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STEPHEN M. KOSSLYN ROBIN S. ROSENBERG

Taken from:
Psychology in Context, Third Edition
by Stephen M. Kosslyn and Robin S. Rosenberg
Cover image: ABS-4, by Eugene Lewalski Berg

Taken from:

Psychology in Context, Third Edition

by Stephen M. Kosslyn and Robin S. Rosenberg
Copyright © 2006, 2004, 2001 by Allyn and Bacon
A Pearson Education Company
Boston, Massachusetts, 02116

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

This special edition published in cooperation with Pearson Custom Publishing.

All trademarks, service marks, registered trademarks, and registered service marks are the property of their respective
owners and are used herein for identification purposes only.

Printed in the United States of America

10 98765432

ISBN 0-536-39855-0
2007500084

AK

Please visit our web site at www.pearsoncustom.com

PEARSON
PEARSON CUSTOM PUBLISHING
Custom 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900, Boston, MA 02116
Publishing A Pearson Education Company
BRIEF ftf INIS
, J1 PSYCHOLOGY: Yesterday and Today 2

2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: How We Find Things Out 36

3 THE BIOLOGY OF MIND AND BEHAVIOR: The Brain in Action 76

4 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION: How the World Enters the Mind 132

5 CONSCIOUSNESS: Focus on Awareness 188

6 LEARNING 232

7 MEMORY: Living With Yesterday 276

8 LANGUAGE AND THINKING: What Humans Do Best 324

9 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE: What Does It Mean To Be Smart? 378

]0 EMOTION AND MOTIVATION: Feeling and Striving 426

11 PERSONALITY: Vive la Difference! 480

12 PSYCHOLOGY OVER THE LIFE SPAN:

Growing Up, Growing Older, Growing Wiser 528

13 STRESS, HEALTH, AND COPING 586

14 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: More Than Everyday Problems 628

1 5 TREATMENT: Healing Actions, Healing Words 684

16 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Meeting of the Minds 732

References ri
Glossary g-i
Name Index Ni l
Subject Index sn
CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Integrated Coverage of Gender and Cross-Cultural Issues xxxiv
About the Authors 1

CHAPTER 1

PSYCHOLOGY: Yesterday and Today 2

THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY: Getting to THE PSYCHOLOGICAL
Know You 4 WAY: What Today's
What Is Psychology? 4
Psychologists Do 22

Levels of Analysis: The Complete Psychology 5 Clinical and Counseling

Psychology: A Healing
Three Levels of Analysis in Psychology • All Together Now •
Profession 22
Levels of Analysis in Action: Examining Racial Prejudice
Academic Psychology: Teaching and Research 24
PSYCHOLOGY THEN AND NOW: The Evolution Applied Psychology: Better Living Through Psychology 25
of a Science 10 The Changing Face of Psychology 27
Early Days: Beginning to Map Mental Processes
and Behavior 11 ETHICS: Doing It Right 29
Structuralism • Functionalism • Gestalt Psychology
ETHICS IN RESEARCH 29
Psychodynamic Theory: More Than Meets the Eye 14
Research With People: Human Guinea Pigs? •
Behaviorism: The Power of the Environment 15
Research With Animals
Humanistic Psychology 16
Ethics in Clinical Practice 30
The Cognitive Revolution 17
New Frontiers: Neuroethics 32
Evolutionary Psychology 18
The State of the Union: Psychology Today 21 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 33

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Designed to Be Valid Correlational Research: Do

Birds of a Feather
Step 1: Specifying a Problem 38
Flock Together? 44
Step 2: Observing Events 38
Experimental Research:
Step 3: Forming a Hypothesis 39
Manipulating and
Step 4: Testing the Hypothesis 39
Measuring 45
Step 5: Formulating a Theory 40
Independent and Dependent Variables •
Step 6: Testing the Theory 40
Experimental and Control Groups and Conditions
Quasi-Experimental Design
THE PSYCHOLOGIST'S TOOLBOX: Techniques of
Scientific Research 42 Be a Critical Consumer of Psychology 49

Descriptive Research: Just the Facts, Ma’am 42 Reliability: Count on It! • Validity: What

Naturalistic Observation • Case Studies • Surveys Does It Really Mean? •

I v
 Bias: Playing With Loaded Dice • Experimenter Expectancy Selective Reporting • Lying with Graphs
Effects: Making It Happen • Psychology and Looking at Levels: Graph Design for the Human Mind 65
Pseudopsychology: What’s Flaky and What Isn’t?
HOW TO THINK ABOUT RESEARCH STUDIES 66
STATISTICS: Measuring Reality 54 Reading Research Reports: The QALMRI Method 67

Descriptive Statistics: Telling It Like It Is 55 Q Stands for the Question • A Stands for Alternatives •
L Stands for the Logic of the Study • M Stands for the
Data • Frequency Distributions • Measures of Central
Method • R Stands for the Results • I Stands for Inferences
Tendency • Measures of Variability • Relative Standing
Writing Your Own Research Papers 00
Inferential Statistics: Sorting the Wheat From the Chaff 58
Understanding Research: When Does Mental Practice
Correlation: The Relationship Between Two Variables •
Improve Later Performance? 70
Samples and Populations • Meta-Analysis
Lying With Statistics: When Good Numbers Go Bad 61 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 73

CHAPTER 3
THE BIOLOGY OF MIND AND
BEHAVIOR: The Brain in Action 76 '% A. > „ ^

BRAIN CIRCUITS: Making Connections 78 The Dual Brain: Thinking

The Neuron: A Powerful Computer 78 With Both Barrels ' j* £ jflj
Structure of a Neuron: The Ins and Outs • Neural Impulses: ^7
The Brain in Action Split-Brain Research:

Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators: Bridging the Gap 82 A Deep Disconnect

Chemical Messages: Signals and Modulators • Receptors: Understanding Research: The Hemispheric Interpreter 98

On the Receiving End • Unbalanced Brain: Coping Hemispheric Specialization: Not Just for the
With Bad Chemicals Deeply Disconnected

Glial Cells: More Than the Neurons’ Helpmates 86 Beneath the Cortex: The Inner Brain 100

Neurons and Glia: A Mutually Giving Relationship • Thalamus: Crossroads of the Brain • Hypothalamus:
Glial Networks: Another Way to Think and Feel? Thermostat and More • Hippocampus: Remember It •
Amygdala: Inner Feelings • Basal Ganglia: More Than
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: An Orchestra With Habit-Forming • Brainstem: The Brain’s Wakeup Call •
Many Members 88 Cerebellum: Walking Tall
The Peripheral Nervous System: A Moving Story 88
The Neuroendocrine and Neuroimmune Systems: More
The Autonomic Nervous System • The Sensory-Somatic Brain-Body Connections 104
Nervous System
The Neuroendocrine System: It’s Hormonal! • The
The Central Nervous System: Reflex and Reflection 90 Neuroimmune System: How the Brain Fights Disease
The Visible Brain: Lobes and Landmarks • Structure and Looking at Levels: The Musical Brain 106
Function: No Dotted Lines

SPOTLIGHT ON THE BRAIN: How It Divides PROBING THE BRAIN 109

and Conquers 94 The Damaged Brain: What’s Missing? 109

The Cerebral Cortex: The Seat of the Mind 94 Recording Techniques: The Music of the Cells 109
Occipital Lobes: Looking Good • Temporal Lobes: Up to Neuroimaging: Picturing the Living Brain 111
Their Ears in Work • Parietal Lobes: Inner Space • Frontal Visualizing Brain Structure • Visualizing Brain Function
Lobes: Leaders of the Pack Stimulation: Tickling the Neurons 114

CONTENTS
GENES, BRAIN, AND ENVIRONMENT: The Brain Heritability: Not Inheritability • Twin Studies: Only Shared
in the World 115 Genes? • Adoption Studies: Separating Genes
and Environment?
Genes as Blueprints: Born to Be Wild? 115
Evolution and the Brain: The Best of All
Genetic Programs: The Genes Matter • Tuning Genetic
Possible Brains? 123
Programs: The Environment Matters • Genes and
Natural Selection: Reproduction of the Fittest • Not just
Environment: A Single System • Environment and Genes:
Natural Selection: Accidents Do Happen
A Two-Way Street

Behavioral Genetics 122 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 127

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION: 4

How the World Enters the Mind 132
pt'

i 3 i
VISION: Window on the World 134 Sound Waves: Being
Visual Sensation: More Than Meets the Eye 135 Pressured • The Brains % #
Psychophysics: A World of Experience • How Do Objects Ear. More Than a
'trt i, Sq
Enter the Mind? Let There Be Light • The Brain’s Eye: More Microphone Deafness.
Than a Camera • Color Vision: Mixing and Matching •
Gone Tomorrow
Visual Problems: Distorted Windows on the World
Phase 1 of Auditory Perception: Organizing the
Phase 1 of Visual Perception: Organizing the World 144
Auditory World 169
Perceptual Organization: Seeing the Forest Through the Trees
Sorting Out Sounds: From One, Many • Locating Sounds:
• Perceptual Constancies: Stabilizing the World • Knowing
Why Two Ears Are Better Than One
the Distance
Phase 2 of Auditory Perception: Recognition
Phase 2 of Visual Perception: Recognition
and Identification 171
and Identification 150
More Than Meets the Ear • Hearing Without Awareness •
Knowing More Than You Can See • Informed Perception:
Music: Hearing for Pleasure
The Active Viewer • Coding Space in the Brain: More Than
One Way to Identify ‘Where”
SENSING AND PERCEIVING IN OTHER WAYS 174
Understanding Research: Two Ways to Specify
Smell: A Nose for News? 174
Spatial Relations 154
Distinguishing Odors: Lock and Key • Olfaction Gone Awry:
Combining What and Where: Faces and Gazes 155
Is It Safe to Cook Without Smell? • Pheromones: Another
Identifying Faces: A Special Brain System? • Identifying Gaze
Kind of Scents?
Direction: Where’s Something Important?
Taste: The Mouth Has It 177
Attention: The Gateway to Awareness 157
Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter • Taste and Smell
Pop-Out: What Grabs Attention? • Active Searching: Not just
Somasthetic Senses: Not Just Skin Deep 179
What Grabs Attention • Limits of Attention • Seeing Without
Kinesthetic Sense: A Moving Sense • Vestibular Sense: Being
Awareness
Oriented • Touch: Feeling Well • Temperature • Pain
Looking at Levels: The Essential Features of Good Looks 163
Other Senses 181
Magnetic Sense: Only for the Birds? • Extrasensory
HEARING 165
Perception (ESP)
Auditory Sensation: If a Tree Falls but Nobody Hears It, Is
There a Sound? 165 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 183

CONTENTS vii
 C H A P T E

CONSCIOUSNESS: Focus on Awareness 188

THE NATURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 190 HYPNOSIS AND
Functions of Consciousness 190
MEDITATION 209

The Experience of Consciousness 191 What Is Flypnosis? 210

Altered States of Consciousness 191 Individual

r
Differences: Who Is
TO SLEEP, PERCHANCE TO DREAM 193 Hypnotizable? 211

Stages of Sleep: Working Through the Night 193 Hypnosis: Role Play or Brain State? 212

Stage 1 • Stage 2 • Stages 3 and 4 • REM Sleep • Trance Theory • Sociocognitive Theory « Evidence From
Sleep Cycles Neuroimaging

Sleep Deprivation: Is Less Just as Good? 196 Hypnosis as a Tool: Practical Applications 213

REM Rebound • Sleep Deprivation: What Hypnosis as Possession Trance 214

Elappens When You Skimp on Sleep • The Effects Meditation 214

of All-Nighters Types of Meditation • Benefits of Meditation • Meditation

Understanding Research: Sleep Deprivation Lite 197 and the Body: More Than a Pause That Refreshes •
Meditation Versus Relaxation • The Biology of Meditation
The Function of Sleep 199
Evolutionary Theory • Restorative Theory •
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL 218
Facilitating Learning
Substance Use and Abuse 218
Dream On 200
Depressants: Focus on Alcohol 220
What Triggers Particular Dreams? • Why Do Biological Effects of Alcohol • Psychological Effects of
We Dream?
Alcohol • Chronic Abuse: More Than a Bad Habit •
The Brain Asleep 202 Other Depressants
The Chemistry of Sleep: Ups and Downs • Stimulants: Focus on Cocaine 224
Circadian Rhythms Crack • Other Stimulants
Troubled Sleep 205 Narcotic Analgesics: Focus on Heroin 226
Night Terrors: Not Your Usual Nightmares • Narcolepsy: Hallucinogens: Focus on LSD 227
Asleep at the Drop of a Hat • Insomnia • Sleep Apnea A Creativity Boost? • Other Hallucinogens

Looking at Levels: Recovery From Jet Lag 208 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 229

CHAPTER 6
LEARNING 232
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 235 in Classical
Pavlov’s Experiments 235 Conditioning: Seen
The Three Phases of Classical Conditioning • Variations of One, Seen ’Em All? •
the Procedure Cognition and the

Classical Conditioning: How It Works 237 Conditioned Stimulus

Conditioned Emotions: Getting a Gut Response • Dissecting Conditioning:

Preparedness and Contrapreparedness • Extinction and Mechanisms 242

Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning: Gone Learning to Be Afraid • Learning When to Blink
Today, Here Tomorrow • Generalization and Discrimination Classical Conditioning Applied 244

VIII CONTENTS
 Drug Use and Abuse • Therapy Techniques • Advertising • Conditioning: Gone Today, Back Tomorrow • Building
Food and Taste Aversion Complicated Behaviors: Shaping Up • Reinforcement

Understanding Research: The Discovery of Schedules: An Hourly or a Piece-Rate Wage?

Taste Aversion 246 The Operant Brain 262

Conditioning and Chemotherapy • Conditioning the Operant Conditioning: A Multifaceted Process •
Immune System Classical Conditioning Versus Operant Conditioning: Are
They Really Different?
OPERANT CONDITIONING 250 Looking at Levels: Facial Expressions as Reinforcement
The Roots of Operant Conditioning: Its Discovery and and Punishment 265
How It Works 251
Thorndike’s Puzzle Box • The Skinner Box COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL LEARNING 267

Principles of Operant Conditioning 252 Cognitive Learning 267

Reinforcement: Getting Your Just Desserts • Punishment • Insight Learning: Seeing the Connection 268

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers • Immediate Versus Observational Learning: To See Is to Know 269
Delayed Reinforcement Learning From Models 271
Beyond Basic Reinforcement 258 “Do as I Do” • “Television Made Me Do It”
Generalization and Discrimination in Operant Conditioning
• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery in Operant REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 274

CHAPTER 7
MEMORY: LIVING WITH YESTERDAY 276
ENCODING INFORMATION INTO MEMORY: Time and RETRIEVING
Space Are of the Essence 278 INFORMATION FROM
Types of Memory Stores 279
MEMORY: More
Than Reactivating
Sensory Memory: Lingering Sensations • Short-Term Memory:
the Past 301
The Contents of Consciousness • Long-Term Memory:
The Act of Remembering:
Records of Experience
Reconstructing Buried Cities
Making Memories 283
Recognition Versus Recall 302
Coding: Packaged to Store • Consolidation and
Understanding Research: A Better Police Lineup 303
Reconsolidation • Variations in Processing: Why “Thinking It
The Role of Cues: Hints on Where to Dig • Supplying
Through” Is a Good Idea • Emotionally Charged Memories
Your Own Cues

STORING INFORMATION: Not Just One LTM 290

FACT, FICTION, AND FORGETTING: When Memory
Modality-Specific Memories: The Multimedia Brain 291 Goes Wrong 307
Semantic Versus Episodic Memory 291 False Memories 307
Explicit Versus Implicit Memories: Not Just the Implanting Memories • Distinguishing Fact From Fiction
Facts, Ma’am 292 Forgetting: Many Ways to Lose It 310
Classically Conditioned Responses • Nonassociative Encoding Failure: Lost in Translation * Decay: Fade
Learning • Habits • Skills: Automatic Versus Controlled Away • Interference: Tangled Up in Memory • Intentional
Processing • Priming Forgetting: Out of Mind, Out of Sight • Amnesia: Not Just
Biological Foundations of Memory 296 Forgetting to Remember
Specialized Brain Areas • Linking Up New Connections • Repressed Memories: Real or Imagined? 313
Genes and Memory • Stressed Memories
Looking at Levels: Autobiographical Memory 299 IMPROVING MEMORY: Tricks and Tools 315

CONTENTS
 Enhancing Encoding: New Habits and Special Tricks 315 Enhancing Memory Retrieval: Knowing Where and How

Organize It! • Process It! • Mnemonic Tricks: Going the to Dig 319

Extra Mile REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 321

CHAPTER 8
LANGUAGE AND THINKING:
What Humans Do Best 324
LANGUAGE: More Than Meaningful Sounds 326 Prototypes: An Ostrich Is

The Essentials: What Makes Language Language? 326 a Bad Bird • How Are

Phonology: Some Say “ToMAYto” • Syntax: The Rules of the Concepts Organized? •

Road • Semantics: The Meaning Is the Message • Concepts in the Brain

Pragmatics: Being Indirect

Understanding Research: Untangling Ambiguity During PROBLEM SOLVING 356

Comprehension 333 Solving Problems: More Than Inspiration 357

Language Development: Out of the Mouths of Babes 335 Solving the Representation Problem: It’s All in How You

How Is Language Acquired? • Foundations of Language: Look at It • Algorithms and Heuristics: Getting From Here

Organizing the Linguistic World • Getting the to There • Solving Problems by Analogy: Comparing Features

Words • Grammar: Not From School • Biological Bases • Sudden Solutions • Cognitive Control

of Language Development Expertise: Why Hard Work Pays Off 362

Other Ways to Communicate: Are They Language? 342 Artificial Intelligence 364

Nonverbal Communication • Sign Language • Gesture: Is It Overcoming Obstacles to Problem Solving 365
fust for Show? • Aping Language
Bilingualism: A Window of Opportunity? 344 LOGIC, REASONING, AND DECISION MAKING 366
Are People Logical? 367
MEANS OF THOUGHT: Words, Images, Concepts 346 How People Reason • Logical Errors • Framing Decisions
Words: Inner Speech and Spoken Thoughts 347 Heuristics and Biases: Cognitive Illusions? 369
Putting Thoughts Into Words • Does Language Representativeness • Availability
Shape Thought?
Emotions and Decision Making: Having a Hunch 371
Mental Imagery: Perception Without Sensation 348 Looking at Levels: The Ultimatum Game 372
Mental Space • The Visualizing Brain • Limitations of
Mental Images as Vehicles of Thought REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 375
Concepts: Neither Images nor Words 352

CHAPTER
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE:
What Does It Mean to Be Smart? 378
MEASURING INTELLIGENCE: What Is IQ? 380
A Brief History of Intelligence Testing 381
Binet and Simon: Testing to Help • Terman and Wechsler:
Tests for Everyone

x CONTENTS
 Interpreting IQ Scores: Standardized Samples and Norming • Genetic Effects: How Important Are Genes for Intelligence? •
Reliability and Validity Environmental Effects: More Real Than Apparent?

IQ and Achievement: IQ in the Real World 384 Group Differences in Intelligence 404
Within-Group Versus Between-Group Differences * Race

ANALYZING INTELLIGENCE: One Ability or Many? 385 Differences • Sex Differences

Psychometric Approaches: IQ, g, and Specialized Abilities 386 Boosting IQ: Pumping Up the Mind’s Muscle 409

Spearmans g Factor • Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities • The Flynn Effect: Another Reason to Appreciate Being

Cattell and Horn’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligences • Young • Accidentally Making Kids Smarter:

Carroll’s Three-Stratum Theory of Cognitive Ability • The g The Pygmalion Effect • Intelligence Enhancement

Factor and Specific Abilities in the Real World Programs: Mental Workouts

Emotional Intelligence: Knowing Feelings 391 Looking at Levels: Stereotype Threat 412

Multiple Intelligences: More Than One Way to Shine? 392

DIVERSITY IN INTELLIGENCE 414
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Something
Mental Retardation: People With Special Needs 414
for Everyone • Sternberg’s Analytic, Practical, and
Genetic Influences: When Good Genes Go Bad *
Creative Intelligences
Environmental Influences: Bad Luck, Bad Behavior
The Gifted 416
WHAT MAKES US SMART? Nature and Nurture 395
Creative Smarts 417
The Machinery of Intelligence 396
Creative Thinking: Not just Inspiration • What Makes a
Brain Size and Intelligence: Is Bigger Always Better? •
Person Creative? • Enhancing Creativity
Speed: Of the Essence? • Working Memory: juggling
Understanding Research: Constrained Creativity 421
More Balls
Smart Genes, Smart Environment: A Single System 399 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 423

CHAPTER 10
EMOTION AND MOTIVATION:
Feeling and Striving 426 _
EMOTION: I Feel, Therefore I Am 429 MOTIVATION AND
REWARD: More Than
Types of Emotion: What Can You Feel? 429
Feeling Good 449
Basic Emotions • Separate But Equal Emotions
Getting Motivated: Sources
What Causes Emotions? 432
and Theories of
Theories of Emotion: Brain, Body, and World • Physiological
Motivation 449
Profiles: Are Emotions just Bodily Responses? • Cognitive
Instincts: My Genes Made Me Do It • Drives and
Interpretation • Fear: The Amygdala and You • Positive
Homeostasis: Staying in Balance • Arousal Theory:
Emotions: More Than Feeling Good
Avoiding Boredom, Avoiding Overload • Incentives and
Expressing Emotions: Letting It All Hang Out? 440 Reward: Happy Expectations * Learned Helplessness:
Culture and Emotional Expression: Rules of the Mode Unhappy Expectations
Understanding Research: Culture and Emoting 441 Needs and Wants: The Stick and the Carrot 453
Body Language: Broadcasting Feelings • Emotion Regulation Is There More Than One Type of Reward? • Types of Needs:
Perceiving Emotions: A Form of Mind Reading 444 No Shortage of Shortages • Regulatory Fit • Achievement in
Reading Cues • Perceiving by Imitating: Making the Individualist Versus Collectivist Cultures
Match • Individual Differences in Emotion Perception Hunger and Eating: Not Just About Fueling
Looking at Levels: Lie Detection 446 the Body 458

CONTENTS
I xi
Eating Behavior: The Hungry Mind in the Hungry Body 459 Sexual Stimuli 470
Is Being Hungry the Opposite of Being Full? • Appetite: A Mating Preferences
Moving Target • Why Does It Taste Good? Sexual Orientation: More Than a Choice 472
Overeating: When Enough Is Not Enough 462 The Biology of Homosexuality • The Environment
Set Point: Your Normal Weight • Obesity and Homosexuality
Dieting 465 What’s Normal? 474
Cultural Variations: Experience Counts •
SEX: Not Just About Having Babies 466 Sexual Dysfunction: When Good Things Go Wrong •
Sexual Behavior: A Many-Splendored Thing 467 Atypical Sexual Behavior • Homophobia
Sexual Responses: Step by Step • The Role of Hormones: Do
Chemicals Dictate Behavior? REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 477

CHAPTER 11
PERSONALITY: Vive la Difference! 480
PERSONALITY: Historical Perspectives 482 Understanding Research:
Freud’s Theory: The Dynamic Personality 482 The Minnesota

The Structure of Personality • Personality Development: Study of Twins Reared

Avoiding Arrest • Defense Mechanisms: Protecting Apart 504

the Self • Freud’s Followers • Critiquing Freudian Heritability of

Theory: Is It Science? Personality •

Humanistic Psychology: Thinking Positively 487 Heritability of Specific Behaviors • Genes and the

Abraham Maslow • Carl Rogers Family Environment • How Do Genes Exert

Their Influence?

WHAT EXACTLY IS PERSONALITY? 489

LEARNING AND THE COGNITIVE ELEMENTS OF
Personality: Traits and Situations 489 PERSONALITY 509
The Power of the Situation • Interactions Between Situation Learning to Have Personality: Genes Are Not Destiny 509
and Personality
The Sociocognitive View of Personality: You Are What You
Factors of Personality: The Big Five? Three? More? 491 Expect 510
Measuring Personality: Is Grumpy Really Grumpy? 493 Expectancies • Self-Efficacy • Reciprocal Determinism
Interviews • Observation * Inventories: Check This •
Projective Tests: Faces in the Clouds SOCIOCULTURAL INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY 513
Birth Order: Are You Number One? 513
BIOLOGY'S INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY 497 Sex Differences in Personality: Nature and Nurture 515
Temperament: Waxing Hot or Cold 497 Sociocultural Explanations • Biological Explanations
Shyness: The Wallflower Temperament • Sensation Seeking: Culture and Personality 517
What’s New? Personality Changes Within a Culture, Over Time: The Times
Biologically Based Theories of Personality 499 They Are A-Changin • Consistent Personality Differences
Behavioral Activation and Inhibition Systems * Across Cultures: Different Strokes for Different Countries •
Eysenck’s Theory • Cloninger’s Theory • Understanding Cultural Differences in Personality: How Do
Zuckermans Theoty • Comparing the Biologically Differences Arise?
Based Theories Looking at Levels: Attachment 520
Genes and Personality: Born to Be Mild? 504 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 525

CONTENTS
 N
CHAPTER 12
PSYCHOLOGY OVER THE LIFE SPAN:
Growing Up, Growing Older, Growing Wiser 528

IN THE BEGINNING: From Conception to Birth 530 ADOLESCENCE:

Between Two
Prenatal Development: Nature and Nurture From
Worlds 562
the Start 530
Physical Development: In
From Zygote to Birth: Getting a Start in Life • Learning
Puberty’s Wake 562
and Behavior in the Womb • Teratogens: Negative
Cognitive Development: Getting It All Together 564
Environmental Events • Positive Environmental Events: The
More Reasoned Reasoning? • Adolescent Egocentrism:
Earliest Head Start
It’s All in Your Point of View
Understanding Research: Stimulating the Unborn 536
Social and Emotional Development: New Rules,
The Newborn: A Work in Progress 537
New Roles 565
Sensory Capacities • Reflexes • Temperament: Instant
“Storm and Stress”: Raging Hormones? • Evolving Peer
Personality
Relationships • Teenage Pregnancy

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD: Taking Off 541 ADULTHOOD AND AGING: The Continuously
Changing Self 568
Physical and Motor Development: Getting Control 541
Becoming an Adult 569
Perceptual and Cognitive Development:
The Changing Body: What’s Inevitable, What’s Not 569
Extended Horizons 543
Learning to Live With Aging • Why Do We Age?
Perceptual Development: Opening Windows on the
Perception and Cognition in Adulthood: Taking the Good
World • Long-Term Memory Development: Living
With the Bad 570
Beyond the Here and Now • Stages of Cognitive
Perception: Through a Glass Darkly? • Memory: Difficulties
Development: Piaget’s Theory • The Child’s Concepts:
in Digging It Out • Intelligence and Specific Abilities:
Beyond Piaget • Information Processing and Neural
Different Strokes for Different Folks
Development • Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:
Social and Emotional Development During Adulthood 575
Outside /Inside
Theories of Psychosocial Stages in Adulthood • Continued
Social and Emotional Development: The Child in
Personality Development • Mature Emotions * Adult
the World 554
Relationships: Stable Changes
Attachment: More Than Dependency • Is Daycare Bad for
Death and Dying 578
Children? • Self-Concept and Identity: The Growing Self •
Looking at Levels: Keeping the Aging Brain Sharp 580
Gender Identity and Gender Roles • Moral Development:
The Right Stuff REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 582

CHAPTER 13
STRESS, HEALTH, AND COPING 586
Multiple Stressors and
WHAT IS STRESS? 588
Their Time Course •
Stress: The Big Picture 588
When Stressed, Women
The Biology of Stress 589
May Tend and
The Alarm Phase: Fight or Flight • The Resistance Phase • "N
Befriend
The Exhaustion Phase • From Stressor to Allostatic Load:

CONTENTS Xlll
 It’s How You Think of It: Interpreting Stimuli as Stressors 592 Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping
Appraisal: Stressors in the Eyes of the Beholder • Understanding Research: Emotional Disclosure
Perceived Control and Health 611
Sources of Stress 595 Thought Suppression • Humor: Is Laughter the Best
Internal Conflict • Life Hassles • Work- and Economic- Medicine? • Aggression: Coping Gone Awry
Related Factors • Hostility Personality and Coping 616
The Healthy Personality: Control, Commitment, Challenge •
STRESS, DISEASE, AND HEALTH 601 Optimism and Pessimism: Look on the Bright Side • Avoiders
The Immune System: Catching Cold 602 Versus Nonavoiders • Genes and Coping
Cancer 603 Coping and Social Support 619
Heart Disease 603 Enacted Social Support • Perceived Social Support
How Stress Affects the Heart • Stress, Emotions, and Heart Mind-Body Interventions 621
Disease • Lifestyle Can Make a Difference
The Effects of Mind-Body Interventions • The Placebo Effect
Health-Impairing Behaviors 605 as a Mind-Body Intervention
Why Do We Engage in Health-Impairing Behaviors? • Gender, Culture, and Coping 622
Changing Health-Impairing Behaviors • Moving Through the
Gender Differences in Coping • Cultural Differences
Stages: The Shifting Pros and Cons
in Coping
Looking at Levels: Voodoo Death 624
STRATEGIES FOR COPING 609
Coping Strategies: Approaches and Tactics 609 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 626

chapter 14
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS:
More Than Everyday Problems 628
IDENTIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: Level of the Brain in
What's Abnormal? 630 Mood Disorders •
Defining Abnormality 630 Level of the Person in
Distress • Impairment • Danger • Cultural and Social Mood Disorders *
Influences Level of the Group in
Explaining Abnormality 632 Mood Disorders • Interacting Levels: Depression Is as
The Brain: Genes, Neurotransmitters, and Brain Structure Depression Does
and Function • The Person: Behaviors, Thoughts and Biases,
and Emotions • The Group: Social and Cultural Factors ANXIETY DISORDERS 648

Categorizing Disorders: Is a Rose Still a Rose by Any Other Panic Disorder 648
Name? 635 Level of the Brain in Panic Disorder • Level of the
History of the DSM • Disadvantages and Advantages of the Person in Panic Disorder • Level of the Group in
DSM Panic Disorder
Phobias: Social and Specific 651
MOOD DISORDERS 638
Level of the Brain in Phobias • Level of the Person in Phobias
Major Depressive Disorder: Not Just Feeling Blue 638 • Level of the Group in Phobias
Understanding Research: Symptoms of Depression in China Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 653
and the United States 640
Level of the Brain in OCD • Level of the Person in OCD •
Bipolar Disorder: Going to Extremes 642 Level of the Group in OCD
Explaining Mood Disorders 643 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 655

XIV CONTENTS
 Level of the Brain in PTSD • Level of the Person in PTSD • Dissociative Amnesia and Dissociative Fugue • Dissociative

Level of the Group in PTSD • Interacting Levels: Individual Identity Disorder

Differences in Responses to Trauma Eating Disorders: You Are How You Eat? 670
Anorexia Nervosa: You Can Be Too Thin • Bulimia Nervosa •

SCHIZOPHRENIA 659 Explaining Eating Disorders

Symptoms: What Schizophrenia Looks Like 660 Looking at Levels: Binge Eating 674

Positive Symptoms • Negative Symptoms •

PERSONALITY DISORDERS 675
Diagnosing Schizophrenia
Axis II Personality Disorders 676
Subtypes of Schizophrenia 661
Antisocial Personality Disorder 677
Why Does This Happen to Some People, But
Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder 678
Not Others? 662
Level of the Brain in Antisocial Personality Disorder • Level
Level of the Brain in Schizophrenia • Level of the Person in
of the Person in Antisocial Personality Disorder • Level of the
Schizophrenia • Level of the Group in Schizophrenia •
Group in Antisocial Personality Disorder • Interacting Levels
Interacting Levels in Schizophrenia
in Antisocial Personality Disorder

OTHER AXIS I DISORDERS: Dissociative and

A CAUTIONARY NOTE ABOUT DIAGNOSIS 680
Eating Disorders 667
Dissociative Disorders 668 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 680

CHAPTER 15
TREATMENT:
Healing Actions, Healing Words 684 ,jpP ■ if

HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON PSYCHOTHERAPY: Schizophrenia and

[
Insight-Oriented Therapies 686 Other Psychotic
Psychodynamic Therapy: Origins in Psychoanalysis 686 Disorders • Mood

Theory of Psychodynamic Therapy • Techniques of Disorders • Anxiety

Psychodynamic Therapy Disorders

Humanistic Therapy: Client-Centered Therapy 689 Electroconvulsive Therapy 705

Theory of Client-Centered Therapy • Techniques of Client- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 706

Centered Therapy
OTHER FORMS OF TREATMENT 707
Evaluating Insight-Oriented Therapies 690
Modalities: When Two or More Isn’t a Crowd 707

COGNITIVE-BEHAVIOR THERAPY 692 Group Therapy • Family Therapy •

Behavior Therapy and Its Techniques 692 Self-Help Therapies

Theory of Behavior Therapy • Techniques of Innovations in Psychotherapy 710

Behavior Therapy Psychotherapy Integration: Mixing and Matching •

Cognitive Therapy and Techniques: It’s the Thought Managed Care and Psychotherapy • Time and Therapy:

That Counts 697 Therapy Protocols and Brief Therapy • Technology and
Therapy: High-Tech Treatment
Theory of Cognitive Therapy • Techniques of
Cognitive Therapy Prevention: Sometimes Worth More Than a Pound
of Cure 713
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy 700

BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES 702 WHICH THERAPY WORKS BEST? 715

Psychopharmacology 702 Issues in Psychotherapy Research 715

CONTENTS
I xv
 Positive Change in Therapy: The Healing Powers • Which Treatment Works Best for Which Disorder? • Therapy,
Comparing Therapy Approaches and the Allegiance Medication, or Both? • Treatment for an Ethnically
Effect • What’s an Appropriate Control Diverse Population
Group? • Reducing Confounds • Randomized How to Pick a Therapist and a Type of Therapy 726
Controlled Trials Looking at Levels: Treating Obsessive-Compulsive

Understanding Research: For OCD: CBT Plus Medication, Disorder 727

Without Exclusion 721 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 729

CHAPTER 16
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Meeting of the Minds 732
SOCIAL COGNITION: Thinking About People 734
Making an Impression 734
Thin Slices Are Enough • Halo and Primacy Effects •
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy • Impression Management
Attitudes and Behavior: Feeling and Doing 738 Mating Preferences:
Your Cave or Mine?
Attitudes and Cognitions • Predicting Behavior • Behavior
Affects Attitudes • Assessing Attitudes Directly and Indirectly Social Organization: Group Rules, Group Roles 764

• Cognitive Dissonance • Attitude Change: Persuasion • Norms: The Rules of the Group • Roles and Status • When

Social Cognitive Neuroscience Roles Become Reality: The Stanford Prison Experiment

Stereotypes: Seen One, Seen ’Em All 746 Yielding to Others: Going Along With the Group 768

Stereotypes Affect Attention, Cognition, and Behavior • Conformity and Independence: Doing What’s Expected •

Cognition and Prejudice Compliance: Doing What You’re Asked • Obedience: Doing

Understanding Research: How Stereotypes Can Prime as You’re Told

Behavior 748 Performance in Groups: Working Together 774

Processes Perpetuating Unconscious Prejudice • Decision Making in Groups: Paths to a Decision • Social

Discrimination • Why Does Prejudice Exist? • Changing Loafing and Social Compensation • Social Facilitation:

Prejudice: Easier Said Than Done Everybody Loves an Audience

Attributions: Making Sense of Events 755 Helping Behavior: Helping Others 776

What Is the Cause? • Taking Shortcuts: Prosocial Behavior • Bystander Intervention

Attributional Biases Looking at Levels: Cults 780

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR: Interacting With People 758

A FINAL WORD: Ethics and Social Psychology 781

Relationships: Having a Date, Having a Partner 759 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 782

References R-l
Glossary> G-l
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Credits C-l

xvi CONTENTS
PREFACE
How can we write a book that engages students and provides them with an integrated
introduction to the field of psychology? That is what we asked each other as we began
writing this textbook. One of us is a cognitive neuroscientist and the other a clinical
psychologist. In writing collaboratively, we began to see how our different areas of psy¬
chology were dovetailing. Our teaching experience convinced us that the different
areas of psychology really are facets of the same whole —and we were inspired to try to
bring this view to a larger audience. We also wanted to show students how to apply the
results of psychological research to make learning and remembering easier—not just
for this course, but for any course, from economics to art history, and for the demands
of life in general. In this edition, we continue to pursue our goal of presenting an in¬
tegrated view of psychology, and we’ve tried to make the textbook even more accessi¬
ble for students —to help them better understand and retain the material they read and
to help them identify gaps in their understanding.

Our Vision: Psychology in Context

Our vision has always been a textbook that better integrates the field of psychology. We
do this by exploring how psychology can be viewed in terms of psychological events
that occur in the context of other sorts of psychological events. The key to this ap¬
proach is the idea that psychology can best be understood in terms
of events that occur at different levels of analysis, a concept widely
used in psychology and other sciences and in the real world. This
approach leads us to focus on events in the brain (biological fac¬
tors), the person (beliefs, desires and feelings), and the group (so¬
cial, cultural and environmental factors). We stress that not only do
all of these events occur in the physical world, where we are bathed
with specific stimuli and behave in accordance with certain goals,
but they also are constantly interacting.
One central idea of this book is that events at any two of the lev¬
els of analysis serve as the context for events at the remaining level.
To understand fully events in the brain, we must also consider
what’s going on at the levels of the person and the group; by the
same token, to understand events at the level of the person, we
must consider the context of the brain and the group; and to un¬
derstand events at the level of the group, we must consider the con¬
text of the brain and the person. No one level has a special status
or is most important; any level can be the focus of our interest,
leading the other levels to serve as the context. So important is this
idea that we changed the title of this book —to stress that events at all three levels are
always occurring and that events at any two levels serve as the context for understand¬
ing events at the third level.
For example, our brains are affected by our beliefs (just think of how worrying can
make our bodies become tense, which is a direct result of events in the brain), and our
social interactions both shape and are affected by our beliefs. In fact, as we discuss in
this book, social interactions can actually cause the genes in our brain cells to operate

I xvn
 differently. All psychological phenomena—from group interactions to psychological
disorders, memory, and creativity—can best be understood by considering events at all
three levels and how they interact, both with the world and with each other.
This view of psychology is exciting because it offers a way to organize a diverse
range of theories and discoveries. The different areas of psychology are interconnected,
although they are not often presented this way in textbooks. We wrote this book be¬
cause no other textbook, in our opinion, was able to succeed in connecting the diverse
areas of psychology.

Greater Emphasis
on the Science of Psychology
In the second edition of this book, we added a chapter on research methods (Chap¬
ter 2). Given our emphasis on the science of psychology, we decided that stu¬
dents really needed to see this material in one place. This chapter describes the
scientific method, types of studies that psychologists typically conduct, and funda¬
mental concepts of statistics. In addition, we describe a novel way to conceptualize
and analyze research. The QALMRI method relies on clearly un¬
derstanding the Question the research study asks, the Alternative
UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH answers that are considered, and the Logic that is applied to dis¬
j Constrained Creativity tinguish among the possible answers, as well as the Method, the
Question: Many people believe that truly creative thought requires freedom, but Results, and the Inferences that can be drawn from the results. We
others have argued that creativity thrives when there is a great deal of structure. use this method in Chapter 2 to take a detailed look at a specific
When a problem is specified precisely and the approach is made very clear, is it eas¬
ier to be creative? study, and we continue to use it in each of the subsequent chap¬
Alternatives: (i) Structure can facilitate creativity. (2) Structure can inhibit creativ¬
ters in this book; in fact, in each chapter, we use the method to
ity. (3) Structure makes no difference. examine one study in detail, in an updated feature called
LOGIC: Goldenberg and colleagues (1999) programmed a computer to engage in the Understanding Research.
most extreme form of structured thinking: following an algorithm, a step-by-step set of
rules. If such structure facilitates creativity, then the computer should be able to pro-
In the third edition, we have continued to update and in¬
| duce creative solutions—perhaps more of them than humans who are not working crease our coverage of relevant, cutting-edge scientific advances
within such a strict structure.
and their influences on the field of psychology. We also pride our¬
| Method: The researchers first studied effective advertisements and noticed that they
selves on providing the most comprehensive and yet accessible cov¬
seemed to rely on a few simple ideas (which are involved in creativity in general;
| Boden, 2000). For instance, many involved replacing properties of one thing with those erage of neuroscience for the introductory psychology student.
of another: An ad for Bally shoes, for example, suggested that the shoes gave wearers a
sense of freedom by showing clouds or an inviting island in the shape of a shoe; the
Moreover, we put the neuroscience solidly in a psychological con¬
sense of freedom conveyed by the clouds and the island was intended to transfer to the text; we don’t describe facts about the brain for their own sake, but
shoes. After being armed with such rules, the computer was asked to describe ads for
specific products in order to convey certain messages; its suggestions were then com¬
rather show how such facts illuminate psychology. We show how
pared to those from humans (who were not in the ad business). findings about the brain are best understood in the context of the
... person and the group.

Text Organization_
Most psychology textbooks have anywhere from 16 to 22 chapters; ours has 16. Market
research has shown that when using textbooks with more than 16 chapters, introduc¬
tory psychology instructors often end up either either skipping chapters or parts of a
chapter in the interest of time or requiring students to read multiple chapters per week.
Neither option is ideal, and both are likely to result in only a superficial grasp of the
field as a whole. Introductory psychology is intended to be a survey of the entire field,
and we believe that a book with 16 chapters allows students to sample all the areas of
psychology. We have carefully chosen core and cutting-edge concepts, theories, and
findings, to give students a thorough understanding of the field.

xviii PREFACE
 \

Enhanced Pedagogical Features__

Within each chapter of the third edition, we have chunked the material into smaller
and thus easier-to-retain units of information to help students more readily learn it.
This means an increased number of headings at all levels. Furthermore, the headings
themselves are written to provide concise overviews of the material covered in the text
sections, which allows students to use these headings both as a roadmap to the chapter
and as an aid while studying. For easier studying and remembering, we have also
grouped appropriate material into bulleted or numbered lists. In addition, the running
foot of each right-hand page of a spread lists all the major sections within the chapter.
The section in which material on that page is in¬
cluded is highlighted in red, SO students are Measuring Intelligence / Analyzing Intelligence / What Makes Us Smart? / Diversity in Intelligence / Review and Remember 397

never lost—they see where they are, where

they’ve been, and what lies ahead.

Chapter Story
We begin each chapter with a story about a person or group. The story is then elab¬
orated on throughout the chapter, providing a framework for the chapter’s discussion
of relevant psychological theories and research. These stories serve several purposes.
They allow students to see how the psychological material covered in the chapter
might apply to people outside of a psychological laboratory. They also make the

oanne (J. K.) Rowling’s books about the young wiz¬

ard Harry Potter have catapulted her into the role
of international superstar and made her one of the
world’s wealthiest people. These books are chock
full of clever plot twists and novel ideas. For ex¬
ample, the long-dead people in the portraits hanging
on the walls throughout Harry’s school not only talk, but
develop relationships with each other. Photographs are not
the inanimate tracings of remembered events, but instead
are living entities, whose subjects come and go. Rowling
got the idea for Harry Potter in a flash, and she knew from
the start that she would write a seven-book series. She took
5 years to plan the series in detail, working out the plots
1 for each of the novels. When she writes each book, “I
know what and who’s coming when, and it can feel like
greeting old friends” (Fraser, 2000, p. 39). Think of it!
What does it take to work out the details of seven novels
in advance? Especially when you must not only attend to
the usual ingredients of story-telling (the characters, the
plot, and so on), but also need to create (and keep con¬
sistent) a whole new world?
At an early age, it was clear that Joanne Rowling had something special. To hear
her tell it, “1 was the epitome of a bookish child—short and squat, thick National
Health glasses, living in a world of complete daydreams, wrote stories endlessly and oc-
: casionally came out of the fog to bully my poor sister and force her to listen to my sto-
: ries and play the games I’d just invented.... I always felt I had to achieve, my hand
f always had to be the first to go up, I always had to be right” (Smith, 2001, p. 45). She
proved more than adept at making up long and complex stories and was extraordinar¬
ily inventive. Foreshadowing her later interests, as a child, she made up games of wiz¬
ards and witches, devising spells and concocting strange brews.

PREFACE
I xix
 material more interesting and applicable to students’ lives, thus facilitating learning
and remembering. In addition, each story integrates the various topics addressed
within a chapter, creating a coherent thematic whole to further enhance students’
understanding. Finally, the story itself provides retrieval cues to help students re¬
member the material.
In the third edition, we have introduced two new stories: The story in Chapter 9
(Types of Intelligence) traces the life of J. K. Rowling, the creative mind behind the
wizard Harry Potter, and that in Chapter 10 (Emotion and Motivation) follows
Mahatma Gandhi on his long journey of peaceful activism for social justice. As stu¬
dents learn more about Rowling or Gandhi (or any of the other people in the chapter
stories) over the course of a chapter, they also learn more about psychological findings
and principles and their applications. Because students are likely to remember the bi¬
ographical information about these interesting individuals, they will also remember a
lot about the content of the chapter. The chapter story is referred to or continued at the
beginning of each section. This fosters integration with the rest of the chapter and in¬
troduces each section’s topic in an applied context.

Looking at Levels
Within each chapter, we take one aspect of the content—a theory or a psychologi¬
cal phenomenon —and consider it from the three levels of analysis: the brain, the
person, and the group, as well as the interactions among events at each level. For
instance, in Chapter 11 (Personality), we examine the con¬
. ... ( LOOKING AT LEVELS cept of attachment from the level of the brain (what hap¬
pens biologically and how attachment might be linked to
Attachment
temperament), the person (how feelings of attachment af¬
In our closest relationships, we develop deep attachments to fect a person’s sense of security and self-worth), and the
other people. However, people differ in their attachment group (how attachment style, which begins as a social event
I style—their way of relating to significant others. Before we can analyze the nature of attach¬
between infant and primary caretaker, in turn, influences
ment, we must consider some key facts about it. One crucial finding is that an adult’s attach-
{ ment style with a partner stems from the way that the adult interacted with his or her parent (or an individual’s interactions with other people throughout
life). Each Looking at Levels feature serves to integrate
knowledge about the brain, personal beliefs, desires, and feelings, and group inter¬
actions. Moreover, we show how events at each level can be the point of focus, with
events at the other two levels serving as the context; we show that no one level of
analysis is the most important, and no one level alone is sufficient to understand
psychological phenomena. We integrate these diverse types of knowledge within each
chapter, rather than relegating such information to one or two separate chapters. The
Looking at Levels features also forge bridges that reach across chapters, leading to
more effective learning and remembering.

Yourself Test Yourself

A young girl has an IQ of 50 and functions well socially. Her
At the end of each major section, the fully revised
3. Creative people are very likely to
mother was nearly 50 years old when the girl was born. What
is the most likely cause of her mental retardation?
a. be the offspring of noncreative people. Test Yourself feature asks general content questions
b. be chronically depressed.
a. fragile X syndrome c. autism c. have a low IQ. that students should be able to answer based on a
b. Down syndrome d. fetal alcohol syndrome d. be flexible in their thinking.
2. A gifted individual has an IQ 4. Research on enhancing creativity has found that it careful reading of the material. In the third edition,
a. the same as that of a normal person. a. can never be enhanced.
b. between 150 and 180, according to the most common b. is predominantly genetic. these are multiple-choice questions, whose answers
definition.
c. can be enhanced.
c. at least 2 standard deviations above the mean, 130. d. cannot be studied scientifically.
appear upside-down at the end of each set. This
d. over 200, if the person is truly gifted, but otherwise over
format should help students quickly identify which
180.
Answers
3 > P f <rz <rr concepts they’ve mastered and which topics will
need more of their attention before they move on.

xx
I PREFACE
Think It Through!
Critical thinking questions —called Think It Through! —are also provided for each
major section of the chapter, immediately following the Test Yourself content-
check questions. The Think It Through! questions
ask students to apply the material to real-world set- y j,; j, j *. Through!
tings or to the chapter-opening story, requiring The eugenics movement seeks to improve the human species by encouraging those with extremely low IQ scores not
to have children. What do you think of this idea? Do you think it is useful to define people as mentally retarded or
them to think deeply about the material. Such ac¬
gifted? Why or why not?
tive processing enhances memory. And the loca¬ Is creativity always desirable? What would the world be like if everyone were supercreative, always trying to
change things? In what circumstances might creativity be more of a drawback than a benefit? Do you think ail
tion of these questions encourages students to phases of the creative process rely equally on intelligence? If not, are there ways in which people of differing intelli¬

immediately apply and analyze the information gence might best work together to be creative?

they have just acquired.

Understanding Research
Certain basic elements are included in all research reports. In the Understanding
Research features, we discuss and illustrate these elements, to help students as they
read and interpret published research studies and as they write up their own research.
In each chapter, we walk students through a selected research study so that they can
understand the content in greater depth and learn to think critically about research.
In the third edition, each Understanding Research feature is followed by a Think
Critically! question set, which asks students to reflect on how best to interpret the
research results.

Review and Remember!

We have fully revised the end-of-chapter review elements to help students further grasp
and consolidate what they have learned. The new two-column format allows students
to review key concepts from each major sec¬
tion and to note their own questions,
mnemonics, and content reminders.
REVIEW AND REMEMBER!
SUMMARY: A section-by-section outline Summary Your Notes
of the chapter’s material is provided in the
I. Measuring Intelligence: What Is IQ?
left-hand column of each Review and A. The most common measure of intelligence is the score on an intelligence test,
Remember! section. These outlines high¬ called the intelligence quotient, or IQ. IQ scores are a composite of many
different underlying abilities, and the same IQ score can arise from different
light key points that students should know mixtures of relative strengths and weaknesses.
after a thorough reading of the material. B. The most common IQ tests, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
They help consolidate the core material and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), consist of two sets
of subtests, one that assesses verbal performance and one that assesses non¬
even further into memory. verbal performance.

C. IQjtow based, on, norms: 100

Your Notes: In the right-hand column C. When first devised, IQ was a measure of mental age compared to chronological
average,; 15
=

one-standard,
age. Today, IQ scores are based on standardized norms for large samples, which =

of the Review and Remember! section, stu¬ are updated periodically so that the mean score on the WAIS or the WISC is deviation.

always 100 and a standard deviation is 15.

dents are encouraged to write their own
Scores on IQ tests are positively correlated with achievement in school and
thoughts, questions, and mnemonics, as well on the job; they are also correlated with many aspects of success in life, such
as study tips for each chapter. A sprinkling of as staying out of prison or having an enduring marriage.

sample notes is provided in each chapter.

KEY TERMS: Each end-of-chapter review also contains a list of key terms, includ¬
ing page references, to aid students in mastering key psychological vocabulary. The
key terms are highlighted in the text, and their definitions are provided in a mar¬
ginal glossary that runs throughout each chapter, as well as in an alphabetized end-
of-book glossary.

PREFACE xxi
 Hands On Features
In most chapters we have included at least one demonstration of psychological phe¬
nomena for students to try alone or with others. The brief exercises will (1) provide stu¬
dents with another way to learn about the phenomenon —experiencing, not merely
reading about it; (2) make the material more vivid, thereby enhancing students' atten¬
tion and memory; and (3) put psychological principles into a concrete context, show¬
ing students that the principles really can affect how we think, feel, and behave.
The mini demonstrations include:
Introspection (p. 12) False memory (pp. 307-308)
Simulated participation in a research study Interactive images (p. 317)
(pp. 49-50) Method of loci (p. 317)
Measured neural conduction time (p. 81) Pegword systems (p. 318)
Transduction in the retina (p. 138) Rhyming words (p. 318)
Finding your blind spot (p. 139) Building mnemonics (p. 318)
Dark adaptation (p. 139) Memory enhancing techniques (pp.
Seeing afterimages (p. 142) 319-320)
Ambiguous figures (p. 146) Discovering syntax (pp. 328-329)
Motion cues (p. 149) Mental imagery (pp. 349-350)
Recognition and identification (pp. 151-152) Prototypes (p. 353)
Pop-out (p. 158) The hiking monk problem (p. 357)
The Stroop Effect (p. 160) The candle problem (p. 358)
Supertaster test (p. 178) Wason and Johnson-Laird’s card task (p. 368)
Kinesthetic sense (p. 179) Mental models (p. 367)
Meditation (pp. 215-216) Representativeness (pp. 369-370)
Mental image and classical conditioning Prochaska self-test (p. 606-607)
(p. 242) Suicide misconceptions self-test (p. 641)
Chunking (p. 280) Progressive muscle relaxation (p. 694)
Lincoln's head on a penny (p. 283) Cognitive dissonance (p. 742)
Modality-specific memory (p. 291) Asch experiment (pp. 769-770)

Dendrites

Nucleus

New!
Action
potential
Enhanced Art Program and
Action potential
Graphics Display_
The third edition includes an entirely new art program that fea¬
tures high-quality and appropriately colorized images. The style
Step 1: The action potential and color schemes are carried throughout the book, so students
reaches the end of the axon.
Terminal don’t encounter a hand-rendered fuchsia brain on one page and a
button
grainy green brain photograph on another. Scrupulous adherence
Vesicles to one art style should help students develop and reinforce their
Step 2: Synaptic
vesicles release own consistent mental images of important content material.
neurotransmitters Many illustrations continue to highlight, in step-by-step fash¬
into the synaptic
ion, some of the most important studies covered in the book.
cleft.
Examples are a study on alcohol and sexual aggression (p. 222),
Watson’s famous experiment with Little Albert (p. 239), Bandura’s
Synaptic Dendrite of 1 Step 3: Neurotransmitters
Bobo doll experiment (p. 270), Schachter and Singer’s experi¬
bind to receptors and the
■ action potential is transmitted. ment on cognitive influences on emotion (p. 436), and Festinger’s
and Carlsmith’s cognitive dissonance study (p. 742). These vi-
sual presentations not only complement the in-text
descriptions, they enhance learning in several ways:
■ The panels walk students through each study,
allowing them to understand its details more
fully.
■ The clear, uncomplicated illustrations use
perceptual principles to convey information
effectively (these principles are described in Initially, Little Albert did not show a fear of animals, but he Then the researchers presented a white rat (CS) and made
did exhibit fear if a loud noise was made behind his back the loud noise (US).
detail in Kosslyn, 1994a, in press). (a hammer striking a steel bar).

■ This dual-mode format promotes both verbal

and visual learning; students can recall either
the words in the text or the illustrations when
they remember the study.
After five presentations of the CS and US, Albert developed a phobia
■ Working through these illustrations leads to of rats—he began whimpering and withdrawing (the conditioned emotional
response) and trying to avoid the rat. After two more presentations of the
active processing—and better remembering. CS and US, he immediately began crying on seeing the rat. "He ... fell over
on his left side, raised himself... and began to crawl away so rapidly that
he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table"
We have also added many new photos to illus¬ (Watson & Rayner, 1920, p. 5).
trate particularly important or interesting facts or
research findings. The photo captions convey infor¬
mation pertinent to the section, and the photos themselves are hooks that students
can use to anchor their understanding of the material.

What's New in the Third Edition?

Every chapter is full of discussion of cutting-edge research, accessibly presented with
engaging real-world examples that make the material relevant and interesting to read¬
ers. Examples of the key changes in the third edition are listed below by chapter.

Chapter 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today

■ Revised and expanded explanation of the unique levels-of-analysis approach
■ Clear definition and discussion of psychodynamic theory
■ Expanded discussion of cognitive neuroscience, which continues to draw on the skill
of Tiger Woods to illustrate the concept
■ Two new sections, entitled ‘The State of the Union: Psychology Today and 1 he
Changing Face of Psychology,” to highlight new developments in the field and the in¬
creasing role of women
■ New illustrations showing the jobs held by graduates with a B.A. in psychology and
their job satisfaction
Discussion of the burgeoning field of neuroethics in a new section called “New
Frontiers: Neuroethics”
■ 13 new citations of references

Chapter 2: The Research Process: How We Find Things Out

■ New text and illustrations to explain the steps of the scientific method
■ Revised table summarizing the different research methods used in psychology
* 3 new citations of references

Chapter 3: The Biology of Mind and Behavior: The Brain in Action

■ Expanded coverage of glial cells and how they work in conjunction with neurons
New section on the components of the sensory-somatic nervous system
* Revised discussion of the central nervous system

PREFACE xxiii
 ■ Revised and expanded discussion of how the different parts of the brain work together
■ Expanded discussion of the neuroimmune system and how the brain helps fight disease
■ Revised Looking at Levels feature, “The Musical Brain”
■ New photos to illustrate key concepts
■ Discussion of magnetoencephalography (MEG) and its uses
■ Discussion of new research in genetics and its relationship to the mind and behavior
■ New coverage of knockout and knockin mice
■ New figure illustrating how features of the environment can select among variations of
characteristics, called natural selection
■ 75 new citations of references

Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception: How the World Enters the Mind
• Expanded discussion of color vision, newly formatted to make it easier for students to
understand
Reorganization of the section on visual perception for improved readability and
understanding
B Expanded discussion of bottom-up and top-down processing
® New section, “Combining What and Where: Faces and Gazes,” discussing how the
two visual pathways work together
New discussion of decibels, with an illustration to clarify the concept
■ New illustration of dichotic listening
■ Expanded discussion of pheromones and the behavior they elicit
■ 101 new citations of references

Chapter 5: Consciousness: Focus on Awareness

■ Revised introduction to the nature of consciousness
■ New and revised figures, tables, and photos to highlight key concepts
■ New Understanding Research feature, “Sleep Deprivation Lite”
■ New table outlining different theories of why we dream
■ Discussion of new research findings related to sleep apnea
Expansion of the Looking at Levels feature, Recovery from Jet Lag,” including a new
table with methods of combating jet lag
■ Expanded discussion of the ways in which hypnosis can help with pain management
■ Revised section on the biology of meditation
■ New table summarizing the psychological effects of alcohol
Discussion of MDMA (also known as ecstasy or “e”)
■ 92 new citations of references

Chapter 6: Learning
■ Explanation of how sensitization occurs
■ Division of the main section on classical conditioning into smaller units for improved
readability and understanding
■ New photos and figures to highlight key concepts
■ Extended coverage of taste aversion in the Understanding Research feature, “The
Discovery of Taste Aversion”
■ New coverage on conditioning and chemotherapy
■ Revised discussion of operant conditioning
■ Discussion of additional research findings regarding delayed reinforcement
 ■ Expanded discussion of observational learning
Revised Looking at Levels feature, “Facial Expressions as Reinforcement and
Punishment”
Discussion of the actor-critic model of learning and its biological bases
■ 70 new citations of references

Chapter 7: Memory: Living With Yesterday

■ Revised chapter organization and introduction
■ Revised coverage of types of memory stores
■ Revised discussion of how we make memories
■ New photos, tables, and figures to illustrate key concepts
* New section about automatic versus controlled processing
* New discussion of brain specialization
■ Expanded discussion of stress and its effect on memory
■ Revised coverage of memory retrieval
■ New section about hypnosis and memory
■ Discussion of new research findings related to false memories
■ New section about intentional forgetting
■ Expanded coverage of amnesia
m Expanded coverage of repressed memories
* Revised section on tools and tricks that aid memory
■ 77 new citations of references

Chapter 8: Language and Thinking: What Humans Do Best

■ Expanded coverage of language development with a new introduction to the
section
* Discussion of latest research on the role of environment in language acquisition in
section titled “Enriching Environments”
■ New illustrations and tables to demonstrate key concepts
■ Expanded discussion of the neural bases of recollection
■ Expanded discussion of prototypes
* Discussion of new research on the relationship between studying and GPA
■ Expanded coverage of inductive and deductive reasoning
■ Expanded coverage of the availability heuristic
■ New Looking at Levels feature, “The Ultimatum Game”
■ 61 new citations of references

Chapter 9: Types of Intelligence: What Does It Mean to Be Smart?

* New opening story about J. K. Rowling
■ Reorganization of some of the key concepts
■ Expanded coverage of factor analysis
■ Expanded discussion of fluid and crystallized intelligences
■ New figures and tables to demonstrate key concepts
■ Detailed discussion of Carroll’s Three-Stratum Theory of Cognitive Ability
Revised discussion of IQ and specific abilities in the real world
■ Two new subsections, “The Importance of Having a Good Personality/” and “The
Importance of Analyzing the Tasks”
 ■ Revised and expanded discussion of the role of working memory in intelligence
■ Expanded discussion of twins and the effects of the prenatal environment
■ Revised and expanded discussion of group differences in intelligence
■ Expanded coverage of biological factors and sex differences in intelligence
■ New Looking at Levels feature, “Stereotype Threat”
■ 139 new citations of references

Chapter 10: Emotion and Motivation: Feeling and Striving

■ New opening story featuring Mahatma Gandhi
■ Expanded discussion of theories of emotion
■ Expanded discussion of fear
■ Revised discussion of happiness
■ New section, “Positive Psychology: More Than a State of Mind”
■ Revised discussion of body language
■ Expanded information on emotions and the brain
■ New section, “Perceiving Emotions: A Form of Mind Reading,” discussing cues that
help us interpret emotions, such as body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions
■ Expanded Looking at Levels feature, “Lie Detection”
■ New introduction to the section on motivation and reward
■ New section dealing with regulatory fit
■ Expanded section on dieting, with a new table on popular diets and the key concerns
physicians have with them
■ New discussion of androgen insensitivity syndrome
■ 95 new citations of references

Chapter 11: Personality: Vive la Difference!

■ New chapter organization
■ Revised treatment of personality traits
■ Reorganization of the discussion of the effect of situation on personality
■ Expanded discussion of personality dimensions (superfactors)
■ New sections, “Sensation Seeking,” “Biologically Based Theories of Personality,” and
“Behavioral Activation and Inhibition Systems”
■ Revised discussion of Eysenck’s theory
■ Expanded discussion of Cloninger’s and Zuckerman’s theories of personality
■ New introduction to genes and their influence on personality
■ Expanded discussion of the sociocognitive aspects of personality
■ Expanded coverage of the relationship between culture and personality
■ New Looking at Levels feature, “Attachment”
* 74 new citations of references

Chapter 12: Psychology Over the Life Span: Growing Up, Growing
Older, Growing Wiser
■ New chapter organization
■ New discussion of maturation
■ Expanded discussion of the effects of teratogens on a fetus
■ Expanded discussion of the effect of a positive environment on a fetus

XXVI
I PREFACE
 ■ Expanded coverage of sensory perception in babies
■ Revised discussion of brain development and memory
■ Expanded discussion of changes in information processing with cognitive development
■ Expanded discussion of attachment
■ Expanded section on gender roles
■ Expanded coverage of adolescent cognitive development
■ New introduction to the section titled “Becoming an Adult”
■ Discussion of the less differentiated brain in the section about adult development
■ Expanded coverage on the aging brain
■ 125 new citations of references

Chapter 13: Stress, Health, and Coping

■ New section, “From Stressor to Allostatic Load: Multiple Stressors and Their Time
Course”
■ New section on cognitive appraisal of stimuli
■ Revised and expanded coverage of coping strategies
■ Expanded discussion of optimism and pessimism
■ Expanded coverage of social support
■ New introduction to mind-body interventions
■ Revised Looking at Levels feature, “Voodoo Death”
■ 125 new citations of references

Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders: More Than Everyday Problems

■ Increased emphasis on looking at psychological disorders from the three levels of
brain, person, and group, as well as on considering how events at the different levels
interact
■ Expanded discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the DSM
■ Revised discussion of major depressive disorder
■ Reorganization of the section “Explaining Mood Disorders” for improved readability
and understanding
■ Revised discussion of how events at the various levels interact with each other to lead
to depression
■ Revised coverage of phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress
disorder
■ Revised and reorganized discussion of schizophrenia and its subtypes
■ Expanded discussion of how eating disorders can be explained at the level of the person
■ Expanded cautionary note about the diagnosis of psychological disorders
■ 86 new citations of references

Chapter 15: Treatment: Healing Actions, Healing Words

■ New chapter organization
■ New introduction, with information about historical influences on psychotherapy
■ New section, “Evaluating Insight-Oriented Therapies”
■ Expanded section, “Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning”
■ Expanded and revised coverage of psychopharmacology
■ New coverage of how the placebo effect can lessen depression
 ■ Revised discussion of self-help treatments
■ Expanded discussion of therapy protocols
■ Revised discussion of the use of technology in psychotherapy
■ New discussion of research methods, including appropriate control groups, potential
confounds, and randomized controlled trials
■ New Looking at Levels feature, “Treating Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder”
■ 104 new citations of references

Chapter 16: Social Psychology: Meeting of the Minds

■ Expanded information on the self-fulfilling prophecy
■ Revised discussion of direct versus indirect methods of assessing attitudes
■ Expanded discussion of persuasion
■ Expanded coverage of social cognitive neuroscience
■ Expanded discussion of prejudice and the ways it influences behavior
■ 79 new citations of references

Instructor and Student Resources

Psychology in Context, Third Edition, is accompanied by the following teaching and
learning tools.

Instructor Supplements
New! Psychology in Context, Instructor's Classroom Kit and CD-ROM,
Volumes I and II Our unparalleled classroom kit includes every instructional aid
an introductory psychology professor needs to excel in the classroom. We have made
our resources even easier to use by placing all of our print supplements
in two convenient volumes. Organized by chapter, each volume contains the
Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, Grade Aid Study Guide, and slides from the PowerPoint
presentation. Electronic versions of the Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint
presentation, images from the text, and video clips, all searchable by key terms, are
made easily accessible to instructors on the accompanying Classroom Kit CD-ROMs.

■ Instructor’s Manual Written and updated for this edition by Marcia }.

McKinley of Mount St. Mary’s University, this robust teaching resource can be
used by first-time or experienced instructors. Included are numerous handouts,
detailed chapter outlines, lecture material, suggested reading and video sources,
teaching objectives, and classroom activities and demonstrations.
■ Test Bank Featuring more than 100 questions per chapter, the Test Bank
includes multiple-choice, true/false, short answer, and essay items, each coded
with difficulty rating, page references, and answer justifications. The test¬
writing team includes Rose Marie Ward of Miami University of Ohio, Michael
McGuire of Washburn University, Robert Sorrells of Central Washington
University, and Kristin Vickers of Ryerson University. The Test Bank is
also available in TestGen 5.5 computerized version, for use in personaliz¬
ing tests.
■ PowerPoint™ Presentation The PowerPoint presentation for Psychology in
Context includes images and key topics from the textbook and a link to the com¬
panion Web site for corresponding activities. T he PowerPoint presentation is in¬
cluded on the Instructor’s Classroom Kit CD-ROM and can also be downloaded
from the Instructor Resource Center at www.ablongman.com/kosslyn3e.

XXVlll
I PREFACE
MYPSYCHLAB This interactive and instructive multimedia resource can be used to
supplement a traditional lecture course or to administer a course entirely online. It is
an all-inclusive tool, a text-specific e-book plus multimedia tutorials, audio, video, sim¬
ulations, animations, and controlled assessment to completely engage students and re¬
inforce learning. Fully customizable and easy to use, MyPsychLab meets the
individual teaching and learning needs of every instructor and every student. Visit the
site at www.mypsychlab.com.

New! Printed Appendix on Industrial/Organizational Psychology Avail

able for the first time with this edition, this appendix provides students with a valuable
overview of the growing field of industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology. In this
guide, students can see how the psychological concepts presented in the textbook are
applied in the real world in any professional workplace. Regardless of the careers stu¬
dents pursue, they may be affected by the work of I/O psychologists, in anything from
the description of a position they wish to obtain to the interview and evaluation
processes to the way the work environment is designed.

Insights into Psychology Video or DVD, Vols. I-IV These video programs in¬
clude two or three short clips per topic, covering such topics as animal research, para¬
psychology, health and stress, Alzheimer’s disease, bilingual education, genetics and
IQ, and much more. A Video Guide containing critical thinking questions accompa¬
nies each video. Also available on DVD.

The Blockbuster Approach: A Guide to Teaching Introductory Psychology

with Video The Blockbuster Approach is a unique print resource for instructors
who enjoy enhancing their classroom presentations with films. With heavy coverage of
general, abnormal, social, and developmental psychology, this guide suggests a wide
range of films to use in class and provides questions for reflection and other pedagogi¬
cal tools to make the classroom use of film more effective.

New! Interactive Lecture Questions for Clickers These lecture questions will
jump-start exciting classroom discussions.

Allyn and Bacon Digital Media Archive for Psychology, 5.0 This com¬
prehensive source includes still images, audio clips, web links, animation and video
clips. Highlights include classic experimental psychology footage from Stanley
Milgrim’s Invitation to Social Psychology, biology animations, and more—with cov¬
erage of such topics as eating disorders, aggression, therapy, intelligence, and sensa¬
tion and perception.

Introduction to Psychology Transparency Package The Transparency Kit

includes approximately 230 full-color acetates to enhance classroom lecture and dis¬
cussion-including images from all of Allyn and Bacon’s introductory psychology texts.

COURSE Management Use these preloaded, customizable, content and assessment

items to teach your online courses. Available in CourseCompass, Blackboard, and
WebCT formats.

Student Supplements
MyPsychLab, Student Version This interactive and instructive multimedia re¬
source is an all-inclusive tool, a text-specific e-book plus multimedia tutorials, audio,
video, simulations, animations, and controlled assessment to completely engage users
and reinforce learning. Easy to use, MyPsychLab meets the individual learning needs
of every student. Visit the site at www.mypsychlab.com.

PREFACE xxix
 Tutor Center One-on-One Tutoring!-Now Included in MyPsychLab or
Available for Separate Purchase www.ablongman.com/tutorcenter/psych
A support service that’s available when you need it! Qualified tutors will answer ques¬
tions about material in the text. The Tutor Center is open during peak study hours —
in the late afternoon and evenings, 5-12 p.m. (EST), Sunday through Thursday during
the academic calendar.

Research Navigator -Now Included in MyPsychLab or Available for

Separate Purchase www.ablongman.com/researchnavigator The easiest
way to start a research assignment or research paper. Research Navigator™ helps you
quickly and efficiently make the most of your research time and write better papers.
The program provides extensive help with the research process and includes three ex¬
clusive databases of credible and reliable source material: EBSCO’s ContentSelect
Academic Journal Database, The New York Times Search by Subject Archive, and Allyn
and Bacon’s “Best of the Web” Link Library.

Grade Aid Study Guide with Practice Tests-Now included in MyPsychLab

OR AVAILABLE FOR SEPARATE PURCHASE Developed by Marcia J. McKinley at
Mount St. Mary’s College, this is a comprehensive and interactive study guide. Each
chapter includes: “Before You Read,” with a brief chapter summary and chapter learn¬
ing objectives; “As You Read,” a collection of demonstrations, activities, and exercises;
“After You Read,” containing three short practice quizzes and one comprehensive prac¬
tice test; “When You Have Finished,” with Web links for further information and cross¬
word puzzles using key terms from the text. An appendix includes answers to all
practice tests and crossword puzzles.

XXX
I PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We want to give a heartfelt thanks to the many reviewers who read earlier versions of one or
more chapters, sometimes the entire book, and helped shape this third edition. This is by far a
better book for their efforts.

Nancy Adler, University of California, San Nicholas Epley, University of Chicago Kevin Ochsner, Columbia University
Francisco Joseph R. Ferrari, DePaul University Kathy R. Phillippi-Immel, University of
Michael Todd Allen, University of Albert M. Galaburda, Harvard Medical Wisconsin, Fox Valley
Northern Colorado School Brad Pinter, Pennsylvania State University,
Marlene Behrmann, Carnegie Mellon Peter Gerhardstein, Binghamton University Altoona
University David T. Hall, Baton Rouge Community Robert Plomin, Institute of Psychiatry,
Bernard J. Baars, The Neurosciences College London
Institute Argye Hillis, Johns Hopkins School of Frank J. Provenzano, Greenville
Lisa Feldman Barrett, Boston College Medicine Technical College
Sara C. Broaders, Northwestern University Herman Huber, College of Saint Elizabeth Scott Rauch, Harvard Medical School
Ekaterina V. Burdo, Wright State School Alan E. Kazdin, Yale University School of Patricia Sampson, University of Maryland,
of Professional Psychology Medicine Eastern Shore
Howard Casey Cromwell, Bowling Green Andrea Rittman Lassiter, Minnesota State Lisa M. Shin, Tufts University
State University University, Mankato Jennifer Siciliani, University of Missouri,
Charles S. Carver, University of Miami Angela Lipsitz, Northern Kentucky St. Louis
Patrick Cavanagh, Harvard University University William C. Spears, Louisiana State
KinHo Chan, Hartwick College Jon K. Maner, Florida State University University
Jonathan D. Cohen, Princeton University Michele Mathis, University of North Larry R. Squire, University of California,
Virginia Ann Cylke, Sweet Briar College Carolina, Wilmington San Diego
Richard J. Davidson, University of Stuart McKelvie, Bishop’s University Robert Stickgold, Harvard Medical School
Wisconsin, Madison Richard J. McNally, Harvard University Lisa Valentino, Seminole Community
Mark Davis, University of West Alabama Steven E. Meier, University of Idaho College
Pamela Davis-Kean, University of Robin K. Morgan, Indiana University Tor Wager, Columbia University
Michigan Southeast J. Celeste Walley-Jean, Spelman College
Douglas R. Detterman, Case Western Eric S. Murphy, University of Alaska, Daniel T. Willingham, University of
Reserve University Anchorage Virginia
Wendy Domjan, University of Texas, Lynn Nadel, University of Arizona Karen L. Yanowitz, Arkansas State
Austin Margaret Nauta, Illinois State University University
Dale V. Doty, Monroe Community Jason Nier, Connecticut College Marvin Zuckerman, University of
College Matthew K. Nock, Harvard University Delaware

We also want to thank the reviewers who helped shape previous editions: They helped cre¬
ate the foundation on which this new edition is built. Their comments were invaluable. (Note
that the institution given below as the affiliation for each reviewer was accurate at the time of
the review; some affiliations may have changed since then.)

Second Edition Reviewers

Joel Alesancer, Western Oregon University Sarah Bing, University of Maryland, Laura Cartensen, Stanford University
Mark Bardgett, Northern Kentucky Eastern Shore Patrick Cavanagh, Llarvard University
University Galen Bodenhausen, Northwestern Paul Costa, National Institute of Aging,
Mark Baxter, Harvard University University NIH
Marlene Behrmann, Carnegie Mellon Douglas Cody Brooks, Denison University Joseph Davis, San Diego State University
University Greg Buchanan, Beloit College Perri Bruen, York College
Joseph Bilotta, Western Kentucky Michelle Butler, U.S. Air Force Lorin Elias, University of Saskatchewan
University Academy Delbert Ellsworth, Elizabethtown College

I XXXI
 Merrill Garrett, University of Arizona Alan Kazdin, Yale University Todd D. Nelxon, California State
Michael Garza, Brookhaven College Melvyn King, State University of New University
Peter Gerhardstein, State University of York-Cortland Jacqueline Pope-Tarrence, Western
New York-Binghamton Joseph LeDoux, New York University Kentucky University
Harvey Ginsburg, Southwest Texas State Matthew Lieberman, University of Beth Post, University of California, Davis
University California, Los Angeles Celia Reaves, Monroe Community
Jordan Grafman, National Institute of Serry Loch, Paradise Valley Community College
Neurological Disorders and College Gregory Robinson-Riegler, University of
Strokes Linda Lockwood, Metropolitan State St. Thomas
Dana Gross, St. Olaf College College Bennett Schwartz, Florida International
Larry Hawk, State University of New Eric Loken, University of Pittsburgh University
York-Buffalo Miclral Markham, Florida International Alan Searleman, St. Lawerence University
Julie Hoigaard, University of University Paul Shinkman, University of North
California-Irvine Bruce McEwen, Rockefeller University Carlina-Chapel Hill
Dan Horn, University of Michigan Marcia McKinley, Mount St. Mary’s Larry Squire, Veterans Affairs Medical
Stephen Hoyer, Pittsburgh State College Center, San Diego
University Marisa McLeod, Santa Fe Community Robert Stickgold, Harvard Medical School
Kathy Immel, University of College Irene Valchos-Weber, Indiana University
Wisconsin-Fox Valley Richard McNally, Harvard University John Wiebe, University of Texas, El Paso

First Edition Reviewers

Sharon Akimoto, Carleton College Karl Haberlandt, Trinity College Dorothy C. Piontkowski, San Francisco
Jeff Anastasi, Francis Marion University Richard Hackman, Harvard University State University
Joe Bean, Shorter College Richard Haier, University of California, Brad Redburn, Johnson County
James Benedict, James Madison Irvine Community College
University Marjorie Hardy, Eckerd College Cheryl Rickabaugh, University of
James F. Calhoun, University of Georgia Bruce Henderson, Western Carolina Redlands
Brad Carothers, Evergreen Valley College University Alan Salo, University of Maine, Presque
James Carroll, Central Michigan James Hilton, University of Michigan Isle
University Rich Ingram, San Diego State University Jim Schirillo, Wake Forest University
M. D. Casey, St. Mary’s College of John H. Krantz, Hanover College Michael Scoles, University' of Central
Maryland Richard Lippa, California State Arkansas
Dave Christian, University of Idaho University, Fresno Michal Shaughnessy, Eastern New
George A. Cicala, University of Delaware Walter J. Lonner, Western Washington Mexico University
Gerald S. Clack, Loyola University of University Nancy Simpson, Trident Technical
New Orleans Michael Markham, Florida International College
Verne C. Cox, University of Texas, University Linda J. Skinner, Middle Tennessee State
Arlington Pam McAuslan, University of Michigan, University
Nancy Dickson, Tennessee Technical Dearborn Michael Spiegler, Providence College
College David G. McDonald, University of Don Stanley, North Harris College
William O. Dwyer, University of Missouri Bruce B. Svare, State University of New
Memphis Rafael Mendez, Bronx Community York at Albany
Valeri Farmer-Dougan, Illinois State College Thomas Thielan, College of St.
University Sarah Murray, Kwantlen University Catherine
William Ford, Bucks County Community College Paul E. Turner, Lipscomb University
College Paul Ngo, Saint Norbert College Lori Van Wallendael, University of North
Mary Gauvain, University of California, Thomas R. Oswald, Northern Iowa Area Carolina, Charlotte
Riverside Community College Frank J. Vattano, Colorado State
Dan Gilbert, Harvard University Carol Pandey, Los Angeles Pierce College Univesity
Peter Graf, University of British Columbia Robert J. Pellegrini, San Jose State Rich Velayo, Pace University
Peter Gram, Pensacola Junior College University Rich Wesp, East Stroudsburg University

xxxii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 We also profited enormously from conversations with our friends and colleagues, particu¬
larly Nalini Ambady, Mahzarin Banaji, Mark Baxter, Alain Berthoz, John Cacioppo, David
Caplan, Alfonso Caramazza, Patrick Cavanagh, Verne Caviness, Christopher Chabris,
Jonathan Cohen, Suzanne Corkin, Francis Crick, Richard Davidson, Susan Edbril, Jeffrey
Epstein, Michael Friedman, A1 Galaburda, Giorgio Gain, Jeremy Gray, Anne Harrington,
Marc Hauser, Kenneth Hugdahl, Steven Hyman, Jerome Kagan, Julian Keenan, Denis Le
Bihan, Fred Mast, Amy Mayer, Richard McNally, Merrill Mead-Fox, Ken Nakayama, Kevin
O’Regan, Alvaro Pascual-Leone, Steven Pinker, Susan Poliak, Scott Rauch, Kim Rawlins,
Melissa Robbins, Robert Rose, Steven Rosenberg, Margaret Ross, Daniel Schacter, Jeanne
Serafin, Lisa Shin, Dan Simons, Edward E. Smith, Elizabeth Spelke, David Spiegel, Larry
Squire, Eve van Cauter, Laura Weisberg, and Edgar Zurif. We thank Maya and Alain Berthoz,
Maryvonne Carafatan and Michel Denis, Christiane and Denis Le Bihan, Josette and Jacques
Lautrey, Bernard Mazoyer, and Nathalie Tzurio-Mazoyer for their hospitality during our year
in France, which made it possible and enjoyable to work productively there. We also thank the
staff at the College de France for their help, in too many ways to list. And to our parents (Bunny,
Stanley, Rhoda, and the late Duke) and our children (Nathaniel, David, and Justin), a huge
thanks for your patience with our work-filled weekends and evenings, and for your love, support,
and good humor. You have sustained us.
Other people have been instrumental in making the first draft of this book, and thus this
third edition, a reality. These include Andrea Volfova (for her good-humored assistance and in¬
cisive comments), Jennifer Shepard, Bill Thompson, David Hurvitz, Steve Stose, Cinthia
Guzman, Nicole Rosenberg, and Deborah Bell for their patience and willingness to help us dig
out references and check facts, especially via long-distance communication during the year we
were in France. The idea for the book developed over years of working with the Sophomore
Tutors and Assistant to the Head Tutor, Shawn Harriman, at Harvard University, and we want
to thank them all; helping them grapple with the concepts of levels of analysis led us to make
this book clearer. We are particularly indebted to two of the tutors, Laurie Santos and Jason
Mitchell, who read an early draft of the book and offered copious and wise comments. Finally,
we wish to thank Christopher Brunt, an undergraduate who used the first edition of the book
and spotted an ambiguity in one of the figures; we fixed the figure and appreciate his feedback.
Dr. Suzanne M. Delaney, Dr. James H. Geer, and students Katherine Geier and June Ha took
the time to share with us ways in which the second edition could be improved, and we greatly
appreciate their observations and suggestions. We welcome with open arms feedback from all
who read this book and have ideas about how to improve it.
Last but definitely not least, we want to thank the crew at Allyn and Bacon for their vision,
support, good humor, and patience. Many special thanks to Karon Bowers, who, as Executive
Editor for Psychology, initiated this revision before becoming the Editor-in-Chief for
Communication, and to Susan Hartman, who has since taken the helm as Editor-in-Chief for
Psychology; Pamela Laskey, Executive Marketing Manager, whose vision and enthusiasm for
the book inspired us; Michael Granger, Production Manager, whose diligence and great eye
made this edition look so good; Jane Hoover, copy editor extraordinaire, whose eagle eye and
depth of processing of our words continually impress us; Sharon Geary, Director of
Development, for reading first pages so carefully; Lara Torsky and Deb Hanlon, the editorial as¬
sistants who facilitated many important projects, including the commissioning of all the re¬
views; Jennifer Trebby, Associate Development Editor, and Kristin Vickers, for the many hours
they spent on the all new Test Yourself questions, and editorial intern Mekea Harvey, who
helped put some vital, final pieces of this project together. We also thank Editorial Director
Jason Jordon, for his good listening abilities and creative solutions; Roth Wilkofsky, President of
Allyn and Bacon/Longman, for his support and understanding; Sandi Kirschner, President of
Addison Wesley Higher Education, and Bill Barke, CEO of Addison Wesley Higher Education,
for their continuing support and participation in the project. Finally, and most importantly, our
development editors on this edition, who have given so much of themselves to this project: Lisa
McLellan, Senior Development Editor, who expertly and patiently guided the second edition
of this text and labored through the critical early stages of this edition before departing for her
own labor and motherhood, and Cheryl de Jong-Lambert, Senior Development Editor, who
gallantly stepped into the breach with energy, patience, and great ideas. Thank you all.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I xxxm
 I nterest in gender and cultural diversity issues remains an important theme in
modern psychology. These topics are treated throughout the text in an integrated
fashion.

Integrated Coverage off Gender Issues

Women in history of psychology, 28 Sexual dysfunction for men and women, 474-475
Sex differences in color perceptions, 141 Homophobia, 475-476
Sex differences in color blindness, 142-143 Freud’s sex differences in psychosexual development, 484-485
Sex differences in detecting odors, 175 Gender differences in personality, 515-517
Female pheromones and male attraction, 176-177 Gender identity, 557-558
Sex differences in sensitivity to touch, 179 Sex differences in moral development, 559-560
Possession trance in the Comoros, 214 Gender role development, 558-559
Sex differences in drinking, 220 Sex differences in pubertal development, 562-563
Alcohol and sexual aggression, 222 Peer relationships, 567
Sex differences in remembering emotional stimuli, 289 Menopause, 570
Sex differences when processing phonemes, 328 Sex differences in grieving, 579
Women and emotional intelligence, 392 Stress and women, 590
Sex differences in intelligence, 407-408 Sex differences in hostility, 600
Sex differences in nonverbal behavior, 442-443 Gender differences in aggression, 614
Sex differences in sexual response, 468 Gender and coping, 622-623
Sex differences in hormones, 468-470 Sex differences in prevalence of depression, 645-646
Sex differences in sexual stimuli, 470 Sex differences in onset of schizophrenia, 661
Mating preferences, 471-472, 762-763 Sex differences in prevalence of eating disorders, 671-672
Sexual orientation, 472-474

Integrated Coverage of Cross-Cultural Issues

Cultural universality, 19 Culture and personality, 517-520
Cross-cultural differences in drawing, 148-149 Cognitive development and culture, 551-552
Perception of physical beauty and culture, 163-164 Teenage pregnancy and culture, 567-568
Possession trance in the Comoros, 214 Death and culture, 579
Meditation and religion, 215 Psychoneuroimmunology and culture, 602
Behavior modification in nutrition in the Philippines, 258 Coping and culture, 622-623
Cultural differences in memory, 287 Abnormal behavior and culture, 632, 634-635
Cultural differences when processing phonemes, 327 Depression in China and the United States, 640-641
Linguistic relativity hypothesis, 347-348 Depression and culture, 640-641
Group differences in intelligence, 404-405 Khmer refugees and panic attacks, 650
Bias in intelligence testing, 406 Schizophrenia and culture, 666
Race and basic emotions, 429-431 Eating disorders and culture, 673-674
Cultural differences in happiness, 439-440 Treatment and culture, 726
Emotional expression and culture, 441-442 Implicit attitudes, 740-741
Achievement in individualist versus collectivist cultures, 457-458 Cognition, prejudice, and culture, 748
Food preferences (taste) and culture, 461 Attraction and culture, 760
Sexual behavior and culture, 474 Conformity and culture, 769-770

XXXIV
I
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Stephen IVI. Kosslvn
Stephen M. Kosslyn is Chair of the Psychology Department and John Lindsley
Professor of Psychology in Memory of William James at Harvard University, as well
as Associate Psychologist in the Department of Neurology at Massachusetts General
Hospital. He received his B.A. from UCLA and his Ph.D. from Stanford University,
both in psychology. His research has focused primarily on the nature of visual men¬
tal imagery and visual communication, and he has published six books and over 250
papers on these topics. For ten years he was “head tutor,” supervising graduate stu¬
dents teaching year-long introductory psychology courses using levels of analysis.
While actively engaged with writing and academic pursuits, Dr. Kosslyn is currently
on the editorial boards of many professional journals.

Robin S. Rosenberg
Robin S. Rosenberg is a clinical psychologist in private practice and has taught psy¬
chology at Lesley University and Harvard University. She is certified in clinical hyp¬
nosis and is a member of the Academy for Eating Disorders. She received her B.A. in
psychology from New York University, and her M.A. and Ph.D. in clinical psychology
from the University of Maryland, College Park. Dr. Rosenberg did her clinical intern¬
ship at Massachusetts Mental Health Center, had a postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard
Community Health Plan, and was on the staff at Newton-Wellesley Hospital’s
Outpatient Services. Dr. Rosenberg specializes in treating people with eating disorders,
depression, and anxiety.
 n a balmy April day in 2002, a young man
was playing golf. Nothing unusual about
that. But when this young man sank his
final putt, the watching crowd let out a
roar, and he looked for his parents and
embraced them, fighting back tears. The occasion was
the PGA Masters Tournament, and the young man was
Tiger Woods.
Think of the magnitude of his victory: At 26, Woods was the youngest three-time
winner of the Masters. And golfs reigning champion, in a sport that had long been ef¬
fectively closed to all but Whites, was of Asian, Black, White, and Native American an¬
cestry. Tiger Woods dominated the sport of golf like no one before him or perhaps to
come — all at a very young age. Before he came on the scene, golf was truly “the White
man’s sport,” and the only place for a minority was as a caddy. After he burst into our
collective awareness, he not only opened the sport to minorities, but also brought it
into the mainstream —golf courses nationwide have become more crowded since
Woods’s rise to prominence.
If you could discern and explain the factors that led to Tiger Woods’s meteoric rise
to fame, you would be a very insightful psychologist.
But where would you begin? You could look at Woods’s hand-eye coordination, his
concentration and focus, and his ability to judge distances and calculate factors of
wind, temperature, and humidity.
You could look at his personality—his reaction to racist hate mail (as a college stu¬
dent at Stanford University, he even kept one particularly vile letter taped to his wall),
his religious beliefs (he was raised in his mother’s faith, Buddhism), his demeanor dur¬
ing play, and his discipline in training.
You could look at his relationships with the social world around him —his family,
his competitors, his fans.
Is this psychology? Indeed it is. Psychologists ask and, in scientific ways, attempt to
answer questions about why and how people think, feel, and behave as they do.
Because we are all human and so have much in common, sometimes the answers are
universal. But we are also, like snowflakes, all different, and psychology helps to explain
our uniqueness. Psychology is about mental processes and behavior, both exceptional
and ordinary. In this chapter, we show you how to look at and answer such questions
by methods used in current research and (because the inquiry into what makes us tick
has a history) how psychologists over the past century have approached these questions.
THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Getting to Know You
Virtually everything any of us does, thinks, or feels falls within the sphere of psychol¬
ogy. You are dealing with the subject matter of psychology when you watch people in¬
teracting in a classroom or at a party, or notice that a friend is in a really terrible mood.
The field of psychology aims to understand what is at work when you daydream as you
watch the clouds drift by, when you have trouble recalling someone’s name, even
when you’re asleep.

What Is Psychology?
Although it may seem complex and wide-ranging, the field you are studying in this text¬
book can be defined in one simple sentence: Psychology is the science of mental
processes and behavior. Let’s look at the key words in this definition.
First, science: From the Latin scire, “to know,” science avoids mere opinions, in¬
tuitions, and guesses and instead strives to nail down facts —to know them —by using
objective evidence to answer questions like these: What makes the sun shine? Why
does garlic make your breath smell strong? How is Tiger Woods able to direct his
swings so superbly? A scientist uses logic to reason about the possible causes of a
phenomenon and then tests the resulting ideas by collecting additional facts, which
will either support the ideas or refute them, and thus nudge the scientist further
along the road to the answer.
Second, mental processes: Mental processes are what your brain is doing not only
when you engage in “thinking” activities such as storing memories, recognizing ob¬
jects, and using language, but also when you feel depressed, jump for joy, or savor the
experience of being in love. How can we find objective facts about mental processes,
which are hidden and internal? One way, which has a long history in psychology, is to
work backward, observing what people do and inferring from outward signs what is
going on “inside.” Another, as new as the latest technological advances in neuro¬
science, is to use brain-scanning techniques to take pictures of the living brain that
show its physical changes as it works.
Third, behavior: By behavior, we mean the outwardly observable acts of a per¬
son, either alone or in a group. Behavior consists of physical movements, voluntary
or involuntary, of the limbs, facial muscles, or other parts of the body. A particular
behavior is often preceded by mental processes, such as a perception of the current
situation (how far the golf ball must travel) and a decision about what to do next
(how forcefully to swing the club). A behavior may also be governed by the rela¬
tionship between the individual and a group. Tiger Woods might not have performed
the way he did in 2002 had he been playing in 1920, when many in the crowd
Psychology: The science of mental processes would not have wanted a non-White person to win. So there are layers upon layers:
and behavior. An individual’s mental processes affect his or her behavior, and these processes are
Mental processes: What the brain does affected by the surrounding group (the members of which, in turn, have their own
when a person stores, recalls, or uses infor¬
mation or has specific feelings. individual mental processes and behaviors).
Behavior: The outwardly observable acts of When you think about a friend’s “psychology,” you might wonder about his or her
an individual, alone or in a group. motivations (“Why would she say such a thing?”), knowledge (“What does she know

4 CHAPTER 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today

What Is Psychology?

Science Mental Processes Behavior

that led her to make that decision?”), or goals (“What is she trying to accomplish by
acting like that?”). In all cases, you are trying to describe (such as by inferring what your
friend knows or believes) and explain (such as by inferring your friend’s motivations)
your friend’s mental processes and behavior. Most people try to describe and explain
other people’s psychology on the basis of “common sense” or generalizations they’ve
heard (such as the idea that some people are grouchy in the morning). The field of psy¬
chology is dedicated to helping us understand each other by using the tools of science.
But more than that, psychology’s goals are not simply to describe and explain mental
processes and behavior, but also to predict and control them. As an individual, you’d
probably like to be able to predict what kind of person would make a good spouse for
you or which politician would make sound decisions in crisis situations. As a society,
we all would greatly benefit by knowing how people learn most effectively, how to con¬
trol addictive and destructive behaviors, and how to cure mental illness.

Levels off Analysis: The Complete Psychology

The areas you might explore to answer questions about Tiger Woods’s success —his co¬
ordination and focus, his beliefs and attitudes, his relationships with his parents and his
audience —can be understood in terms of three types of events, each of which provides
a field for analysis. Think for a moment about a computer. How can we understand
what it does?

1. First, we can ponder the machine itself. The computer is a mechanism. One event
causes another. You enter a “Save” command, it saves a file to a disk; you enter a
“Print” command, it sends the file to the printer, and so forth. Each input triggers

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 a specific event, cause and effect. The computer program is like a mental process;
it specifies the steps the mechanism takes in particular circumstances.
2. Second, we can ask about the content of the computer—the specific infor¬
mation it contains and what’s being done to it. The mechanism behaves exactly
the same way if you type a research paper, a love letter, or directions to a bar¬
becue. Nevertheless, the differences in content obviously matter a great deal.
The content relies on the mechanism (for instance, if the computer is not turned
on, you cannot type in any content), but the mechanism and content are not
the same.
3., Third, we can hook the computer into a network. We now focus on how different
computers affect each other and the network itself What happens when you type in
a query to Google? Your computer (both the mechanism and the particular con¬
tent you type) interacts with others that relay the query and finally send back in¬
formation in response.

These so-called levels of analysis (to rely on the most accepted and widely used
terminology) build on one another, with each level adding something new to our
understanding of computing. Specifically, the content relies on the mechanism (as
anyone knows who has tried to use a computer with a broken hard drive or
malfunctioning power supply), and the network depends on both the content (such
as the particular commands or requests you enter) and the mechanism (a function¬
ing computer).
Do we really need to consider these three levels of analysis? To see why we do, sup¬
pose you log onto the internet and your computer suddenly freezes. Why? It could be
that your hard drive has crashed (mechanism); or perhaps you entered an invalid com¬
mand (content); or perhaps the network itself is down (network). To consider all of the
possible reasons for your computer’s malfunction, you need to contemplate disruptions
at each level of analysis.
Now let’s see how this analogy applies to humans.

Three Levels of Analysis in Psychology

At any moment in Tiger Woods’s day, or yours, events are happening at the same three
levels we just considered in our computer analogy. Considering psychological phe¬
nomena from these three levels reveals much that would be hidden were we to look at
only one level.
In humans, the mechanism is the brain and all of the biological factors that af¬
fect it. At this level of the brain, psychologists consider not only the activity of the
brain but also the structure and properties of the organ itself—brain cells and their
connections, the chemical soup in which they exist (including the hormones that
alter the way the brain operates), and the genes that give rise to them. At the level
of the brain, a psychologist might want to design an experiment to study how Tiger
Woods can adjust the force of his swing so exquisitely well for driving, chipping, and
putting and might speculate that the parts of his brain that control hand-eye coor¬
Level of the brain: Events that involve the
dination are especially well developed.
structure and properties of the organ itself—
brain cells and their connections, the chemi¬ At the next level, consider how we use the information that our brains store and
cal soup in which they exist, and the genes. process. At this level of the person, psychologists focus on the content of mental
Level of the person: Events that involve the processes, not just the internal mechanics that are the focus at the level of the brain.
nature of beliefs, desires, and feelings —
the content of the mind, not just its internal
Unlike the level of the brain, we no longer talk about the characteristics of brain
mechanics. areas or how they operate to process information; rather, we talk about mental con-

6 CHAPTER 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today

I
tents such as beliefs (including ideas, explanations, expectations), desires (such as
hopes, goals, needs), and feelings (fears, guilts, attractions, and the like). Although
the brain is the locus and vehicle for content, the two are not the same —any
more than a computer and a love letter written on it are the same. Rather, the brain
is in many ways a canvas on which life’s experiences are painted. Just as we can dis¬
cuss how aspects of a canvas (such as its texture) allow us to paint, we can discuss
how the brain supports mental contents. But just as we can talk about the picture
itself (a portrait, a landscape, and so on), we can talk about mental contents. To do
so, we must shift to another level of analysis. At the level of the person, a psychol¬
ogist who is studying Tiger Woods might want to investigate the factors —among
them, possibly, his Buddhist faith—behind the strong sense of inner calm he dis¬
plays under pressure.
And third, just as computers in a network affect each other, people affect one
another. “No man is an island,” the poet John Donne wrote. We all live in social
environments that vary over time and space and that are populated by our friends
and professors, our parents, the other viewers in a movie theater, the other drivers
on a busy highway. Our lives are intertwined with other people’s lives, and from
birth to old age, we take our cues from other people around us. The relationships
that arise within groups make them more than simply collections of individuals.
Psychologists not only study isolated individuals, but also investigate the mental
processes and behavior of members of groups. Members of street gangs and politi¬
cal parties both have distinct identities based on shared beliefs and practices that are
passed on to new members as culture, which has been defined as the “language, be¬
liefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one
generation to the next” (Henslin, 1999). Thus, at the level of the group, psycholo¬
gists consider the ways that collections of people (as few as two, as many as a soci¬
ety) shape individual mental processes and behavior. At the level of the group, a
psychologist might want to examine the role of a supportive and enthusiastic audi¬
ence in helping Tiger Woods birdie instead of bogey.
Events that occur at every level of analysis —brain, person, and group —are inti¬
mately tied to conditions in the physical world. All our mental processes and behaviors
take place within and are influenced by a specific physical environment. A windy day
at the golf course changes the way Tiger Woods plays a shot. The group is only part of
the world; to understand the events at each level of analysis, we must always relate
them to the physical world that surrounds all of us.

All Together Now

Many people seem delighted to discover that their brains are not in fact computers. We
noted above that the computer acts the same way when it is used to write a love letter
or directions to someone’s house. The human brain does not. When you feel an emo¬
tion (at the level of the person), that experience is accompanied by changes in how
your brain operates (Davidson, 2004; Sheehan et ah, 2004). In humans, unlike com¬
puters, events at the different levels are constantly interacting. For example, as you sit
in a lecture hall, the signals among your brain cells that enable you to understand the Level of the group: Events that involve re¬
lationships between people (such as love,
lecture, and the new connections among your brain cells that enable you to remember
competition, and cooperation), relationships
it, are happening because you decided to take the course (perhaps because you need it among groups, and culture. Events at the
to graduate): That is, events at the level of the person (your interests or perhaps knowl¬ level of the group are one aspect of the envi¬
ronment; the other aspect is the physical en¬
edge of your school’s requirements) are affecting events at the level of the brain. But, vironment itself (the time, temperature, and
as you listen to the lecture, your neighbor’s knuckle cracking is really getting to other physical stimuli).

The Science of Psychology / Psychology Then and Now / The Psychological Way / Ethics / Review and Remember 7
 you, and you’re finding it hard to concentrate: Events at the level of the group are af¬
fecting events at the level of the brain. Because you really want to hear this stuff, you’re
wondering how to get your neighbor to cut it out, and you decide to shoot a few dirty
looks his way: Events at the level of the person are affecting events at the level of the
group (which, as we’ve seen, affect events at the level of the brain). And all of this is
going on within the physical environment of the room, where the sunlight that had
seemed warm and welcoming is now pretty hot, and you’re getting drowsy, and you’re
really irritated, and you finally change your seat. . . . And round and round. Events at
the three levels of analysis, in a specific physical context, are constantly changing and
influencing one another. To understand fully what’s going on in any life situation, you
need to look at all three.
The concept of levels of analysis has long held a central role in science in gen¬
eral (Anderson, 1998; Nagel, 1979; Schaffner, 1967) and in the field of psychology
in particular (Fodor, 1968, 1983; Kosslyn & Koenig, 1995; Looren de Jong, 1996;
Marr, 1982; Putnam, 1973; Saha, 2004), and for good reason: This view of psy¬
chology not only allows you to see how different types of theories and discoveries il¬
luminate the same phenomena, but it also lets you see how these theories and
discoveries are interconnected —and thus how the field of psychology as a whole
emerges from them.

Levels of Analysis in Action: Examining Racial Prejudice

To help you grasp the crucial and central idea of levels of analysis, let’s see how it helps
us gain insight into a topic that touches each of our lives—namely, racial prejudice. At
first glance, you might think that prejudice is based on a set of attitudes (in other words,
overall evaluations) and those attitudes guide behavior (Durrheim & Dixon, 2004).
However, this idea was challenged in the 1930s by the psychologist Richard La Piere
(1934), who traveled the United States with a young Chinese couple. They stayed in
67 paid lodgings and ate in 184 restaurants and cafes. Six months after each visit, La
Piere sent a questionnaire to those establishments inquiring whether they would accept
Chinese people as customers. More than 90% of the proprietors said no. Yet on their
trip La Piere and his companions were refused only once. This disparity did not arise
because they engaged in behavior that provoked anti-Chinese sentiments, leading to
negative views 6 months after their visit. Rather, stated attitudes do not necessarily pre¬
dict behavior. In this case, the actual social interaction overrode how the people who
ran the establishments felt. Our culture imposes certain rules of behavior, and these
rules can sway us.
But this is not to say that attitudes have nothing to do with racial prejudice. For ex¬
ample, Dovidio, Kawakami, and Gaertner (2002) wanted to discover whether attitudes
about race predicted how Whites actually behaved toward Blacks. To study this issue,
they asked a number of students (who were all White) to discuss specific topics (for in¬
stance, dating) with other students, one at a time; sometimes the other student was
Black, sometimes White. These interactions were video- and audio-taped, and later
were rated by observers for both nonverbal friendliness (such as smiling and holding
eye contact, which were considered to be unconscious, spontaneous behaviors) and
verbal friendliness (the content of what was said, which was considered to be conscious,
deliberative behavior).
The researchers wanted to predict these forms of behavior with measures of the
White participants’ attitudes towards Blacks. They collected two such measures. In
one, they asked the participants to indicate directly (on a questionnaire) how they

8 CHAPTER 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today

felt about Blacks —their conscious (self-aware) attitude. In the other, they used an
indirect measure (based on measuring time to make decisions) to assess unconscious
(not self-aware) attitudes (in Chapter 16, we will learn more about how such indi¬
rect measures work).
Did the participants’ attitudes about Blacks predict their actual behavior toward the
Black students? Yes and no. Their conscious attitudes, as measured by the question¬
naire, predicted how verbally friendly they behaved toward the Black students, but not
their nonverbal friendliness. In contrast, their unconscious attitudes (as measured by
their response times) predicted nonverbal friendliness, but not verbal friendliness. The
authors believe that the attitudes expressed on the questionnaire predict “deliberative
behaviors,” where the participants are aware of what they are doing, and the uncon¬
scious measures predict spontaneous behaviors.
What about the level of the brain —can knowing about the brain help us to un¬
derstand the roots of racial prejudice? Absolutely. Here’s an example of one study.
Researchers used brain scanning to monitor how strongly one part of the brain, the
amygdala (which we will discuss in Chapter 3), was activated while White participants
viewed unfamiliar and familiar Black and White faces (Phelps et al., 2000). The amyg¬
dala is automatically activated when you are afraid (see Chapter 10). In this study, the
researchers obtained a measure of the participants’ unconscious prejudice against
Blacks. They found that the amygdala was more strongly activated by viewing Black
faces, compared to White faces, in people who had strong negative unconscious atti¬
tudes about Blacks. But this isn’t all the researchers discovered: They did not find this
relation between amygdala activation and scores of unconscious prejudice for the faces
of familiar Black celebrities, such as Michael Jordan. These findings make sense if the
amygdala is registering fear or other negative feelings in general, not just about race.
These findings suggest that racial prejudice might have its roots—at least in part—in
fear of the unfamiliar.
In short, we need to consider events at all three levels of analysis if we want to un¬
derstand how people behave toward members of other races. Social conventions, in¬
cluding politeness, affect such behavior. And so do attitudes, with conscious and
unconscious attitudes affecting different aspects of behavior. And so does the brain;
in fact, unconscious attitudes in turn may reflect the way key parts of the brain respond.
But more than this, we can see how events at these different levels interact. Social
conventions may more easily affect deliberative behaviors that are controlled by
your conscious attitudes than spontaneous behaviors that are unconsciously motivated.
And these spontaneous behaviors in turn may arise from specific brain processes —the
automatic nature of which explains why it is so difficult to control some of our behav¬
iors consciously. By studying events at all three levels we can attain a much more thor¬
ough and deep understanding of prejudice than we could if we stuck to only one level.
And by considering how these events interact, we may come to understand why some
aspects of prejudice are more difficult to change than others—but also may see how
even these aspects (such as those based on unfamiliarity and fear) might ultimately
be changed.
In each of the rest of the chapters of this book, we will consider one aspect of psy¬
chology in detail, showing how it is illuminated when we investigate events at the three
levels of analysis and their interactions. Moreover, we shall draw on the different levels
continually as we encounter different aspects of the field throughout the book. The fact
that interactions of events at the different levels of analysis are always present is one
thread that holds the different areas of psychology together, that makes the field more
than a collection of separate topics.

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
place, and the load is fastened securely with the binding chains and
pole. Then the loading team is hitched on ahead of the sled team,
and with great pulling and tugging the mammoth load is brought to
the main road. Here the head team is released, to repeat the
process of loading for the next team, while the load continues its
journey to the river.
So level and so smooth is the track that comparatively little force is
needed to move these immense loads—but they must be kept in
motion. There can be no stopping to rest once the load is started,
for it is probable, in that case, the sled would remain at rest until a
second team would come along to add its strength for another start.
Arriving at the river, the “brow boss” measures each log, entering
the figures, in his “brow record,” giving also the totals of the loads
and name of driver. Then each log is “end marked” and with cant
hooks rolled off into the river, or “browed,” as the operation is called.
Often the river bed is filled and piled high from bank to bank; then a
new brow is selected up or down stream.
The second week of chopping, which brought the time up to
Christmas, saw the contract well under way. While four or five
nationalities were represented in the crew, the men were of that
class which came into the wilderness to make homes—faithful,
steady, and willing to give full measure of service for their wages. In
many respects they differed widely from the “big woods” crew,
gathered, as they might be in those days, from the very riff-raff of
creation.
A spirit of friendly rivalry was shrewdly fostered by the foreman,
among the choppers and the teamsters, which was not long in
dividing the camp into factions loyally supporting the claims of their
respective champions. Antoine Ravenstein’s half-Norman dapple
greys had, so far, a slight lead in the record of big loads over Bert
Clumpner’s bays, while the giant Dane, Olaf Bergstrom, was scarcely
able to keep even with his smaller, wiry, dark-skinned rival chopper,
Jim Dacora.
The work was now so well under way that Mr. Thompson suggested
that the men celebrate Christmas day in holding a holiday of sports,
and he would have the cook prepare a big dinner for the occasion.
Jumping, wrestling, boxing, throwing the hammer, and pitching
horseshoes, were enjoyed with a hearty, noisy abandon, in which
these big, strong men sought to hide the tinge of homesickness that
would creep in with the memories of the day.
As the fun was at its height, two men, one clad in a sleek, brown
minkskin, the other in a coal-black bearskin overcoat, were noticed
approaching the cabins. The one with the bearskin coat, whose
bristling red hair and stubby beard proclaimed his Hibernian
ancestry, walked up to Mr. Thompson, and without other ceremony
or salutation began, “This is Calhoun, the sheriff of this county, an’
I’m Phelan. We’ve come to see what ye mane by cuttin’ the timber
on my land.”
Without waiting for a reply, he proceeded, “Av ye pile yer dunnage
onto yer tote teams an’ lave at onct, ye can give me yer bill o’ sale
to the timber ye’ve browed, an’ we’ll let it drop. Ave ye don’t, well,
ye know what we do here to timber thaves.”
The crew had gathered about, and a sound came from them like a
low growl of an angry beast. The hand of the sheriff went to his hip,
but Mr. Thompson’s voice rang out clear and cold: “Stop, men! I
handle this. Now you, Larry Phelan, I’ve heard of you. You certainly
are qualified to talk about timber thieves—but you’ve got the wrong
man this time. Mr. Medford took precaution to give me the field
notes of this tract, and I have run the lines and know exactly where
I am. Now I give you just ten minutes, you and your bogus sheriff,
to get out of sight, or my men and I will start a new game—and it
won’t be a game of bluff.”
There was that in the voice of the speaker which left no doubt that
he meant what he said. And while Phelan cursed and vowed he
would “have a posse upon them that would move them,” the two
strangers turned away to where their team was standing in the
distance.
Mr. Thompson was not altogether easy in his mind over the affair,
although he felt sure as to his legal right upon the tract. He knew
Larry Phelan to be the most unscrupulous timber thief in that section
of the state, and who was more than suspected of having
arrangements for his own advantage with certain officers of the
courts. But more serious were his apprehensions of the threat of
Phelan as to his “posse,” for a more reckless and desperate band of
outlaws never served another villain than this Irishman had gathered
about him in that northern wilderness. If Phelan considered the
stake large enough, a descent upon the camp by these ruffians was
something to be taken into consideration.
Shortly after the opening of the new year, the successful completion
of the winter’s work was threatened in a way that served to put all
thoughts of Larry Phelan out of mind. It came with a “January thaw.”
Day after day the sun rose clear and bright in the heavens, and the
south wind came in spring-like mildness. The melting snows filled
the hidden hollows in the woods with slush and water, into which the
choppers unsuspectingly dropped, sometimes waist deep, while the
wet snow kept the clothing of the entire crew constantly saturated.
Notwithstanding the growing discomfort of the situation, no let up
on the work could be allowed, as hope argued for a soon return of
zero weather.
The pressure of the immense loads upon the main road had made of
it an almost solid bed of ice, and so it was that with the aid of an
extra team from the skidways to the main road, the hauling
operations were not seriously interfered with at the first.
But the warm days continued, and the sharp calks of the horseshoes
began to tear up the surface of the icy road. “If we could only keep
the smooth ice surface on the road, we could make it; but a few
more days of such cutting and the road is ruined,” gloomily
exclaimed Mr. Thompson, as the crew gathered for a noon meal.
Ed started to speak, but being only a boy, and fearing the railery of
the men, waited until he could talk to Mr. Thompson privately. “I
don’t know, Mr. Thompson, that the plan would work here, but I’ve
an idea that you might think over, and try if you wished,” said he.
“Go ahead, boy,” replied Mr. Thompson. “Any sort of a suggestion
will be welcome just now.”
“Well,” said Ed, “we boys used to slide down a hill one winter on
skis, and when some warm days came that threatened to spoil our
track, we watered it at night, and the coating of ice held where the
snow would have melted. I thought—”
“Boy, you’ve hit it! I suspect you’ve saved the contract,” exclaimed
Mr. Thompson.
That was a busy afternoon for Lars Olson, the carpenter-blacksmith,
but by nine o’clock that night a water-tight tank had been fitted
upon a sled, with a rude attachment something like a street
sprinkler, under control of the driver.
While the contrivance was open to improvement (which it later
received as it took its place in the necessary equipment for logging
operations) it enabled Mr. Thompson to give his road a coating of ice
before morning, and, with the operation repeated night after night,
to defy the sun’s destroying rays a little longer.
It would be interesting to tell how, in the race for the chopping
championship, big Olaf grew careless and had a leg crushed by the
unexpected side swing of a falling tree; how Mr. Thompson, at the
risk of failing on the contract, fixed up a comfortable bed on a pung,
and sent Ed with an illy-spared team to carry the wounded man to
his home. It would make another story how Ed was lost upon his
return trip, in the great snow storm that marked the end of the
warm spell, and was saved from death by an old Irishman after he
had already become unconscious. We would like to tell how, when
the cold days returned, Antoine Ravenstein’s grays beat the bays
with a prodigious load, that was talked about for years, as the record
for hauling, in those northern camps. We would like to live again
with the reader the glorious days of February, in which the contract
was completed, and in addition to the agreed wages, each man was
given a bonus of ten dollars by Mr. Thompson. But I must leave
these stories to be told at another time.
The winter passed; March came with its rains, and finally those of
the crew who had elected to remain at the camp in order to be at
hand to join the “drive,” one day were startled to hear the report as
of a heavy cannon, in the direction of the brows on the river.
When they reached that place they found Bally Tarbox with his crew
of brow-breakers loosening up, with charges of dynamite, the great
ice-locked dams of logs which were filling the river bed.
“Hullo, you lop-eared nesters!” shouted the boss at the sight of the
men from the camp. “Time for you to be hitting the trail and
grabbing a peavy. Wangan’s above Big Bull.”
“Where’d you get that woodchuck?” he called as he caught sight of
Ed. “Oh, it’s one of the Allen boys, ain’t it. Say, little sawed-off, your
big Bud is comin’ down North Fork now.”
The next morning Ed started with the others of his crew up river to
join his brother Rob on the spring drive.
 CHAPTER XV
OVER THE RAPIDS

Following the river trail, and being welcomed freely to the temporary
camps of the gangs of “brow-breakers,” at a little past noon of the
second day, Ed and his companions of the winter’s logging camp
came to the head of the drive on North Fork.
The heavy rains had set in, and the river, swollen by the floods of
melted snow, was already a torrent of crashing, grinding ice cakes.
As the ice went out, the river would be filled with the booming logs,
which floated loosely, often banks full for miles, from the
disintegrating “brows” along the stream.
Instead of meeting his brother, as he had hoped, Ed was informed
that Rob had been sent over to the wangan above Big Bull, where
the drive on the main stream was already in motion. The boss,
looking over the small stature of Ed, remarked, “They’re wanting
polers over there, and we don’t want any more here. As a sacker
you wouldn’t be any more account than a muskrat, anyhow.”
Although Ed was stockily built, he was quick with his feet, and
practice had gained him confidence upon the floating logs, so poling
would be just what he would desire.
Ten miles across the country of forest and swamp, where the land
was a “saturated solution” and every little creek aspiring to be a
river, was not a pleasing prospect for a boy, but there was no other
way open. That journey lived in Ed’s memory for years as a hideous
nightmare. Plashing in mud, tearing through thickets of briers and
underbrush, wading shallow, icy creeks—and swimming one that
was too deep to wade—losing himself in the darkness, stumbling
along blindly, by chance—or, we had better say, by the guiding hand
of good Providence—Ed finally came to the brink of the river, and
knew by the depth of the overflow that he had reached the stream
above Big Bull dam.
Again Providence guided his choice, and he turned downstream and
soon came in view of the campfires of the drive. Too utterly
exhausted to do aught else, Ed stretched himself by a big log fire
among the sleeping men, to get what rest he might, in the short
space of the night that remained.
It was yet dark when the voice of the boss aroused him, and he
followed with the men to their early breakfast of pork and beans,
biscuit and syrup, and strong, black coffee.
There he soon found Rob, and the meeting compensated Ed for the
hardship of the journey. Rob told him that Bally Tarbox had arrived
the night before, and had taken charge of the drive, and he had
looked for Ed to come over and join the polers.
While the work of the polers was more dangerous than that of the
sackers, it was much more agreeable, and, too, the wages were
three dollars a day, while the pay of the sackers was but a dollar and
a quarter to a dollar and a half.
By the time a dim twilight told that another cloudy day had begun,
Rob and Ed, with their long ash poles to balance themselves, were
upon the river, riding the logs as they floated along with the rapid
current. The water had been held back by the big dam until a great
drive of logs had gathered, and then the gates were opened for the
logs to rush through and on down the river with the falling waters. It
was the work of the polers to see that none of the logs lodged in the
mouths of the little creeks, and to keep them moving while they
were in the river.
It was inevitable that some of the logs should remain stranded upon
the banks as the water receded, and this brought in the work of the
sackers. Their implements were not long poles, such as the log
riders used, but stout staves about five feet in length. Upon one side
of each was a steel hook, and in the end a long, sharp spike. These
were called “peaveys.” Where the stranded log was small and at
some distance from the water, a row of men would approach it upon
either side, and, picking it up bodily with their hooks, would carry it
to the river. Where the log was too large to carry, it would be rolled
over and over at a rapid rate until it went splashing into the water.
It not infrequently happened that a big log would be found in such a
position that the sackers would be obliged to wade out into the icy
water waist deep before the great trunk would float free.
Many a time Ed and Rob had been thankful for their good fortune as
polers when they would hear the boss roll out a torrent of curses
upon the sackers as they hesitated upon the icy plunge on some
particularly cold morning.
While the sackers might count on being wet every day, and nearly all
day of every day, the polers were by no means exempt from that
source of discomfort. Frequently, in making the jump from one log to
another, a foot would slip, or, the distance miscalculated, a sudden
bath be provided among the crashing logs.
Again, a moment of careless inattention would deliver the log rider
to the tender mercies of a “sweep,” or an unsettling blow from
another log. Sometimes, when the river must needs be crossed, a
log would be selected as the ferrying raft which would prove too
light to sustain the weight of the rider, and the sackers would howl
their derision at the poler being “bucked” into the water by his
“steed.”
Rob never forgot one such experience he had on Easter Sunday of
that year. It was just after the gates had been lifted at Jennie Bull
dam, and the crew of an hundred and fifty men were striving with all
their might to hurry all the logs through before the water should go
down. The day had opened bleak and dreary. A raw wind swept
down the river from the north, cutting faces like a saw, and the poor
sackers, wet to the waist, were in the depths of misery. Then,
shortly after noon, the leaden skies began to spit snow, and a little
scum of ice appeared along the edges of the stream. What an Easter
Day! Rob and Ed, to whom memories of other Resurrection Sabbaths
in the city came, with their lilies and joy and song, could be thankful
that, so far, they were on the logs, dry, and compared with the
sackers, warm.
The polers were stationed on the booms—long logs fastened
together—and by throwing their poles with the sharp, steel spikes
into the floating logs would pull them along and so hasten their exit
through the gate of the dam.
At four o’clock it was already dark, and it would be impossible to see
clearly enough to work more than an hour longer—but the drive
must be taken through; there could be no waiting until tomorrow.
Hurry! hurry! were the orders. Rob, in his hurry, as he threw his
weight upon a backward pull with his pick pole, suddenly felt his
hold give way, and over he went backward into the river. Luckily, the
logs were not running thickly where he came to the surface hatless,
and that he was a strong swimmer, for a few strokes brought him to
the boom and to possession again of his pole.
Oh, if he might go to the wangan camp, there before the logheap
fire to wring out his streaming, freezing clothing and get back a little
warmth into his stiffening limbs. But no! The logs must be run
through the dam, and that at once. Every man was needed, and
nothing short of death itself would be recognized by the boss as an
excuse for failure to stay by the job. During the next hour Rob many
times wondered if he would not be able to give that excuse and so
escape from the misery of his position, as he labored clumsily in his
freezing clothes.
Day by day the cooking outfit, with the sleeping blankets—one for
each man—went down river ahead of the drivers as far as the day’s
work would probably land them. It can be imagined that stores
necessary for nearly two hundred men, to be carried by boats,
would be of the simplest character—pork, flour, beans, syrup, and
coffee, made the basis for the daily fare, but the five meals a day
were eaten with a hearty relish by these strenuous toilers.
As a rule a dry spot was selected for the camping place, and big
tents stretched for protection overhead, but the one blanket to the
man and the bare ground for the bed, left something to be desired,
even in dry weather. When, of necessity, the camping place was wet,
and the weather freezing, the day suffering of the men was but a
prelude to the real agony of the night. On this drive of which I write
it happened that more than once the wet clothing of the Allen boys,
in which they “slept,” was found to be frozen to the earth in the
morning.
Running the river was no job for a weakling—such a one never
undertook the experience the second time, nor long for the first
time. It was work that told heavily upon the strongest of
constitutions; few of these men lived to be old, the majority falling
victims to pneumonia or tuberculosis.
A little below the third of the big dams the river cuts through a
stretch of rocky country, ending in a rather steep rapids which have
a drop of something like twenty feet. From the points of rock
sticking out at almost regular intervals, across the stream, above the
current in low water, the falls became known as “Squaw Walk
Rapids.” Just below the rapids the river takes a sharp turn, and
there, in the great, deep whirlpool was Dead Man’s Hole—a place
believed by the rivermen to be sure to take its toll of human life
each spring.
No log rider was so foolhardy as to attempt the passage over the
rapids and through the whirlpool of his own will; few indeed—none,
it was said—had made the trip in safety, having been caught in the
fierce rush of the waters above, and drawn over the rapids on their
logs.
The day had been clear, and, the depression of spirit caused by the
days of suffering lifting, a spirit of roystering play and rough joking
possessed the men. The polers, selecting small logs, just large
enough to sustain their weights, were giving exhibitions of fancy
riding in mid-stream.
A great shout of glee from Ed Allen caused Rob to look back up the
river. There he saw, coming majestically down toward them, a great
log upon which were seven or eight sackers, taking an unauthorized
ride. But there was something in the program of that ride which they
had not planned, for quickly, relentlessly, they were approaching a
low-hanging “sweep”—a tree stretched out over the water.
Frantically they paddled with their peaveys, striving to throw the
course of the big log out into the stream away from the threatening
danger, but without avail. The log struck the sweep, the momentum
bending the body of the tree sharply—when, as the log rolled
slightly, it was released, and with a lightning-like spring, as with a
mighty hand the men were brushed off, helter-skelter into the river.
The whole occurrence was indescribably funny to the onlookers, and
the polers were dancing up and down on their logs in high glee,
shouting mock encouragement to the luckless men in the water—
when a roar suddenly brought a check to their merriment. Glancing
again down stream the boys saw the logs ahead of them begin to
rise and plunge in the foaming water, and they realized that they
were nearing the rapids.
Now was the time for putting forth all their strength. Unless they
should be able to bring their logs to shore, they would be carried
over into the boiling cauldron below. How puny was their strength
matched against the grip of that mighty current. The banks seemed
to be rushing by. Here and there jagged rocks rose above the
surface as if to drag them down. Their small logs were dancing like
corks. It was almost impossible to retain footing.
“It’s no use—were’s in for it,” shouted Rob above the roar of the
water and crashing of the logs, as he threw the sharp point of his
pole into Ed’s log and brought the two together. “Stick your pole into
my log and hold on—we’ll go together.”
The boys never lost the picture of that awful moment at the brink of
the rapids—the sharp rocks churning the river into milky foam; the
logs leaping and, striking, going end over end; the indescribable roar
and confusion—the coming of Death with the demand that he be
looked squarely in the face. I am sure that both boys prayed—and
then the blue sky, and the sun overhead, the rushing river, and the
crashing logs—and themselves, ceased to exist.
How or by whom they were rescued from the river below, neither of
the boys ever knew. But their apparently lifeless bodies had been
carried to camp and there, after long exertion, they had been
brought back to life and consciousness.
For that season, at least, Dead Man’s Hole had been robbed of its
prey.
After the drive had come through the lowest dam and passed the
rapids there came days so ideal that the rivermen could not believe
they were the same fellows that so short a time ago would have
almost welcomed death, if only they might have escaped their
miseries.
Great, snow-white clouds lazily floated overhead in the deep blue;
the sun filtered down upon the river in patches of golden warmth;
the men, out of sight of the boss, stretched themselves luxuriously
upon big logs, and floated with the current. Save for the occasional
stoppage of a jam the days were, as Bally Tarbox put it, “one
continual picnic with five hot meals a day throwed in.”
There were occasional days of shivering cold; days of lowering
clouds and steady rain, when river and sky seemed to mingle, and
beds of sodden earth brought no comfort at the close of sodden
days. But each day’s run brought the drive further down into the
deeper channel and higher banks of the lower river, where the labor
was less severe, and a night of dry lodging and a meal of home
cooking could occasionally be had from the home of some pioneer
settler.
The days grew longer, the trees budded, and some varieties broke
forth into tender leaf. From overhead shrill choruses of red-wing
blackbirds greeted the slow-moving procession. Woodducks and
mallards and teal, in all their courting finery, sailed along in the clear
spaces between the floating logs, quick to make a distinction
between the peaveys of the river men and the gun of the cook.
Squirrels, red and grey and coal black, chattered and scolded as they
scampered from bough to bough. Occasional glimpses were had of
raccoons fishing for “crabs” on jutting sand bars, and the sliding
plunge of an otter might be heard as one awakened in the night.
Life was coming back to revel and riot in the big woods, and the
men passing through were not untouched by its tide.
While the main drive passed down the river rapidly, it was inevitable
that the slower work of the sackers would leave many logs hung
upon the banks by the failing waters. These would be more slowly
worked to the river bed, in some cases with ox teams, and then, a
good deal of water having been stored up above the dams to
augment the later rains, a “sack drive” would bring the stragglers
down to the big boom at Necedah.
By the time the Allen boys reached the half-mile stretch of straight
river which marked one boundary of their home place, there was not
much need of their services as polers longer, as the river banks were
high, and there was little work save for the jam breakers at the head
of the drive. So it was, that as the familiar buildings came into view,
they bade farewell to their river companions and were welcomed at
home.
 CHAPTER XVI
THE GIFT OF THE FLOOD

The wages from Ed’s winter’s work at the logging camp, together
with the sixty dollars each had earned on the drive in the spring,
enabled the Allen boys to purchase a fine span of half-blood, two-
years-old Norman colts, from “Old Man” LaDauger, a half-woodsman,
half-farmer, whose capacious cabin was a stopping place for
rivermen, and for teamsters going to and from the lumber camps.
The colts, though huge fellows, were as gentle, if as playful, as
kittens, and Ed soon had them well broken to such tasks as were
suitable to their age and strength.
Several acres of the rich, level land had been cleared of willow
bushes, and the larger bunches of their roots dug out. Now, with the
sprightly yoke of young oxen hitched in front of the colts, the boys
had a breaking team not to be despised.
It had been a busy summer for the lads, and the toil was severe, but
they had a goal ahead, and to them hardship and weariness were
but milestones on the road to its realization. By the time November
snows were heralded by the “honk, honk” of wild geese, there had
been a large field of well-plowed land ready for the mellowing frosts,
and later planting of corn.
Uncle Henry Thompson pronounced the white oak leaves to be “as
large as squirrel ears,” which marked corn planting time. Now the
days were hardly long enough for the boys. From gray dawn to
twilight of evening they “dropped and covered” (modern machinery
was unknown to that time and country) until the last hill in the last
row was planted with a shout.
The soft showers fell, and the corn sprouted and grew. But an
occasional riverman brought word of heavy rains up on
“headwaters.” Signs of weakness had been noticed in “Big Bull” dam,
and if that should break, “Jennie Bull” and “Grandfather,” below,
would be swept away also.
“What did that mean? That means a second Noah’s flood for you
fellows,” said the rivermen.
Steadily the rains fell, and steadily the river rose. “She is nearly bank
full,” announced Ed, coming in from an inspection late one night.
“Lucky that the main drive has gone down, or the lumbermen would
have an all summer job hauling their logs out of these high-water
sloughs.”
In the night the boys were awakened by the “boom! boom!” as of
steady cannonading at a distance. “It must be the ‘sack drive,’” said
Rob. “It would take big logs to make that booming.”
“But, Rob, listen! That booming is on the west side of the house.
You know the river isn’t over there.” The boys sprang from their bed,
and in the early morning light beheld a vast expanse of wildly-
rushing water all about them. Fences were gone, but so far, the
substantially framed log buildings of the farm were intact.
“It’s the flood!” exclaimed Ed. “Big Bull dam has given way! See
those big logs sailing right across our corn field.”
Indeed, it was a disheartening situation that daylight brought to
view. Undoubtedly their corn crop was ruined, and Rob’s school days
were removed to a more distant, shadowy future. But another
misfortune was to be revealed. Wading out to the big pine on the
river bank, to which their flat-bottomed boat was moored, Ed
brought it to the house, and the boys paddled out to the barn lots.
There they found the cattle safe, though knee deep in water, under
the sheds. But when they came to the sheep fold, the fences were
all gone, and not a woolly animal was in sight.
“Dead!” exclaimed Rob. “Every last one of them drowned! And we
expected the coming lambs would double our flock.” “Maybe they’re
not all dead,” replied Ed. “Sheep can swim when they have to,
though of course not far in their heavy wool. But see! the current
here sets in to Big Bend timber where there are some patches of
high ground. We may find some of them stranded there. We’ll take
the boat after breakfast, and have a hunt for them.”
Happily, Ed’s surmise proved to be correct. Upon the small patches
of high ground in the big bend they found here and there a half-
drowned sheep, and in two days of exhausting toil they rescued and
carried back to life and safety eighteen of their flock of twenty-six.
The crest of the flood past, the waters receded as quickly as they
had come, and after a few days of bright sunshine the boys were
able to learn the extent of damage done to their crop. As soon as
they came upon the ground they saw that it could not have been
worse. Not only the growing corn, but the soil itself, as deep as the
plow had loosened it, was washed away. Not only that, but here and
there, scattered over the field, were logs—hundreds of them—left
stranded by the receding waters.
“What shall we do, Ed?” exclaimed Rob. “It will take us all summer
to get them off our land, and that means almost a whole year lost.”
Practical Ed was silent a few moments and then replied, “Don’t
worry, Rob, maybe we can get the job of hauling them into the river.
Let’s see whose mark is on them.” Examining the hack marks on the
sides of the logs, and the brand in the ends, Rob said, “Well, about
all of them are the I F brand—they’re Isaac Fitts’ logs.”
“Whew!” said Ed, “that old bear; but I believe we can haul them
back into the river cheaper for him than he can bring a crew up here
from Necedah and do it. We’ll try him, anyway.”
However, the Allen boys were not the only ones who were
interesting themselves in stray logs left ashore by the breaking of
the big dams. Next morning as they were preparing for their trip to
the sawmill town, there appeared a crew of swampers with teams,
who, without so much as “By your leave” were proceeding to haul
the logs into the river. A big man with red whiskers was directing the
work, with many a shouted oath and curse. “It’s not Fitts’ crew,” said
Ed. “It’s some up-river folks. Rob, I believe they’re rebranding those
logs! They’re going to steal them from old Fitts. It’s Larry Phelan,
the timber thief and gambler. I’m going to stop him. He has no rights
on our ground anyway. You run down after Mr. Thompson, he’s a
Justice, and I’ll go warn Larry.”
Although Ed was but a lad, he blustered up to the big Irishman, and
demanded that he leave those logs alone. Back and forth they
parleyed. At last Larry exclaimed, “They’re my logs, an I’ll do as I
plaze wid thim.” Then to his men who had come up to listen, he
roared, “Be aff wid ye to yer work. What are ye doin’ here!”
“You are trespassing on this land,” insisted Ed, “and these are Isaac
Fitts’ logs. I can see what you are doing—making an L out of the I
and a P out of the F and putting your own brand over his on the
ends.”
“Git out o’ here, or I’ll brain ye wid this peavey!” shouted the boss,
lifting his heavy cant-hook threateningly.
“Hold on! Hold on!” called Mr. Thompson, coming up with Rob. “I’m
a peace officer of this township, and I warn you that you are
committing trespass on this land. Don’t lay the weight of your finger
on that lad, or you’ll get something more than a fine.”
As Larry looked into the eyes of the old man, he saw something that
had not glowed there since the old days at Harper’s Ferry, when Mr.
Thompson had watched his own young brothers, riddled with
bullets, floating down the river—and he quieted down.
But the stakes were too large—here were at least two thousand
dollars worth of logs, and nobody but the boy had seen the
changing of the brands. All that the Justice had charged him with
could be settled by a fine, at the worst, and his lawyer could
probably beat that case with a jury.
“Misther Thompson, ye ould nigger-stealer, will ye tind yer own
affairs. I know what I’m doin’. Go awn, boys.” But no more marks
were changed while Mr. Thompson stayed.
“Well, boys,” said Uncle Henry, “it’s no use for us to get into a fight
with that mob. I’m too old now, and you are too young.”
“Uncle Henry,” spoke up Rob, “How much nearer is it to Necedah by
the woods trail than by the prairie road?”
“A matter of four miles,” replied Mr. Thompson; “but there is no
crossing at Little Yellow.”
“But I can swim it, even if the water is cold. Four from sixteen miles
leaves but twelve, and I believe I can make it with the ‘long trot’ in
two hours. We’ve just got to get Mr. Fitts here. Those logs that Larry
Phelan is rolling into the river are his.”
“Good, lad! I believe you can do it. The roads are something fearful,
but if old man Fitts learns that Larry Phelan is stealing his timber,
he’ll drive his buckskins here if he has to swim ’em through the mud
half way and run ’em over stumps the other half.”
There remained yet two hours of daylight as Rob swung into the
forest trail on the long trot his Indian friend Kalichigoogah had
taught him. Little Yellow was reached, and in spite of the numbing
cold of the water, was safely crossed, the lad swimming with one
hand, while he held the bundle of his clothes high and dry in the
other. Then on he sped in the long race of eight more miles.
The sun had been down for half an hour when the gruff old
lumberman opened his door at Rob’s knock. “Well, an’ what do ye
want? We don’t feed tramps here. What! What’s that ye say! My logs
—an’ ’tis that blackguard gambler Larry Phelan puttin’ his brand on
’em and bankin’ ’em!” And, to tell the truth, the language of the old
man was as explosive as had been that of Larry himself.
“Jim, put the buckskins to the light ‘democrat.’ But lad, you’re
hungry an’ tired. Come in, come in an’ have a snack. Ran it in two-
thirty, did ye? An’ swam the river! Well, well! But we’ll tend to the
rascal this night.”
However, as the old man cooled down, the needlessness of a night
ride over the waste of ruined roads and flood-piled debris convinced
him of the wisdom of waiting until the light of day to make the
journey. By the time the birds were fairly awake, Mr. Fitts and Rob
were well upon their way, and Rob had broached the matter of
securing the job of hauling the logs into the river. The old man
turned his keen eyes upon the boy. “An’ what would ye do with all
the money if ye got the job? College! What for would a likely lad
with good sense and good arms fool away his time in college?
Humph! Well, we’ll see.”
Phelan and his men and teams had not been idle: all night long they
had worked, and fully two hundred of the five hundred or more stray
logs were already piled in the river, bearing the changed marks,
ready to go down to the Necedah boom with the next rise.
Old man Fitts charged the swamping outfit like an enraged bull. “So
yer at yer old tricks, are ye, Larry? I’ve been wantin’ to ketch ye for
a long time. An’ now I’ve got the witnesses on ye.”
Phelan started in to bluster and curse, but evidently the presence of
Fitts was something he had not calculated upon, nor the fact that
Henry and Sam Thompson, who now arose from where they had
been in hiding, were witnesses to the felonious changing of the log
marks.
Larry changed his mood. “Perhaps the men may have made a
mistake in the dark, Misther Fitts. If they’re yer logs ye can pay us
what is raysonable fer bankin’ av thim, and we’ll jist call it square.”
“No, we won’t, ye thief!” roared the old man. “Those logs in the river
are your logs now, do ye understand? They’ve got yer mark on ’em,
every one, an’ they’ll be put into your chute at the boom. An’ they’ve
cost ye just fifteen dollars the thousand, board measure. Do ye
understand? We’ll lump ’em at twelve hundred dollars, an’ ye’ll write
the check fer that just now. I can trust ye not to stop payment on
that check.”
Counter threat and curses; calling the old man a robber (for Fitts
had made a gilt edge price on his logs), were of no avail. Larry
Phelan, at the end of many evil deeds, faced an open prison door,
and he knew it. After all, the twelve hundred dollars would not be all
loss—and the check was written.
“Well, now, boys,” said Mr. Fitts, when the men and teams had
departed, “what about the balance of these logs?—three hundred, I
should say. How would a dollar apiece do? Yes, that’s fair. Ye can
worry them all in by fall. An’ young man,” said he, turning to Rob
with a queer smile, “You can count the hauling of the two hundred
already in the river, as your share, for that college nonsense. I
tacked that much onto that thief, Larry Phelan. I reckon college
won’t utterly ruin a lad who can run twelve miles an’ swim an icy
river.”
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