the immune system.
Spinal cord injuries: Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) can be used to treat spinal cord
injuries.
Autoimmune diseases: Stem cells can turn into the cells of damaged organs.
Liver cirrhosis: HSCs can be used to treat liver cirrhosis.
Peripheral vascular disease: HSCs can be used to treat peripheral vascular disease.

4. Mesenchyme stem cells: Derived from connective tissue, such as that surrounding
organs and other tissues . Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stem cells
that can differentiate into many types of cells, including bone, cartilage, and muscle
cells.
MSCs are being studied as a treatment for immune-mediated diseases.
MSCs are being used to repair skeletal tissue.
MSCs are being used to modulate tissue and immune cells.
MSCs are being used to treat injured tissues.
5. Hematopoietic stem cells: Blood-forming stem cells that can create red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets . Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are immature
cells that can develop into all types of blood cells. They are also known as blood
stem cells.
HSCs are found in bone marrow and peripheral blood
HSCs produce blood cells throughout a person's life
HSCs respond to acute needs like infection or injury
HSCs are used to treat many blood cell diseases, such as leukemias and autoimmune
disorders
HSCs are used in bone marrow transplants to replace or rebuild a patient's
hematopoietic system

6. Peripheral blood stem cells: Can be isolated from a blood sample and can create
many different cells in the blood and immune system
7. Neural stem cells: Can create neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes
Embryonic stem cells.
• These stem cells come from embryos that are 3 to 5 days old.
• At this stage, an embryo is called a blastocyst and has about 150 cells.
• These are pluripotent stem cells, meaning they can divide into more stem cells
or can become any type of cell in the body.
• This versatility allows embryonic stem cells to be used to regenerate or repair
diseased tissue and organs.
Adult stem cells.
• These stem cells are found in small
numbers in most adult tissues, such as bone
marrow or fat.
• Compared with embryonic stem cells, adult
stem cells have a more limited ability to
give rise to various cells of the body.
• Until recently, researchers thought adult
stem cells could create only similar types of
cells. For instance, researchers thought that
stem cells residing in the bone marrow
could give rise only to blood cells.
• However, emerging evidence suggests that
adult stem cells may be able to create
various types of cells. For instance, bone
marrow stem cells may be able to create
bone or heart muscle cells.
• This research has led to early-stage clinical
trials to test usefulness and safety in
people. For example, adult stem cells are
currently being tested in people with
neurological or heart disease.
Adult cells altered to have properties of
embryonic stem cells.
• Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, are a type
of pluripotent stem cell derived from adult
somatic cells that have been genetically
reprogrammed to an embryonic stem (ES) cell-
like state through the forced expression of
genes and factors important for maintaining
the defining properties of ES cells.
• This new technique may allow use of
reprogrammed cells instead of embryonic stem
cells and prevent immune system rejection of
the new stem cells.
• However, scientists don't yet know whether
using altered adult cells will cause adverse
effects in humans.
• Researchers have been able to take regular
connective tissue cells and reprogram them to
become functional heart cells. In studies,
animals with heart failure that were injected
with new heart cells experienced improved
heart function and survival time.
 Application Description
Tissue Engineering Stem cells combined with biomaterials can engineer tissues
and organs for transplantation. This approach holds promise
for creating replacement tissues and organs, addressing the
shortage of donor organs, and reducing the risk of rejection.
Biomaterial Integration Stem cells can be integrated into various biomaterial
scaffolds, providing a platform for tissue regeneration and
repair. Engineers design and optimize these scaffolds to
mimic the natural microenvironment and guide stem cell
differentiation
Bioprinting Stem cell-based bioprinting involves the precise deposition
of stem cells and biomaterials to create complex three-
dimensional structures. This technology enables the
fabrication of tissue constructs with defined architectures,
suitable for transplantation.
Drug Screening and Stem cell-based models can be used for drug screening and
Development development, providing a more accurate representation of
human biology than traditional cell lines. Engineers develop
high-throughput platforms for screening potential drugs and
assessing their safety and efficacy.
Gene Therapy Engineers design stem cell-based gene delivery systems for gene
therapy applications. Stem cells can serve as vectors for delivering
therapeutic genes to target tissues, offering potential treatments for
genetic disorders and other diseases.
Disease Modeling Stem cells are used to model diseases in the laboratory, providing
insights into disease mechanisms and testing personalized therapies
 Biomolecules
A biomolecule is a chemical compound found in living
organisms.
These include chemicals that are composed of mainly carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus. Biomolecules are the building blocks
of life and perform important functions in living organisms.

It aids organisms to grow, sustain, and reproduce. They are involved in building
organisms from single cells to complex living beings like humans, by interacting
with each other. The diversity in their shape and structure provides diversity in
their functions.

The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic

acids, and proteins
Enzymes and Hormones
Properties and functions of Carbohydrates

Chemically, carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

atoms. Together, those atoms form sugar molecules that various life forms
use as chemical energy.

Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds

that serve as essential macronutrients and
biomolecules in living organisms.
Monosaccharide
• Monosaccharide carbohydrates are those carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed
further to give simpler units of poly-hydroxy aldehyde or ketone.

• If a monosaccharide contains an aldehyde group then it is called aldose and on the

other hand, if it contains a keto group then it is called a ketose
Disaccharides

• On hydrolysis, disaccharides yield two molecules of either the same or different

monosaccharides.
• The two monosaccharide units are joined by oxide linkage which is formed by the loss
of water molecule and this linkage is called glycosidic linkage.
• Sucrose is one of the most common disaccharides which on hydrolysis gives glucose
and fructose.
• Maltose and Lactose (also known as milk sugar) are the other two
important disaccharides.
• In maltose, there are two α-D-glucose and in lactose, there are two β-D-glucose which
are connected by an oxide bond.
Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides contain long monosaccharide units joined together by glycoside

linkage.
• Most of them act as food storage for e.g. Starch. Starch is the main storage
polysaccharide for plants.
• It is a polymer of α glucose and consists of two components-Amylose and
Amylopectin.
• Cellulose is also one of the polysaccharides that are mostly found in plants.
• It is composed of β-D- glucose units joined by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of one
glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit.
Properties of Carbohydrates

Property Description
Chemical Composition. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a ratio of
1:2:1, respectively
Structure Consists of chains or rings of sugar molecules.
Solubility Most carbohydrates are soluble in water due to their
hydrophilic nature, except for some larger polysaccharides
Sweetness Monosaccharides and disaccharides are generally sweet-
tasting, while polysaccharides are not.
Energy Source The primary source of energy for living organisms, providing 4
calories per gram upon digestion.
Storage Stored as glycogen in animals and as starch in plants for energy
reserves
Structural Function Act as building blocks for cell walls in plants (cellulose) and
exoskeletons in arthropods (chitin).
Biological Significance Essential for cellular processes such as metabolism, cell
signaling, and immune system functioning.
Functions of Carbohydrates
Function Description
Energy Source Carbohydrates serve as the primary source of energy for the body,
providing fuel for various physiological processes. Glucose, derived
from carbohydrates, is particularly vital for brain function and muscle
activity.
Structural In organisms, carbohydrates play a crucial role in providing structural
Support support. For instance, cellulose, a complex carbohydrate found in plant
cell walls, offers rigidity and strength, contributing to the overall
structural integrity of plants.
Storage of Carbohydrates are stored in the body as glycogen in the liver and
Energy muscles. When energy demand increases, glycogen is broken down into
glucose to meet the energy requirements, maintaining blood glucose
levels within a normal range.
Facilitate Dietary fibers, a type of carbohydrate found in plant-based foods, aid in
Digestion digestion by promoting regular bowel movements, preventing
constipation, and supporting a healthy digestive system.
Cellular Carbohydrates on cell surfaces play a crucial role in cell recognition and
Communicatio communication. They help cells identify and interact with each other,
n facilitating various physiological processes such as immune responses
and tissue development.
Flavour and Texture Carbohydrates contribute to the taste, texture, and appearance of
foods. They enhance the flavor of foods, provide sweetness, and
contribute to the texture of baked goods, making them palatable
and appealing to consumers
Metabolic Carbohydrates participate in metabolic regulation by influencing
Regulation insulin secretion and blood glucose levels. Maintaining proper
carbohydrate intake and metabolism is essential for preventing
metabolic disorders such as diabetes
Fuel for Exercise During physical activity, carbohydrates provide the necessary
energy to sustain muscle contractions and endurance. Athletes
often rely on carbohydrate-rich foods to fuel their performance
and enhance recovery after exercise.
Nucleic acids An History
• DNA was discovered in 1869 by a Swiss biochemist, Friedrich Miescher. He wanted to
determine the chemical composition of leucocytes (white blood cells), his source of
leucocytes was pus from fresh surgical bandages.
• Although initially interested in all the components of the cell, Miescher quickly focused
on the nucleus because he observed that when treated with acid, a precipitate was
formed which he called ‘nuclein’.
• Miescher, Richard Altmann and Albrecht Kossel further characterized ‘nuclein’ and the
name was changed to nucleic acid by Altmann.
• Kossel went on to show that nucleic acid contained purine and pyrimidine bases, a
sugar and phosphate.
• Work in the 1930s from many scientists further characterized nucleic acids including the
identification of the four bases and the presence of deoxyribose, hence the name
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
• Erwin Chargaff had found that DNA molecules from a particular species always
contained the same amount of the bases cytosine (C) and guanine (G) and the same
amount of adenosine (A) and thymine (T). So, for example, the human genome contains
20% C, 20% G, 30% A and 30% T.
• Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, T
• The monomer (the repeating unit) is known as the nucleotides and hence sometimes
nucleic acids are referred to as polynucleotides.
• The basic nucleic acid structure is similar to a chain of molecules composed of identical
series of nucleotides.
• Every nucleic acid encompasses four of five possible nitrogen-containing bases, which
are,
Uracil (U), adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

Pyrimidine's Purines
Uracil (U) Adenine (A)
Thymine (T) Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, play diverse and fundamental roles in the
functioning of living organisms.

As the carriers of genetic information, DNA molecules encode the instructions required for
the development, growth, and reproduction of organisms, while RNA molecules
participate in protein synthesis and gene expression regulation.

Beyond their roles in genetic processes, nucleic acids also contribute to energy transfer
through molecules like ATP, catalyze biochemical reactions as ribozymes, and participate
in immune responses and chemical signaling pathways within cells.

Major types of nucleic acids

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• Chemically, DNA is composed of a
pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and
some cyclic bases containing
nitrogen.
• The sugar moiety present in DNA
molecules is β-D-2-deoxyribose.
• The cyclic bases that have nitrogen in
them are adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine(C) and thymine (T).
• These bases and their arrangement
in the molecules of DNA play an
important role in the storage of
information from one generation to
the next one.
• DNA has a double-strand helical
structure in which the strands are
complementary to each other.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
The RNA molecule is also composed
of phosphoric acid, a pentose sugar
and some cyclic bases
containing nitrogen.
RNA has β-D-ribose in it as the
sugar moiety. The heterocyclic
bases present in RNA are adenine
(A), guanine (G), cytosine(C) and
uracil (U). In RNA the fourth base is
different from that of DNA.
The RNA generally consists of a
single strand which sometimes
folds back; that results in a double
helix structure.
There are three types of RNA
molecules, each having a specific
function:

messenger RNA (m-RNA)

ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)
transfer RNA (t-RNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA): Works as the transmitter molecule for amino acids to be
employed in protein synthesis and is accountable for decoding the mRNA.

Messenger RNA (mRNA): Transfers genetic sequence data between DNA and
ribosomes, regulating protein synthesis and carrying directions from DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) in the nucleus to the ribosome.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Studies the Deoxyribonucleic acid sequence and catalyzes
peptide bond formation.
Difference Between DNA and RNA
Properties of Nucleic Acids
Property Description

Polarity Nucleic acids exhibit polarity, with distinct 5' (five-prime) and 3' (three-prime)
ends. This polarity arises from the orientation of the sugar-phosphate backbone,
where the 5' end contains a phosphate group attached to the 5' carbon of the
sugar molecule, and the 3' end terminates with a hydroxyl group on the 3'
carbon.
Double Helix DNA molecules possess a double helix structure, characterized by two
Structure complementary polynucleotide strands winding around each other in a right-
handed manner. This structure provides stability and protection to the genetic
information encoded within the DNA molecule and facilitates replication and
transcription processes.
Base Pairing Nucleic acids exhibit specific base pairing rules, where adenine (A) pairs with
thymine (T) in DNA or uracil (U) in RNA via hydrogen bonds, and cytosine (C)
pairs with guanine (G). This complementary base pairing ensures the accurate
replication and transmission of genetic information during cellular processes.
Hydrogen Hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in stabilizing the structure of nucleic
Bonding acids. Within the double helix of DNA, hydrogen bonds form between
complementary base pairs, contributing to the structural integrity and specificity
of the molecule. These bonds are relatively weak individually but collectively
provide stability to the DNA double helix
Acidic Nucleic acids are acidic molecules due to the presence of phosphate groups
Nature in their structure. The negatively charged phosphate groups confer an
overall negative charge to the nucleic acid molecule, influencing its
interactions with other molecules and its behavior in biochemical
processes.

Functions of Nucleic Acids

Function Description
Genetic Nucleic acids, particularly DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), serve as the
Information primary carrier of genetic information in living organisms. DNA contains
Storage. the instructions necessary for the development, growth, functioning, and
reproduction of organisms
Protein Nucleic acids, specifically RNA (ribonucleic acid), play a crucial role in
Synthesis protein synthesis. RNA molecules, including messenger RNA (mRNA),
transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), are involved in various
stages of protein production, from transcription to translation.
Gene Nucleic acids participate in the regulation of gene expression, controlling
Expression when and how genes are turned on or off. This regulatory role is essential
Regulation for orchestrating the precise timing and levels of protein production
required for various cellular processes.
Energy Nucleic acids, particularly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), function as
Transfer carriers of chemical energy within cells. ATP molecules store and transfer
energy generated during cellular metabolism, providing the necessary
energy for cellular activities such as muscle contraction, biosynthesis, and
transport processes.
Catalysis Some nucleic acids, such as ribozymes, exhibit catalytic activity, enabling
them to facilitate specific biochemical reactions within cells. Ribozymes
participate in processes such as RNA splicing, peptide bond formation,
and RNA cleavage, demonstrating the diverse functional capabilities of
nucleic acids beyond their roles in information storage and transfer.
Immune Nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA, can trigger immune responses when
Response recognized as foreign molecules by the immune system. This immune
recognition serves as a defense mechanism against viral infections and
other pathogens, highlighting the dual role of nucleic acids in both genetic
information storage and host defense
Chemical Certain nucleic acids, such as small non-coding RNAs, are involved in
Signaling chemical signalling pathways within cells. These regulatory RNAs
modulate gene expression by interacting with specific target molecules,
thereby influencing various cellular processes, including development,
differentiation, and response to environmental stimuli.
.
Proteins
Proteins are known as the building blocks of life because they are the most abundant
molecules present in the body and form about 60% of the dry weight of cells.
Proteins are macromolecules made up of
monomers called amino acids. Amino acids
are the building block of all proteins.
Protein Structure
• Because protein is a complex macromolecule, its structure has been described using
four basic structural levels of the organization.
• These structural levels are often referred to as primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary.
• Three of these structural levels (primary, secondary, and tertiary) can exist in
molecules composed of a single polypeptide chain.
• In contrast, the fourth (quaternary) involves interactions of polypeptides within a
multi chained protein molecule.
Classification of Proteins

Based on the chemical nature, structure, shape, and solubility, proteins are
classified as:
Simple proteins: They are composed of only amino acid residue. On hydrolysis,
these proteins yield only constituent amino acids. It is further divided into:
Fibrous protein: Keratin, Elastin, Collagen
Globular protein: Albumin, Globulin, Glutelin, Histones

Conjugated proteins: They are combined with non-protein moiety.

Eg. Nucleoprotein, Phosphoprotein, Lipoprotein, Metalloprotein, etc.

Derived proteins: They are derivatives or degraded products of simple and

conjugated proteins. They may be :
Primary derived protein: Proteans, Metaproteins, Coagulated proteins
Secondary derived proteins: Proteosesn or albunoses, peptones, peptides.
Properties of Proteins

Property Description
Structure Proteins exhibit a hierarchical structure, consisting of primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of organization. The
primary structure refers to the linear sequence of amino acids
linked by peptide bonds. Secondary structure involves folding
patterns such as alpha helices and beta sheets, while tertiary
structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of the
entire polypeptide chain. Quaternary structure arises when
multiple polypeptide chains assemble to form a functional
protein complex.
Amino Acid Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are organic
Composition molecules containing an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a
variable side chain. There are 20 standard amino acids, each
with a unique side chain that imparts specific chemical and
structural properties to the protein. The sequence and
composition of amino acids determine the structure and
function of the protein molecule
Functional Proteins exhibit remarkable functional diversity, serving as enzymes,
Diversity structural components, transporters, receptors, antibodies, hormones,
and molecular motors, among other roles. Enzymes catalyze
biochemical reactions, while structural proteins provide support and
stability to cells and tissues. Transport proteins facilitate the movement
of molecules across biological membranes, and receptors mediate
cellular signaling pathways. The diverse functions of proteins reflect
their versatility and importance in biological systems.
Folding and Proteins undergo folding into their native three-dimensional structures,
Stability driven by interactions between amino acid side chains and the
surrounding environment. The folding process is crucial for protein
function, as it determines the specific binding sites and active sites
necessary for interactions with other molecules. Proteins can also
exhibit different levels of stability, influenced by factors such as
temperature, pH, and the presence of cofactors or ligands.
Denaturation Proteins can undergo denaturation, a process in which their native
structure is disrupted, leading to loss of function. Denaturation can be
induced by various factors, including heat, pH extremes, organic
solvents, and chaotropic agents. While denatured proteins may lose
their biological activity, they often retain their primary structure,
allowing for the possibility of renaturation under favorable conditions
Solubility The solubility of proteins varies depending on their amino acid composition and
the surrounding environment. Some proteins are soluble in water, while others are
insoluble and may form aggregates or precipitates. Protein solubility is influenced
by factors such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, and the presence of denaturing
agents or binding partners. Understanding the solubility behavior of proteins is
essential for their purification, characterization, and functional studies.
Functions of Proteins
Function Description
Enzymatic Proteins serve as enzymes, catalyzing biochemical reactions within cells and
Activity organisms. Enzymes facilitate the conversion of substrates into products by
lowering the activation energy of reactions, thereby accelerating metabolic
processes essential for life.
Structural Proteins provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs in living
Support organisms. Structural proteins such as collagen, elastin, and keratin contribute to
the mechanical strength, elasticity, and integrity of various biological structures,
including bones, skin, hair, and connective tissues
Transport Proteins function as carriers and transporters, facilitating the movement of
molecules across biological membranes and within the circulatory system.
Transport proteins, such as hemoglobin, transport gases like oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood, while membrane transporters regulate the passage of ions
and molecules across cell membranes.
Signaling Proteins play crucial roles in cellular signaling pathways, transmitting and
modulating signals that regulate various physiological processes. Signaling
proteins, such as receptors, transducers, and kinases, relay information from
extracellular stimuli to intracellular effectors, controlling cell growth,
differentiation, and responses to environmental cues.
Immune Proteins are essential components of the immune system, participating in
Response the recognition, response, and defense against pathogens and foreign
substances. Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins
produced by the immune system that bind to specific antigens, marking
them for destruction by immune cells.
Hormonal Proteins serve as hormones and hormone receptors, regulating numerous
Regulation physiological processes and maintaining homeostasis in the body.
Hormones, such as insulin, glucagon, and growth hormone, are signaling
proteins that coordinate metabolism, growth, reproduction, and other
functions by binding to specific receptors on target cells.
Muscle Proteins play a central role in muscle contraction, enabling movement and
Contraction locomotion in animals. Contractile proteins, including actin and myosin,
interact to generate the force required for muscle contraction and
movement. The coordinated action of these proteins underlies processes
such as muscle contraction, relaxation, and control of motor functions.
Lipids
• Lipids are organic compounds that are fatty acids or derivatives of fatty acids,
which are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
• In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are
found in oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried foods and also in some red
meats.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds which

include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as
vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides,
phospholipids, and others.

The four main groups of lipids include:

• Fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated)
• Glycerides (glycerol-containing lipids)
• Nonglyceride lipids (sphingolipids, steroids, waxes)
• Complex lipids (lipoproteins, glycolipids)
Properties of Lipids
Property Description
Hydrophobicity Lipids are characterized by their hydrophobic nature, meaning they are
insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents such as chloroform,
ether, or benzene. This property arises from the nonpolar hydrocarbon
chains of fatty acids and the hydrophobic regions of other lipid molecules,
making them inherently repellant to water molecules.
Structural Lipids exhibit structural diversity, encompassing a wide range of molecules
Diversity with distinct chemical compositions and functions. Common lipid classes
include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols, and sphingolipids,
each with unique molecular structures and properties that contribute to their
biological functions.
Amphipathicity Some lipids display amphipathic properties, containing both hydrophilic
(water-attracting) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) regions within the
same molecule. Phospholipids, for example, have hydrophilic phosphate
heads and hydrophobic fatty acid tails, allowing them to form lipid bilayers
in aqueous environments such as cell membranes.
Energy Storage Lipids serve as efficient energy storage molecules, storing energy in the
form of chemical bonds within their hydrocarbon chains. Triglycerides, the
primary storage form of lipids, accumulate in adipose tissue and can be
mobilized and oxidized to generate ATP, providing a long-term reservoir of
energy for cellular metabolism and physical activity.
Insulation Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and protect
vital organs from temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage. Adipose
tissue, composed primarily of fat cells, serves as an insulating layer beneath
the skin, providing thermal insulation and cushioning for organs.
Lubrication Certain lipids, such as waxes and oils, possess lubricating properties that
reduce friction and facilitate movement in biological systems. Lipid-based
lubricants coat surfaces, preventing them from drying out and reducing wear
and tear caused by friction between tissues, such as in joints or between skin
surfaces.
Functions of Lipids
Function Description
Energy Lipids serve as a concentrated energy reserve in the body, providing more
Storage than twice the energy per gram compared to carbohydrates or proteins.
Triglycerides, the most common form of dietary fat, are stored in adipose
tissue and can be mobilized and oxidized to generate ATP, the primary energy
currency of cells.
Structural Lipids contribute to the structural integrity of cell membranes, forming a lipid
Role bilayer that encloses and protects the contents of cells. Phospholipids,
cholesterol, and glycolipids are key components of cell membranes,
regulating membrane fluidity, permeability, and signaling processes essential
for cellular function and communication
Insulation Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and protect
vital organs from temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage.
Adipose tissue, composed primarily of fat cells, serves as an insulating
layer beneath the skin, providing thermal insulation and cushioning for
organs.
Hormone Lipids play a crucial role in hormone synthesis and regulation, serving as
Regulation precursors for steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol.
These hormones regulate various physiological processes, including
metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress responses, exerting
widespread effects on the body's functions.
Cell Signaling Lipids function as signaling molecules in intercellular communication
pathways, modulating cellular responses to environmental cues and stimuli.
Lipid-derived signaling molecules, such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes,
and sphingolipids, mediate inflammatory responses, immune function, and
neuronal signaling, influencing diverse physiological processes.
Absorption of Lipids facilitate the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D,
Nutrients E, and K) and other hydrophobic nutrients in the digestive system. Bile
acids and lipases emulsify and break down dietary fats into absorbable
forms, allowing for the For preliminary reference efficient uptake of
essential nutrients across the intestinal epithelium and into the bloodstream.
ENZYMES Enzymes are proteins that help speed up
metabolism, or the chemical reactions in
our bodies.
The majority of enzymes are proteins with
catalytic capabilities crucial to perform
different processes. Metabolic processes and
other chemical reactions in the cell are carried
out by a set of enzymes that are necessary to
sustain life.

Biological processes such as respiration,

digestion, excretion …….
Classification of Enzymes
Enzyme Class Description Example
Oxidoreductases Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, Lactate
involving the transfer of electrons between substrates. These dehydroge
enzymes typically utilize cofactors such as NAD+ or FAD as nase
electron carriers.
Transferases Transferases facilitate the transfer of functional groups, such as Alanine
methyl, acetyl, or phosphate groups, between substrates. These transamina
enzymes play essential roles in metabolic pathways and signal se (ALT)
transduction.
Hydrolases Hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis reactions, cleaving chemical Lipase
bonds by adding water molecules. These enzymes are involved
in the breakdown of macromolecules such as proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids.
Lyases Lyases catalyze the addition or removal of groups to double Carbonic
bonds or the cleavage of bonds without hydrolysis or oxidation- anhydrase
reduction. These enzymes participate in diverse metabolic
pathways and biosynthesis.
Isomerases Isomerases catalyze the rearrangement of atoms within a Triose
molecule, resulting in the conversion between isomeric forms. phosphate
These enzymes play crucial roles in maintaining metabolic isomerase
equilibrium and generating biological diversity. (TIM)
Ligases Ligases, also known as synthetases, catalyze the DNA
(Synthetases) formation of bonds between molecules, often using ligase
energy from ATP hydrolysis. These enzymes are
involved in DNA replication, RNA synthesis, and
protein synthesis

Functions of Enzymes
Function Description
.
Catalysis Enzymes serve as biological catalysts, accelerating chemical
reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the
conversion of substrates into products. By facilitating the
formation of transition states and stabilizing reaction
intermediates, enzymes enhance the rate of reactions without
being consumed in the process.
Specificity Enzymes exhibit high specificity for their substrates,
recognizing and binding to specific molecules or chemical
groups through complementary interactions at the enzyme's
active site. This substrate specificity ensures that enzymes
selectively catalyze particular reactions, leading to precise
control over metabolic pathways and cellular processes.
Regulation Enzyme activity is tightly regulated to maintain metabolic homeostasis and
respond to changing environmental conditions. Regulation may occur
through various mechanisms, including allosteric regulation, covalent
modification, and feedback inhibition, which modulate enzyme activity in
response to signals such as substrate availability, cellular energy levels, or
hormonal signal
Metabolic Enzymes participate in metabolic pathways, sequences of interconnected
Pathways biochemical reactions that convert substrates into products. Within these
pathways, enzymes catalyze specific steps, regulating the flow of metabolites
and ensuring the coordinated synthesis, degradation, and inter-conversion of
biomolecules essential for cellular function and survival.
Signal Enzymes play key roles in signal transduction pathways, transmitting
Transduction extracellular signals into intracellular responses that regulate various cellular
processes. For example, protein kinases and phosphatases catalyze the
phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of target proteins, respectively,
thereby modulating their activity and mediating cellular responses to stimuli.
DNA Enzymes are involved in DNA replication and repair processes, ensuring the
Replication faithful transmission of genetic information and maintaining genomic
and Repair stability. DNA polymerases catalyze the synthesis of new DNA strands
during replication, while DNA repair enzymes correct errors and lesions in
the DNA sequence, minimizing mutations and preserving genetic integrity.
Digestion Enzymes facilitate the breakdown of macromolecules into smaller, more
readily absorbable units during the process of digestion. Digestive
enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, and carbohydrases, hydrolyze
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, respectively, into amino acids, fatty
acids, and sugars that can be absorbed and utilized by the body for energy
and growth.

Properties of Enzymes
Property Description
Specificity Enzymes exhibit specificity in substrate recognition and catalytic activity,
interacting with specific substrates to facilitate particular biochemical
reactions. This specificity arises from the complementary shapes and
chemical properties of the enzyme's active site and the substrate molecule.
Catalytic Enzymes are catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy required for the conversion of substrates into products. By
stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, enzymes facilitate the
formation of product molecules more rapidly and efficiently.
Efficiency Enzymes are highly efficient catalysts, often capable of increasing reaction
rates by millions to billions of times compared to uncatalyzed reactions. This
high efficiency allows cells to carry out metabolic processes at rates
compatible with life despite relatively mild physiological conditions.
Regulation Enzyme activity is regulated by various factors, including substrate
concentration, pH, temperature, and the presence of inhibitors or
activators. These regulatory mechanisms ensure that enzyme activity is
finely tuned to meet the changing metabolic demands of cells and maintain
homeostatic
Reusability Enzymes are reusable catalysts that can catalyze multiple rounds of
substrate conversion without being consumed in the reaction. After
facilitating a reaction, enzymes remain unchanged and available to
catalyze subsequent reactions, making them highly economical and
efficient components of cellular metabolism.
Sensitivity Enzyme activity is sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, such
as temperature and pH, which can influence enzyme structure and
function. Small deviations from optimal conditions can significantly affect
enzyme activity, leading to alterations in metabolic pathways and cellular
function
 VITAMINS

Vitamins are organic compounds that people

need in small quantities. Each has a different
role in maintaining health and bodily function.

Most vitamins need to come from food

because the body either does not produce
them or produces very little.

They are classified into two categories: fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and water-
soluble vitamins (B vitamins and vitamin C). Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with
fats in the diet and are stored in the body's fatty tissues, while water-soluble vitamins
dissolve in water and are excreted in urine when consumed in excess.
Vitamin Chemical Description Plant Source Animal
Name Source

Vitamin Retinol Essential for vision, Immune Carrot, sweat Liver, fish
function , Mucous membrane, potatoes, oil, eggs,
A maintaining healthy skin, and cell spinach, kale, dairy
growth and differentiation broccoli products
Vitamin Thiamine Energy metabolism, nerve function, Whole Pork, beef,
and carbohydrate metabolism. grains, organ
B₁ legumes, meats,
nuts, seeds whole
grains

Vitamin Riboflavin Energy production, metabolism of Dairy Meat,

fats, carbohydrates, and proteins, products, poultry,
B₂ and maintenance of healthy skin leafy greens, fish, eggs,
and vision; acts as an antioxidant. almonds, dairy
mushrooms products
 Vitamin Chemical Description Plant Source Animal
Name Source

Vitamin Niacin Energy metabolism, DNA repair, and peanuts, Meat,

cell signalling. whole grains poultry, fish
B₃ Legumes,
seeds, nuts,
dairy
products

Vitamin Pantothenic Energy metabolism, fatty acid Avocado, Chicken,

acid synthesis, and the synthesis of mushrooms, beef, liver,
B₅ cholesterol, hormones, & broccoli,
neurotransmitters sweet
potatoes
whole grains

Vitamin Pyridoxine Amino acid metabolism, Chickpeas, poultry Fish,

neurotransmitter synthesis, and the potatoes, beef liver,
B₆ production of red blood cells. It plays bananas, poultry,
a crucial role in brain development nuts, seeds
and function, immune health, and
the regulation of homocysteine
levels
 Vitamin Chemical Description Plant Source Animal
Name Source

Vitamin Biotin Essential for carbohydrate, fat, and Nuts, seeds, Eggs, liver,
protein metabolism sweet salmon,
B₇ potatoes, pork
avocado

Vitamin Folate Crucial for DNA synthesis, cell Leafy greens, Liver, eggs
Folic acid division, and the formation of red asparagus,
B₉ blood cells. It plays a vital role in fetal citrus fruits,
development, preventing birth beans fortified
defects. grains, lentils

Vitamin Cobalamine DNA synthesis, red blood cell Fortified Meat, fish,
formation, and neurological function. cereals poultry,
B12 It plays a critical role in maintaining dairy
nerve cells' health and preventing a products
type of anemia called megaloblastic
anemia

Vitamin Ascorbic acid Antioxidant that supports immune Citrus fruits,

function, collagen synthesis, wound strawberries,
C healing, and the absorption of iron. bell peppers,
broccoli
 Vitamin Chemical Description Plant Source Animal
Name Source

Vitamin Cholecalcifero Essential for calcium absorption, Sunlight (UV Fatty fish
bone health, and immune function. It exposure), (salmon,
D helps regulate calcium and fortified tuna,
phosphorus levels in the blood and mackerel),
supports the growth and egg yolks,
maintenance of strong bones and dairy
teeth. products

Vitamin Tocopherol An antioxidant that protects cell Nuts, seeds,

membranes from oxidative damage. vegetable
E It plays a role in immune function, oils, leafy
skin health, and gene expression
greens
regulation. Vitamin E also supports
cardiovascular health and may reduce Vegetable
the risk of chronic diseases. oils, nuts,
seeds,
avocado
Vitamin Phylloquinone Essential for blood clotting, bone Leafy greens Liver, egg
metabolism, and heart health. It plays (kale, spinach, yolks,
K a crucial role in the synthesis of collard greens) cheese,
clotting factors and the regulation of
fermented
calcium in bones and blood vessels.
foods
HORMONES

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by

endocrine glands or tissues in the body that regulate
various physiological processes and maintain
homeostasis.
 Each hormone has specific functions and targets, exerting effects on cells and tissues
throughout the body.
• Insulin, for example, regulates blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and
storage
• Testosterone influences male sexual development and secondary sexual
characteristics.
• Estrogen plays a central role in female reproductive health and bone metabolism,
• Thyroxine regulates metabolism and growth.

Hormone Function Origin Target

Insulin Regulates blood glucose levels by Pancreas Liver, muscle,
facilitating glucose uptake, (specifically adipose tissue
promoting glycogen synthesis, and beta cells in
inhibiting gluconeogenesis. It the islets of
plays a crucial role in carbohydrate Langerhans)
metabolism and helps maintain
blood glucose within a narrow
range.
 Hormone Function Origin Target
Testosterone Development of male reproductive Testes (in Reproductive organs,
tissues and secondary sexual males), muscle, bone, brain
characteristics. It influences libido, ovaries and
muscle mass, bone density, facial hair adrenal
growth, mood regulation, and energy glands (in
levels. females)
Estrogen Development and function of female Ovaries Reproductive organs,
reproductive organs, including the (mainly), bone, brain, cardio-
uterus, ovaries, and breasts. adrenal vascula r system
Regulates menstrual cycle, maintains glands,
bone density, and supports adipose
cardiovascular health. Estrogen also tissue
affects mood, cognition, and skin
health.
Thyroxine Regulates metabolism, growth, and Thyroid gland Cells throughout the
(T4) development throughout the body. It body
influences cellular energy production,
protein synthesis, organs & tissue
function. Thyroxine levels are crucial
for maintaining metabolic balance
and overall health.
 Hormone Function Origin Target
Cortisol Body's stress response, increases Adrenal Liver, muscle,
blood sugar levels, suppressing glands immune cells
the immune system, and (specifically
modulating metabolism. It also the adrenal
regulates inflammation, blood cortex)
pressure, and the sleep-wake
cycle. Cortisol helps the body cope
with stress and maintain
physiological equilibrium.
Growth Growth hormone stimulates Anterior Bones, muscles, and
Hormone growth, cell reproduction, and pituitary tissues throughout
regeneration. It promotes the gland the body
growth of bones, muscles, and
other tissues, as well as
supporting protein synthesis, fat
metabolism, and the utilization of
nutrients for energy production.
Growth hormone is crucial for
growth and maintenance of
tissues throughout life.
 Hormone Function Origin Target
Progesterone Critical role in the menstrual cycle, Ovaries Reproductive organs,
pregnancy, and embryonic (mainly), uterus, placenta
development. It prepares the adrenal (during pregnancy)
uterus for implantation and glands,
maintains the uterine lining during placenta
pregnancy, supporting fetal (during
growth and development. pregnancy)
Progesterone is essential for
reproductive health and successful
pregnancy.
Auxins Auxins regulate plant growth and Shoot apical Various plant tissues,
development, including cell meristems, including stems,
elongation, apical dominance, and young roots, and leaves
root formation. They also leaves, seeds
influence tropic responses such as
phototropism and gravitropism.
 Hormone Function Origin Target
Gibberellins Gibberellins promote stem Shoot apical Stem and leaf tissues,
elongation, seed germination, and meristems, seeds, and fruit
flowering in plants. They also young leaves,
regulate fruit and leaf growth and seeds
influence responses to
environmental stimuli such as light
and temperature changes.
Cytokinins Cytokinins regulate cell division Root apical Shoot and root
and differentiation in plants, meristems, meristems, leaves,
promoting shoot and root growth, developing and developing
and delaying senescence. They also seeds, young organs
influence apical dominance, leaf fruits
expansion, and nutrient uptake.
Abscisic acid Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates plant Leaves, Guard cells, seeds,
responses to environmental stems, roots, and buds
stressors such as drought, salinity, and seeds
and cold temperatures. It
promotes stomatal closure, inhibits
seed germination, and induces
dormancy in buds and seeds
 Hormone Function Origin Target
Ethylene Ethylene is involved in various aspects Ripening fruits, Various plant tissues,
of plant growth and development, aging leaves, including fruit, leaves,
including fruit ripening, leaf and nodes of and roots
senescence, and abscission (shedding stems
of leaves and fruits). It also regulates
responses to mechanical stress.