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Appraisal of existing structures 3rd Edition The
Institution Of Structural Engineers Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): The Institution of Structural Engineers
ISBN(s): 9781906335045, 1906335044
Edition: 3rd
File Details: PDF, 4.93 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
 Appraisal of
existing structures
(Third edition)
October 2010

Appraisal of Existing Structures.indd 1 22/10/2010 10:22

 Membership of Task Group for third edition
B C Bell MA MSc DIC CEng FIStructE FICE (Bell Johnson Ltd) Chairman
C J Bolton BSc CEng FIStructE MICE (Sellafield Ltd) Vice Chairman
K S K Chan BSc CEng MIStructE (Phoenix Consulting Engineers Ltd)
S L Matthews BEng PhD CEng CSci FIStructE FICE MCIWEM (BRE)
R Stagg BSc CEng FIStructE MICE (Conisbee Ltd)
F E Weare MSc DIC CEng FIStructE MICE MIMMM DMS MIHT (Consultant)
J G M Wood BSc PhD CEng FIStructE MICE FIAgrE (Structural Studies & Design Ltd)

Secretary to the Task Group

B H G Cresswell Riol BEng (Institution of Structural Engineers)

Acknowledgements
Thanks also to Dr Florian Block, Dr Chris Burgoyne, Mr Michael Bussell, Dr John Cairns, Mrs Ann Campbell,
Mr George Faller, Mr Mike Grantham, Mr Michael Green, Dr Susan Halliwell, Mr Peter Harris,
Mr Richard Harris, Mr Chris Holland, Mr Chris Jofeh, Mr Martin Kealy, Mr Michael Kightley, Mr Hirohisa Koga,
Mrs Deborah Lazarus, Mr Ian Liddell, Dr John Menzies, Dr John Morlidge, Mr Ian Morrison, Mr Brian Neale,
Mr Chris Newman, Dr Rupert Pool, Mr Clive Richardson, Mr Norman Seward, Dr Bob de Vekey and
Dr Martyn Webb for their contributions.

Membership of Task Groups for previous editions

E Happold* RDI BSc DSc FEng FIStructE FICE FCIOB J H R Haswell†† BSc CEng FIStructE FICE
Chairman to First and Second Editions R A Heaton CEng FIStructE FICE MIMuNE
A P Backler BSC(Eng) DLC CEng MICE I J Hume DIC DiplConsAA CEng MIStructE
J A Baird CEng FIStructE FIWSc P K Jaitly BSc MA LLB CEng FIStructE
P R Bartle CEng FIStructE M Law BSc FIFireE
W D Biggs § QBE PhD CEng FIStructE FCIOB S L Matthews BEng PhD CEng CSCI FIStructE FICE MCIWEM
W A Black MSc CEng MIStructE FICE FRICS J B Menzies FREng, PhD, BSc(Eng), FIStructE, DipCU
P Beckmann MSc(Eng) CEng FIStructE MICE HonRIBA Vice-Chairman to Second Edition
G A Bettany MSc CEng MIStructE FRICS R J W Milne‡ BSc Secretary to Second Edition
J L Clarke MA CEng MICE R M Moss BSc PhD DIC CEng MIStructE MICE
M S G Cullimore # BSc PhD CEng FIStructE F Myerscough CEng MIStructE
R J Currie BSc(Eng) CEng FIStructE MICE A L Randall CEng FIStructE
W G Curtin† MEng CEng FIStructE FICE W H Sharp CEng FIStructE
D K Doran DIC BSc(Eng) CEng FIStructE FICE FCGI R Stagg BSc CEng FIStructE MICE
D L Eckett A Stevens CEng FIStructE FICE
R J Evans MA(Cantab) LLB CEng MICE MHKIE FCIArb R J M Sutherland FREng BA CEng FIStructE FICE
K W Gibson BSc CEng MIStructE MICE Fritz Wenzel
M G Green BE CEng MIStructE MICE C J K Williams MA PhD CEng MIStructE
† deceased December 1991
†† deceased October 1994
* deceased January 1996
§ deceased March 1998
‡ deceased August 2002
# deceased April 2007

Published by The Institution of Structural Engineers

International HQ, 11 Upper Belgrave Street, London SW1X 8BH
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7235 4535 Fax: +44 (0)20 7235 4294
Email: [email protected] Website: www.istructe.org
First published 2010
ISBN 978-1-906335-04-5

© 2010 The Institution of Structural Engineers

The Institution of Structural Engineers and those individuals who contributed to the publication
of all editions of this Report have endeavored to ensure the accuracy of its contents. However,
the guidance and recommendations given in the Report should always be reviewed by those
using the Report in the light of the facts of their particular case and specialist advice obtained
as necessary. No liability for negligence or otherwise in relation to this Report and its contents
is accepted by the Institution, the members of the Task Group, their servants or agents.

In this Report, the words 'ensure', 'must' and 'should' are not intended to imply legal
obligations but are intended to convey the weight of the advice given.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means without prior permission of the Institution of Structural Engineers, who
may be contacted at 11 Upper Belgrave Street, London SW1X 8BH.

ii The Institution of Structural Engineers Appraisal of existing structures

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 Contents

Tables vi 3.14 Moisture ingress 18

3.14.1 Salt crystallisation 18
Glossary vii
3.14.2 Freezing 18
Foreword to the third edition ix 3.14.3 Organic degradation 18
3.15 Deleterious materials 18
1 Introduction 1 3.16 Fungal and insect infestation 19
1.1 Scope 1 3.17 Atmospheric conditions 19
1.2 Reasons for structural appraisal 1 3.18 Abrasion and erosion 19
1.3 Principles 1 3.19 Vandalism 19
1.4 Format of third edition 2 3.20 References 19
1.5 ‘Structural surveys’ 3
1.6 References 3 4 The appraisal process 22
1.7 Bibliography 3 4.1 General 22
4.2 Basic questions 22
2 The brief, legal implications and the report 4 4.2.1 Relevance of codes of practice 23
2.1 Introduction 4 4.2.2 Serviceability and structural safety 23
2.2 The brief 5 4.2.3 Acceptable level of risk 25
2.3 Commercial aspects 5 4.2.4 Limitations of calculations 25
2.4 Legal responsibilities 6 4.2.5 International standards 25
2.4.1 Introduction 6 4.3 Path of appraisal 25
2.4.2 Law of contract 6 4.4 Initial stage of appraisal (see Figure 4.5) 26
2.4.3 Law of tort 7 4.5 Second stage of appraisal (see Figure 4.6) 28
2.4.4 General 7 4.6 Third stage of appraisal (see Figure 4.7) 28
2.5 Appraisal findings 7 4.6.1 Principles behind third stage assessment 28
2.6 Report 7 4.6.2 Further on-site investigation work 31
2.6.1 Introduction 7 4.6.3 Composition of partial safety factors 32
2.6.2 Caveats 8 4.6.4 Rigorous analysis further to distribute the load 32
2.6.3 General considerations 8 4.7 Future performance 32
2.6.4 Practical aspects 8 4.8 Calculations requiring special consideration 32
2.6.5 Format 9 4.8.1 General 32
2.7 References 11 4.8.2 Brittle materials 33
2.8 Bibliography 11 4.8.3 Combined stresses 33
4.8.4 Fatigue 33
3 Preparation and influencing factors 12 4.8.5 Buckling 33
3.1 General 12 4.8.6 Connections 33
3.2 Desk study 12 4.8.7 Bolted and riveted connections 33
3.3 Reconnaissance and site inspection 12 4.8.8 Welded joints 34
3.4 Dimensions 13 4.8.9 Assessment of the effects of fire 34
3.5 Structural arrangements and materials of 4.8.10 Non code based assessments 34
construction 14 4.9 References 34
3.6 Condition 14
3.7 Actions and loadings 15 5 Testing and monitoring 35
3.7.1 Introduction 15 5.1 Commissioning of testing and monitoring works 35
3.7.2 Dead loads 15 5.2 Determination of testing and monitoring
3.7.3 Imposed loads 15 requirements 35
3.7.4 Storage loads 15 5.3 Simple on-site testing 37
3.7.5 Dynamic loads 15 5.4 Materials testing 38
3.7.6 Dynamic crowd loads 15 5.5 Load testing 43
3.7.7 Loads arising from machinery, appliances and 5.6 Monitoring of structures 43
equipment 15 5.7 References 43
3.7.8 Wind loads 16
3.7.9 Snow and ice loads 16 6 Use and properties of materials 44
3.7.10 Foundations 16 6.1 Introduction 44
3.7.11 Highway and railway loads 16 6.2 Masonry 44
3.7.12 Extreme events 16 6.2.1 Natural stone 44
3.7.13 Fire 16 6.2.2 Bricks and blocks 49
3.7.14 Earthquake loads 17 6.2.3 Mortars 51
3.7.15 Strains induced by fabrication, assembly, 6.2.4 Masonry construction 51
erection and movement 17 6.2.5 Strength of masonry, characteristic strength,
3.8 Lateral stability 17 c-factors 53
3.9 Soil pressures and ground movement 17 6.2.6 Other walling materials 54
3.10 Aggressive ground conditions 17 6.3 Timber 55
3.11 Thermal effects 18 6.3.1 General 55
3.12 Changes of humidity 18 6.3.2 Strength of timber, permissible stresses 56
3.13 Creep 18 6.3.3 Period of fire resistance 56

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 Contents

6.4 Metals and alloys 57 7 Health and safety considerations 89

6.4.1 Ferrous alloys 57 7.1 Introduction 89
6.4.2 Brittle fracture 59 7.2 Risk management 90
6.4.3 Appraisal of structural ironwork and 7.3 Hazards 91
steelwork 60 7.4 UK legislation 91
6.4.4 Stainless steels 61 7.5 Personal protective equipment (PPE) 92
6.4.5 Aluminium alloys 62 7.6 Specialist training 93
6.4.6 Bronzes and brasses 63 7.7 Checklist – what the engineer should consider 93
6.4.7 Ropes and cables 64 7.8 References 93
6.5 Concrete 66
6.5.1 History of modern use 66 Appendix 1 Sources of UK-based information on design,
6.5.2 Identification 67 construction and history 95
6.5.3 Mechanical properties 67 A1.1 Introduction 95
6.5.4 Durability 67 A1.2 Building-specific information: primary sources 97
6.5.5 Plain (mass) concrete 67 A1.2.1 Points to note 97
6.5.6 Reinforced concrete 68 A1.3 Building-specific information: secondary sources 97
6.5.7 Prestressed concrete 69 A1.4 Explanatory information 98
6.5.8 Precast concrete 70 A1.4.1 Trade literature and Third Party Certification 98
6.5.9 Glassfibre reinforced concrete (GRC) 70 A1.4.2 Contemporary Codes of Practice 98
6.6 Steel/concrete composite construction 71 A1.4.3 Contemporary textbooks, papers, and
6.6.1 Definition and history of use 71 periodicals 99
6.6.2 Types and properties 71 A1.4.4 Guides to the identification and appraisal of
6.6.3 Appraisal of composite action 72 systems, products and particular structures 99
6.7 Polymeric materials 72 A1.5 Record sources 99
6.7.1 History of use 72 A1.5.1 Possible record sources 99
6.7.2 Identification 72 A1.5.2 National record centres for ancient monuments and
6.7.3 Mechanical properties 72 historic buildings 101
6.7.4 Durability 73 A1.6 Materials 102
6.8 Fibre-reinforced polymer composites 73 A1.7 Government agencies 103
6.8.1 History of use 73 A1.8 Other organisations 103
6.8.2 Properties 73
6.8.3 Durability 73 Appendix 2 Acceptable risk levels for existing
6.9 Advanced composite materials 73 structures 106
6.9.1 Introduction and history of use 73 A2.1 Acceptable risk levels for existing structures 106
6.9.2 Identification 74 A2.2 References 108
6.9.3 Properties 74
6.9.4 Durability 74 Appendix 3 Types of defect 109
6.10 Polymers and adhesives 74 A3.1 Introduction 109
6.10.1 Introduction and history of use 74 A3.2 Tables of defects 109
6.10.2 Identification 75 A3.3 References / Bibliography 118
6.10.3 Properties 75 A3.3.1 General 118
6.10.4 Laminated timber (‘glulam’) 76 A3.3.2 Concrete 118
6.10.5 Durability 76 A3.3.3 Masonry 119
6.11 Protective materials 76 A3.3.4 Steel, cast iron and wrought iron 119
6.11.1 Bituminous materials 76 A3.3.5 Timber 120
6.11.2 Lead 76
6.11.3 Paints 77 Appendix 4 Damage due to extreme events 121
6.11.4 Sealants 77 A4.1 Introduction 121
6.12 Glass 78 A4.2 Sources of severe damage 122
6.12.1 Introduction and history 78 A4.2.1 Explosions due to deflagration 122
6.12.2 Identification   80 A4.2.2 Explosions due to detonation 122
6.12.3 Mechanical properties 80 A4.2.3 Impact of massive objects such as vehicles or
6.12.4 Durability 80 aircraft 123
6.12.5 Safety 80 A4.2.4 Earthquake resistance 123
6.13 Fabric 81 A4.3 Engineering advice in relation to explosion damage 124
6.13.1 Yarns 81 A4.3.1 Pre-event advice 124
6.13.2 Weaves 81 A4.3.2 Post-event 125
6.13.3 Coated fabrics 81 A4.4 References 125
6.13.4 Properties 81 A4.5 Bibliography 126
6.13.5 Ageing and degradation 81
6.14 References 82 Appendix 5 Performance of existing structures
6.15 Bibliography 86 before fire 127
6.15.1 Building construction 86 A5.1 Introduction 127
6.15.2 Particular structural forms 86 A5.1.1 Legislation (England and Wales) 127
6.15.3 Concrete 87 A5.1.2 Non-compliance 128
6.15.4 Masonry 87 A5.1.3 Common failures 128
6.15.5 Metals 88 A5.2 Procedure for fire safety appraisal 128
6.15.6 Timber 88 A5.3 Fire safety requirements of structural elements 128
6.15.7 Glass 88 A5.3.1 Statutory requirements 128
6.15.8 Plastics and polymers 88 A5.3.2 Design approaches 128
A5.3.3 Definition of fire resistance 129
A5.4 Fire performance of existing structures 129

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 Contents

A5.4.1 Structural fire engineering approach 129 A8.6 Electrical and other indirect methods of moisture
A5.4.2 Management plan and housekeeping 130 measurement of concrete and masonry products 168
A8.7 Infrared thermography and Transient pulse
A5.5 Materials 130 thermography 169
A5.5.1 Reinforced and prestressed concrete 130 A8.8 Detection of cracks in stone or concrete materials 169
A5.5.2 Timber 130 A8.9 Bond wrench 169
A5.5.3 Brickwork and masonry 130 A8.10 Acoustic pulse velocity 170
A5.5.4 Steelwork 130 A8.11 Ultrasonics – timber 170
A5.5.5 Cast Iron 131 A8.12 Drilling energy test 170
A5.5.6 Aluminium 131 A8.13 Crack opening displacement test 170
A5.6 References 132 A8.14 Time domain reflectometry 170
A5.7 Bibliography 132 A8.15 Acoustic emission 171
A8.16 Stiffness damage test 171
Appendix 6 Performance of existing structures A8.17 Radiographic techniques for non-metallic material 171
after fire 133 A8.18 Oxygen diffusion 171
A6.1 Introduction 133 A8.19 Carbon dioxide diffusion 172
A6.2 Procedure for appraisal 133 A8.20 Subsurface radar 172
A6.3 Site visit and desk study 133 A8.21 Resistivity 172
A6.4 Collection of detailed evidence 133 A8.22 Linear polarisation resistance 172
A6.5 Damage assessment 135 A8.23 Eddy currents 173
A6.5.1 Reinforced concrete 135 A8.24 Hall-effect test 173
A6.5.2 Prestressed concrete 136 A8.25 Air test for prestressing ducts 173
A6.5.3 Timber 136 A8.26 Dynamic testing of structures 173
A6.5.4 Brickwork 137 A8.27 Impact echo (also ‘sonic echo’ and ‘stress wave’)
A6.5.5 Steelwork 137 technique 174
A6.5.6 Cast iron 140 A8.28 Capacity of existing isolated piled foundations 175
A6.5.7 Wrought iron 140
A6.6 References 141 Appendix 9 Methods of monitoring structures 176
A6.7 Bibliography 141 A9.1 Visual and manual methods 176
A9.2 Photogrammetric methods 177
Appendix 7  Conventional test techniques 142 A9.3 Automatic and autonomous monitoring systems 177
A7.1 Introduction 142 A9.3.1 Instrumentation for measuring actions on
A7.2 Tests T1 to T62 144 structures 177
A7.3 Collated references 160 A9.3.2 Instrumentation for measuring responses of
A7.3.1 Methods of test for concrete structures 160 structures 177
A7.3.2 Methods of test for ferrous metal A9.4 Surveying using global navigation satellite systems
structures 161 (GNSS) 178
A7.3.3 Methods of test for masonry structures 162 A9.5 Surveying using total station methods 179
A7.3.4 Methods of test for timber structures 162 A9.6 Bibliography (for whole Appendix) 179
A7.3.5 Methods of test for polymers and fibre reinforced
polymers 163 Appendix 10 Safety factors 180
A7.3.6 Structural load testing 163 A10.1 Composition of safety factors 180
A7.4 Bibliography 163 A10.2 Load factors, cf 180
A7.4.1 General 163 A10.2.1 General 180
A7.4.2 Methods of test for concrete structures: General A10.2.2 Load variation factor, cf1 181
guidance 163 A10.2.3 Load combination and sensitivity factor, cf2 181
A7.4.3 Methods of test for concrete structures: Further A10.2.4 Structural performance factor, cf3 181
test methods 164 A10.3 Material factor, cm 181
A7.4.4 Ferrous metal structures: General A10.4 Permissible stresses 182
guidance 164 A10.5 References 182
A7.4.5 Methods of test for ferrous metal structures: A10.6 Bibliography 182
Further test methods 164
A7.4.6 Masonry structures: General guidance 165 Appendix 11 Residual service life 183
A7.4.7 Methods of test for masonry structures: Further A11.1 Introduction 183
test methods 165 A11.2 Identifying risk of decay and structural
A7.4.8 Timber structures: General guidance 165 consequences 184
A7.4.9 Methods of test for polymers and fibre reinforced A11.3 Estimating residual service life 184
polymers: General guidance 165 A11.4 Maintain or re-establish stable conditions 184
A7.4.10 Methods of test for polymers and fibre reinforced A11.4.1 Stage 1: Determine stability 184
polymers: Further test methods 165 A11.4.2 Stage 2: Determine deterioration rates 184
A11.5 References 186
Appendix 8 Specialist test techniques 166 A11.6 Detailed investigations of deterioration 187
A8.1 Introduction 166 A11.7 Bibliography 187
A8.2 Dimensional measurements 166
A8.3 Strain and movement measurements 166
A8.3.1 Mechanical: Demec gauges and studs 166
A8.3.2 Electrical resistance 166
A8.3.3 Acoustic 166
A8.3.4 Inductive displacement transducers 166
A8.3.5 Optical 167
A8.4 In situ stress measurement 167
A8.5 Fatigue tests of material samples 168

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 Tables

Table 5.1 Equipment for simple on-site testing and inspection techniques 37
Table 5.2 Concrete structures 38
Table 5.3 Iron, steel and other metal structures 40
Table 5.4 Masonry 41
Table 5.5 Timber structures 42
Table 5.6 Polymers and Fibre Reinforced Polymers 42
Table 6.1 Materials and/or form of construction and period of availability/use in UK 46
Table 6.2 Indicative properties of structural stone originating in the UK 48
Table 6.3 Brick sizes 50
Table 6.4 Indicative values of compressive strength of bricks 50
Table 6.5 Characteristic strengths of stone masonry 54
Table 6.6 Timber species 55
Table 6.7 Chronology of developments in structural iron and steel in the UK 57
Table 6.8 Features that may assist in identification 58
Table 6.9 Indicative physical properties of cast iron, wrought iron and early mild steel 59
Table 6.10 Design stresses and partial safety factors 59
Table 6.11 Mechanical properties of stainless steels 62
Table 6.12 History of use of aluminium 63
Table 6.13 Mechanical properties for aluminium alloys (as at 1957) 63
Table 6.14 Typical properties of wrought bronze containing 8% tin 64
Table 6.15 Typical mechanical properties for cables 65
Table 6.16 History of modern use of concrete 66
Table 6.17 Indicative properties of the main types of concrete 67
Table 6.18 Key dates in the development of polymers 72
Table 6.19 Indicative properties of common polymers 72
Table 6.20 Physical properties of typical products used in concrete repairs 75
Table 6.21 Development of glass-making 79
Table 6.22 Development of 20th century glass types 79
Table 6.23 Typical mechanical properties of annealed glass 80
Table 6.24 Typical design tensile strengths in annealed glass 80
Table A3.1 Building components: concrete 109
Table A3.2 Building components: masonry 113
Table A3.3 Building components: structural steel, cast iron and wrought iron 115
Table A3.4 Building components: timber 117
Table A6.1 Effect of temperature on selected substances 134
Table A6.2 Ignition temperatures of various materials (average values) 134
Table A6.3 Classes of damage after fire, characterisation and description 135
Table A7.1 List of tests described in Appendix 7 142
Table A8.1 List of tests described in Appendix 8 166
Table A10.1 Combinations of ULS loading in BS 8110 180

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 Glossary

Conversion table (to 3 significant figures)

Measure Imperial to si units SI to imperial units

Length 1yd = 0.914m 1m = 1.09yd = 3.28ft (= 3'-33/8")
1ft (1') = 0.305m 1cm = 0.394in
1in (1") = 25.4mm 1mm = 0.0394in
Area 1yd2 = 0.836m2 1m2 = 1.20yd2 = 10.8ft2
1ft2 = 0.09290m2 1cm2 = 0.155in2

1in2 = 645mm2 1mm2 = 0.00155in2

Volume 1yd3 = 0.765m3 1m3 = 1.31yd3 = 35.3ft3
1ft3 = 0.0283m3 1cm3 = 0.0610in3
1in3 = 16400mm3 1 litre = 0.220 UK gallon
1 UK gallon = 4.55 litres
Mass 1 ton = 1020kg = 1.020 tonne 1 tonne = 0.984 ton
1cwt = 50.8kg 1kg = 2.20lb
1lb = 0.454kg
Density 1lb/ft3 = 16.0kg/m3 1kg/m3 = 0.0624lb/ft3
Force 1tonf = 9.96kN 1N = 0.225lbf
1lbf = 4.45N 1kN = 225lbf = 0.100tonf
Pressure 1tonf/ft2 = 107kN/m2 1kN/m2 (1kPa) = 0.00932tonf/ft2
1tonf/in2 = 15.4N/mm2 1kN/m2 (1kPa) = 20.9lbf/ft2
1lbf/in2 = 0.00689N/mm2 1N/mm2 (1MPa) = 145lbf/in2

For more detailed information on conversion from Imperial to SI units and vice versa see BS 350: 2004: Conversion factors for units.
London: BSI, 2004.
In this book, the MPa (Megapascal) is used in preference to N/mm2.

Glossary
Term / Words in full Definition/explanation First used
abbreviation in text
AAR Alkali-aggregate reaction A reaction between the aggregate and alkali hydroxides in concrete, causing 4.7
expansion and cracking over a period of many years. This alkali-aggregate reaction
has two forms; alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR)
ACR Alkali-carbonate reaction See AAR
ALARP ‘as low as reasonably A legal term in the UK to imply that the responsible individual has a duty to A2.1
practicable’ eliminate or reduce all risks, unless to do so [i.e. the cost of doing so] is grossly
disproportionate to the benefit. See also ‘SFARP’
ASR Alkali-silica reaction See Alkali-aggregate reaction 6.5.1
CDM Construction (Design 7.4
and Management)
Regulations 2007
CFRP Carbon fibre reinforced See FRP 6.10.1
plastic
Clevis A U-shaped coupler with a bolt or pin passing through its holes to complete the 6.4.7
coupling
Corrosion The chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and
its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties
Ductility The ability to undergo inelastic deformations without significant loss of capacity 1.3
Durability The ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion
Fabric In the context of 6.13 of this Report, Fabric is made from woven or knitted yarns 6.13
that form a two-dimensional cloth
Failure The inability to continue to sustain the limit state under consideration
Fire resistance The ability of a structure to prevent fire from spreading from one part of a building
to another, while maintaining structural integrity
FRP Fibre reinforced polymer A composite material comprising a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres usually of 6.8
glass, carbon, or aramid (and even cotton or wool). The term FRP is a more general
description of materials like GRP. The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinyl ester or
polyester thermosetting plastic

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 Glossary

Term / Words in full Definition/explanation First used

abbreviation in text
GPS Global positioning system A satellite based navigation system providing accuracy usable for surveys on a 3.4
worldwide basis. GPS has become a universal, reliable positioning system; it is used
in surveying and other applications where precise positioning is necessary
GRC Glass reinforced Concrete that uses alkali-resistant glass fibres for reinforcement as opposed 6.5.9
concrete to traditional steel. It is possible to make lightweight elements that have good
structural qualities
GRP Glass reinforced See FRP 6.7.3
plastic (polymer and/or
polyester)
HAC High alumina cement Cement made with bauxite, with a high percentage of alumina. It sets to a high 6.5.1
strength in 24 hours
HACC High alumina cement See HAC 6.5.1
concrete
HSFG bolt High strength friction A bolt using the friction generated between the faying surfaces clamped by the bolt 4.8.7
grip bolt to achieve the required shear capacity
Hydraulic lime A lime mortar (q.v.) containing pure lime with some clay or silt content, which sets
mortar chemically when mixed with water. It is known as ‘hydraulic’ lime as it can set
under water in the absence of atmospheric oxygen
Lime mortar Mortar made with lime as the binder, with no cement content 6.2.3
Lime putty Quicklime which has been slaked with an excess of water
Metastability A state of equilibrium which is stable for small perturbation but unstable for large
NDT Non destructive testing Testing methods usually performed on in situ construction materials that do not
cause any damage to the materials being tested
Permissible A design philosophy where the designer ensures that the stresses developed in
stress a structure due to service loads do not exceed the elastic limit, or more usually a
proportion of the elastic limit (usually determined through the use of implied factors
of safety). The permissible stress design approach has generally been replaced
by limit state design (also known as ultimate stress design) as far as structural
engineering is concerned, although it remains relevant to the assessment of brittle
structural materials such as cast iron (see 6.4.3)
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene A thermoplastic resin that is resistant to heat and chemicals, has an extremely low 6.13.3
coefficient of friction, and is used in applications where friction is to be reduced
Pure lime A lime mortar (q.v.) containing pure lime with no clay or silt content; it hardens 6.2.3
mortar slowly by carbonation from adsorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide
PVC Polyvinyl chloride A thermoplastic material composed of polymers of vinyl chloride. PVC is a
colourless solid with outstanding resistance to water, alcohols, and concentrated
acids and alkalis
Reeving Passing a rope round a pulley 6.4.7
Robustness The ability to absorb damage without disproportionate collapse 1.3
Serviceability The functioning of the structure under normal use, giving consideration to its
general appearance and to users’ comfort
SFARP ‘so far as is reasonably A legal term used in the UK; in CDM 2007 Regulations, with respect to the Duties of 1.3
practicable’ Designers, 11 (3) and (4). See also 'ALARP' 7.4
SI Système International The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French phrase) is the
d’Unités most widely used system of units of measurement. It is the most common system
for everyday commerce in the world, and is almost universally used in the realm of
science
Strength A very general term that may be applied to a material or a structure. In a material,
strength refers to a level of stress at which there is a significant change in the state
of the material, e.g. yielding or rupture. In a structure, strength refers to a level
of loading which produces a significant change in the state of the structure, e.g.
inelastic deformations, buckling, or collapse
Stress The combined action of a specific corrodant and applied stresses that may result in 6.4.4
corrosion spontaneous cracking of some metals, where the corrodant alone would only have
cracking caused mild corrosion
Stress grading The visual, or more usually mechanical, grading of individual timber elements after
sawing for their ability to withstand flexural stress
Structural A term that is no longer recommended for use in the context of any aspects of a 1.5
survey structural appraisal
Survey Where unqualified, an inspection 1.5

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 Foreword to the third edition

The first edition of the Appraisal of Existing The re-use of existing structures has taken on a new
Structures was published in 1980 as a result of importance through sustainability. This has however
four years’ work carried out by a multi-disciplined to be tempered by a ‘whole life’ approach not only
and highly talented Committee, under the to service life but also to energy conservation and
enthusiastic chairmanship of my first employer, carbon emissions, subjects which are relatively in
Professor Sir Edmund Happold, or ‘Ted’ as he was their infancy and which must mature rapidly. The
affectionately known. At 60 pages’ length it was Task Group for the fourth e-edition may need to
commendably brief, and informal in style. start now.

The second edition, sixteen years later, was able to It is reassuring to know our legacy of structures
incorporate a greater knowledge of materials, testing remains in such good hands, as witnessed by for
and diagnosis, and assessment of fire resistance example traffic on the Civil Engineering Heritage
before and after fire. Ted was sadly stricken by Exchange forum; and the internet is an excellent
cardiomyopathy during its preparation and the Task medium for the dissemination of information and
Group dedicated the revised report to his memory. advice, but the note at the start of the American
The report now stood at 106 pages. It has become Petroleum Institute’s code of practice for offshore
the most popular of the Institution’s reports, relied structures is relevant: “This publication is intended to
upon by newcomers and dipped into as a reminder supplement rather than replace individual engineering
of good practice by the more experienced: it has judgement.”
been out of print for some time.

In 2003, the Institution convened a new Task Group

charged with:
––incorporating the latest knowledge;
––adding information about newer materials such
as glass, cables and fabrics; and
––thoroughly updating the references.

Little modification to the text was expected but it

was hoped the report could be enhanced by Brian Bell
coloured illustrations. Task Group Chairman

In the event, the text has been fairly extensively

revised, particularly as a result of Health and
Safety legislation, of developments in testing and
in fire engineering, of our currently rather more
litigious climate and of the impact of the internet.
Greater legal precision has become necessary
and, with it, a reduction in informality and increase
in circumlocution. Hyperlink references have been
added. As a result, the report has grown to some
187 pages.

In 2006, when 927 comments were made on the

draft, the Task Group realised it had reached a false
summit. However, under the tactful cajoling of its
Secretary, Ben Cresswell Riol (to whom I am most
grateful but whose patience I have tested to the limit),
the Task Group manfully responded to this ‘wish
list’, thanks especially to one of the commentators,
Michael Bussell, who has shared his vast experience.
I am grateful to all the members of the Task Group
but in particular to Dr Stuart Matthews, and his
colleagues at BRE, for the meticulous work on
testing and to Chris Bolton for sharing the editorial
rôle. I am also grateful to the Institution’s Librarian,
Rob Thomas, for his work in helping the Secretary
with the references and to the staff of the Institution
for their support, in particular to Dr John Littler.

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 Foreword

The Foreword by the present Chairman refers to The group who wrote the report are not the fount
“Ted” and the esteem in which he was held, as of all current wisdom. The report will hopefully be
witnessed by the tribute in the second edition. The amended and improved, and it is our wish that
Foreword to the first edition continues to be relevant engineers who read it will comment, draw the
and is reproduced below. Institution’s attention to omissions and add to the
useful references.
Foreword to the first edition (1980)
The Chairman thanks the members of the committee
In 1742 Pope Benedict XIV, concerned with the and those other engineers who commented on this
state of the dome of St Peter’s, requested three report.
men, Le Seur, Jacquier and Boscowich to carry
out a structural survey to determine the causes The committee enjoyed and learnt from their meeting,
of distress and to devise remedial measures. The and we are all grateful for the experience. But our
report, published the following year, was prefaced respect and thanks go most of all to Mr R J W Milne,
by an apology that said they had assessed it with Assistant Secretary (Technical), whose constant
theoretical mathematical reflection only because the attendance and help gave much to us all.
building was so unique. Then followed a detailed
survey of the dimensions and a discussion on
possible explanations for the damage and named
the yielding of the tie rings at the circumference as E. Happold
the cause. But the interesting part of this report was Chairman (first and second editions)
the second part because an attempt was made
to calculate the horizontal thrust and to prove that
the two rings built in at the time of erection were no
longer able to carry this thrust.

The report caused a furore. One comment at the

time stated: ‘If it were possible to design and build
St Peter’s dome without mathematics and especially
without the new fangled mathematics of our time, it
will also be possible to restore it without the aid of
mathematicians and mathematics ... Michelangelo
knew no mathematics and yet was able to build the
dome ... Heaven forbid that the calculation is correct.
For, in that case, not a minute would have passed
before the entire structure would have collapsed.’
Certainly the analysis contained some errors. But
in spite of disagreements as to the causes of the
damage most people were agreed on the measures
to be taken, and in 1743 five additional rings were
built in the cupola.

The importance of this event was that, contrary to

tradition, the stability of a structure had not been
based on empirical rules and opinions but on a
detailed survey and mathematical analysis.

Today we are even more interested in developing

the art of structural appraisal. We have a large stock
of structures and buildings representing successive
deposits of human imagination, which we are
reluctant to discard for emotional or hard economic
reasons. Urban renewal is a rapidly expanding
exercise.

The art of appraisal of structures is different from

design. In design the forces follow the choice of
form and the analysis follows that. In appraisal
the engineer is left face to face with an existing
structure of definable qualities and must determine
its condition and suitability of use. This is not an easy
task. In defining the structure’s qualities the engineer
may gain from the experience of other engineers’
methods, available testing procedures and current
developments in analytical techniques, and this
report hopes to assist him.

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 1 Introduction

1.1 Scope ––determination of the strength of a structure, its

components and constituent materials, now and in
the future
This Report is particularly concerned with the ––derivation of suitable methods for calculating
structural appraisal of buildings, but it is relevant in structural behaviour
parts to the appraisal of other structures for which ––consideration of future maintenance.
specialist assessment advice and guidance is
also available, such as bridges, masts, chimneys,
cooling towers, cranes and gantries, docks and
harbour works, underground structures, containment 1.3 Principles
structures, liquid-excluding structures and pipelines.

The process of appraisal follows sequential stages Structural adequacy can be examined in relation to:
which this Report reflects in its layout of Chapters: ––overall stability
1 Introduction ––strength
2 The brief, legal implications and the report ––robustness
3 Preparation and influencing factors ––ductility
4 The appraisal process ––geometric permanence (effect of creep and other
5 Testing and monitoring of structures long-term deformations)
6 Use and properties of materials ––stiffness
all underpinned by: ––dynamic response
7 Health and safety considerations. ––resistance to fire and other accidental loading
––weather-tightness
It is intended for this Report initially to be read ––durability
through, not for extracts to be read selectively. Where ––apparent condition.
the term ‘engineer’ is used it is meant to refer to a
qualified structural engineer or other such competent Structural appraisal is an activity different from structural
professional, or to one under competent supervision. design. It is aimed at appraising the actual condition
Advice on refurbishment and renovation, although and adequacy of an existing structure as opposed to
sometimes requested by a client, is outside the designing a structure which has not yet been built, and
scope of this Report. therefore much of the uncertainty present at the design
stage is absent. This greater certainty can be taken into
The Institution of Structural Engineers has produced account in the appraisal, provided sufficient information
this Report as a guide to supplement but not to is gathered. On the other hand, some different
replace individual engineering judgement. It is not uncertainties, such as those caused by deterioration,
intended to provide the definitive approach in any may need to be taken into account.
situation, as in all circumstances the party best
placed to decide on the appropriate course of action The questions to be answered will usually be:
will be the engineer undertaking the appraisal. ––‘Is the structure adequately safe now and will it
remain so in the future?’
––‘Can it be used for its intended purpose now and in
the future?’
1.2 Reasons for structural appraisal

Appraisal is checking the adequacy of an existing

structure, which sometimes becomes necessary for
reasons of:
––purchase, insurance, or legal purposes
––change of use or loading regime
––defects in design and construction
––deterioration with time or from being in service
––accidental, fire or other damage
––assuring safety and/or serviceability for future use
––structural alterations
––change of environmental conditions.

Experience in the appraisal of buildings has led to

the development of methods for assessing the ever
changing strength and serviceability of existing
construction, requiring:
––consideration of the levels of safety appropriate to
the use of the construction
––assessment of loading
Figure 1.1 Ferniehill subsidence study © Arup

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 1.4 Introduction

There is no absolute measure of adequate safety. failure of a small mass of material can lead directly
However, there does exist a generally accepted to loss of support for a large mass of material. This
level of safety provided by design and construction is hazardous because the trigger for failure requires
in accordance with current regulations and codes little energy, but there are high levels of energy
of practice. This level of safety may provide a useful stored in the structure which can feed the failure
datum, but, when assessing existing structures, mechanism, enabling widespread damage to occur
mature engineering judgement may need to take rapidly. In these circumstances visual feedback
precedence over compliance with the detailed through inspections is unlikely to be useful, and a
clauses of codes of practice for structural design. high level of confidence is therefore required in any
Serviceability is even more subjective, although some assessment.
aspects can be measured. Serviceability is seond in
importance to safety. The design process currently in use achieves an
acceptable level of reliability by using a combination
The processes for design of new structures and of explicit and implicit means. The use of partial
for appraisal of existing structures are also quite factors (c-values) is the most important explicit
different. The philosophical basis for appraisal method. These factors are assigned to both sides of
needs to be different from that adopted in the the load-resistance equation. Those assigned to the
design process, even though many of the detailed load side are intended to cover the uncertainties in
calculation steps may be similar. It is often necessary the load values, while those on the resistance side
to work from first principles. are intended to cover uncertainties in the strengths
of the structure, which are usually given in terms
All structures are exposed to a range of hazards of tests on material samples. This approach gives
which have the potential to threaten their structural an overall factor that experience suggests leads to
adequacy. The risk to structures has two distinct reliable structures, provided that appropriate loading
components: the probability of failure and the conditions have been considered.
consequence of failure. Safety is ultimately judged
subjectively and is the perception of the combination Implicit in design are conservative assumptions
of these two components. that may be upper- or lower-bound values inherent
in the design equations and the neglect in analysis
The safety of a structure is dominated by the of such realities as infill walls or stiff cladding
behaviour of the whole. Structural form dictates how and three-dimensional behaviour. Such usually
loads may be distributed and the consequences of conservative assumptions have influenced judgement
local weakness or failure to perform adequately in about the overall factors of safety that have become
a structural sense. Current UK design processes considered appropriate.
consider these issues largely at the component
level through the partial factors of safety (c-factors). Conventional design prejudges the variability of loads
Conscious assessment and decision on these and materials. It reduces the problem to its simplest
c-factors is one of the most important judgements form, prescribing, where possible, parameters and
made by the engineer and requires an appreciation factors in order that values can be obtained for the
not only of the significance of components but also of strength and load sides of the equations to answer
the overall behaviour of the structure. the question ‘Is the structure adequately safe?’ (Or,
summarising CDM legislation in the UK; ‘Have the
Two questions to be asked when assessing the hazards been eliminated so far as is reasonably
safety of a structure: practicable and the risks from any remaining hazards
––By what mechanism or mechanisms can the been reduced so far as is reasonably practicable?’1.1).
structure become inadequate?
––What are the consequences for the overall structure The approach of appraisal has to be quite different
of a local failure (avoiding ‘disproportionate from that of design because one is seeking to
collapse’) and what are the implications for the assess the real condition of the built structure. It
safety of the building users and third parties? involves interpreting records and observations of,
and measurements obtained directly from, the
Asking these questions should focus the mind on structure. The information thus obtained is of the
the level of assurance the engineer seeks from actual condition and the variability of the structure as
different parts of the structure, which will depend opposed to what a designer might have assumed.
on how likely the failure mechanism is to occur and
the consequences of such a failure. For example,
in a case where a series of short columns support
a continuous beam, which at ultimate stresses is 1.4 Format of third edition
capable of spanning across one or two columns, the
failure of one column would not lead to immediate
collapse. Furthermore, compressive failure of even The third edition has been slightly re-formatted so
a single column will usually involve crushing a that the chapters, while following the chronological
considerable amount of material which would give process that takes place during an appraisal, refer
some warning prior to total loss of capacity. In such a to larger volumes of information which have been
system, deterioration or loss of strength would have to transferred to the appendices in order to maintain
be widespread and severe to pose a safety problem. the flow of the text. Some chapter and appendix
headings have been altered from the Second Edition
An important factor in determining the consequences the better to reflect their content.
of a potential structural hazard is the rate at which
local failure may lead to more widespread damage or Following this introduction, Chapter 2 examines
collapse, e.g. brittle cast iron or buckling/overturning. the brief, legal implications and the structure of the
In general, the situation is most hazardous where Report. Chapter 3 studies in detail the preparation

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 Introduction 1.5

required and the various factors influencing the 1.6 References

appraisal: that is, those arising from studies carried
out beforehand and from the geometric, loading
and environmental factors affecting the structure. 1.1 Institution of Civil Engineers. A Review of, and commentary
Chapter 4 steps through the appraisal process, on, the legal requirement to exercise a duty ‘so far as is
with flow charts to illustrate key features. Testing reasonably practicable’ with specific regard to designers
and monitoring are discussed in Chapter 5, while in the construction industry. Available at: http://www.ice.
Chapter 6 is devoted to the use and properties of org.uk/downloads//SFARP%20Report-v12-January10.doc
materials. [Accessed: 26 January 2010]

In view of the importance of health and safety, the 1.2 Construction Industry Council. Definitions of inspections
subject has been promoted from an appendix to a and surveys of buildings. Available at: http://www.cic.org.
full chapter in this edition. To avoid the re-numbering uk/services/definitionsofinspectionsandsurveysofbuildings.
of existing chapters and possible corruption of pdf [Accessed: 9 September 2009]
references, it has become Chapter 7 and carries
further references to relevant UK legislation. 1.3 IStructE. Guide to surveys and inspections of buildings and
associated structures. London: IStructE, 2008
Much useful data is presented in the appendices,
including new ones on damage due to extreme 1.4 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Building surveys
events, on factors of safety and on residual service and inspections of commercial and industrial property.
life. Appendix 2 previously held the health and safety 3rd ed. Coventry: RICS Books, 2005
information, and now considers the much narrower
issue of acceptable risk levels for existing structures.
References, and often a Bibliography, are given at the
end of each chapter. 1.7 Bibliography
In this Report, the words ‘ensure’, ‘must’ and ‘should’
are not intended to imply legal obligations but are Beckmann, P. and Bowles, R. Structural aspects of building
intended to convey the weight of the advice given. conservation. 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann,
2004
References are generally given to BSI codes and
standards and occasionally to others. CEN standards Bonshor, R.B. and Bonshor, L.L. Cracking in buildings. BRE Report
are only referred to in order to illustrate a particular 292. London: CRC, 1996
point. Structures designed to CEN standards are
unlikely to require appraisal in the near future. BS 8210: 1986: Guide to building maintenance management.
However CEN standards may contain the results of London: BSI, 1986
recent research which may never be incorporated
in the BSI standards they supersede and so should IStructE. Guide to inspection of underwater structures. London:
be consulted where appropriate. Many references IStructE, 2001
originating from earlier Editions of the Appraisal of
Existing Structures are to documents current at the Oxley, R. Survey and repair of traditional buildings: a sustainable
time. In order to maintain the validity of the reference, approach. Shaftesbury: Donhead, 2003
the documents’ details have been preserved. Where
a document has been updated, superseded or Richardson, C. AJ guide to structural surveys. London:
replaced, the latest reference has been cited in curly Architectural Press, 1985
brackets {thus}.
Robson, P. Structural appraisal of traditional buildings. 2nd ed.
Shaftesbury: Donhead, 2005

1.5 ‘Structural surveys’ Robson, P. Structural repair of traditional buildings. Shaftesbury:

Donhead, 1999

A structural appraisal may require surveys to be Watt, D. and Swallow, P. Surveying historic buildings. Shaftesbury:
carried out. Some of these surveys may be of Donhead, 1996
structure. However, the Institution of Structural
Engineers believes the phrase ‘structural survey’ to
have been so widely misused and misunderstood
that it should no longer be employed, ‘inspection’
being the preferred replacement. Indeed, the
Construction Industry Council (CIC) has issued
a leaflet1.2 explaining to the client who is not a
construction professional what types of inspections
and surveys of a building are available. Similarly the
Institution1.3 and RICS1.4 have produced guidance.
The Report returns to this topic in Chapter 3. (Where
the word ‘survey’ is used unqualified in this Report,
it is intended as ‘inspection’ and is not intended to
imply ‘structural survey’.)

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 2 The brief, legal implications and the report

2.1 Introduction many will contain procedures for checking

appraisal reports, errors are harder to detect.
An omission in design calculations will typically
It is important to ensure that any commission taken be obvious by its absence, whereas, if a defect
by an engineer, and the responsibilities which flow in a structure is unnoticed during the inspection
from it, are clearly understood. This applies to all work, no amount of checking of the report will
engineering work but is particularly relevant in the pick it up. Repetition of the inspection work is not
field of appraising existing structures. a viable form of quality management: inspection
requires competence and adequate resources,
Compared to a design commission, appraisal work including time.
tends to be small with a commensurately small fee.
An appraisal can however carry relatively onerous In today’s design environment, rightly or
responsibilities. wrongly, engineering judgement is in many ways
conditioned by requirements given, for example,
Appraisals often involve other specialists yet the by Building Regulations or in codes of practice.
client may be unaware of the distinctions between Owing to the variety of forms of construction, and
their work and that of the engineer. Some clients, to the quality of their execution, the appraisal of
if not informed otherwise, will expect a structural existing structures relies heavily on engineering
appraisal to cover all aspects of a building. In judgement, however well guided and informed
addition, many clients now expect the engineer to by publications such as this and others, and is
take on the appraising team as sub-consultants therefore more open to question than is design.
or sub-contractors and to be responsible for an
all-encompassing report. Many appraisals of existing ‘structures’ occur
within a ‘building’. The engineer is thus required
Many appraisals are informally arranged, at least to use judgement as to exactly what is and is
initially. Briefs are often given over the telephone, not included in the appraisal and how much
requiring an urgent visit in a day or so, with a verbal exposure and/or testing of the structure is
summary there and then and a written report a day needed. Some elements of building fabric are
or so later. non-structural and can reasonably be ignored.
Many however are sufficiently relevant to the
Engineers’ quality management systems tend to structure that their inclusion in the appraisal is
be more aligned to the design process. Whilst necessary.

Figure 2.1 Structural neglect © Arup

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 The brief, legal implications and the report 2.2

The vast majority of existing buildings do not responsibilities, confidentiality and so on. It may
meet current Building Regulations. It may not be appropriate to state in general terms how
be helpful to the client to emphasise every slight the engineer will proceed with the appraisal. It is
transgression of original or current codes of particularly important to clarify the physical extent
practice if it does not materially affect the safety of of the appraisal, for example whether exploratory
the structure or its serviceability in relation to the opening-up and excavations will be required, whether
client’s requirements. local making good is required, etc.

Definite conclusions should be reached and The brief should be regularly reviewed during
recommendations given clearly in a written report. the appraisal process, and, if necessary, further
If the appraisal has highlighted a need for further discussed with the client to seek approval or
appraisal work, beyond the current brief, the report agreement in modifying the brief. It is sensible to
should explain this as part of the conclusions and include the final brief in the report.
recommendations.
Many appraisals require input from others, such as
The engineer must always both satisfy their testing houses, specialists, etc. Their roles should
professional responsibilities and act in the client’s be clearly defined in the brief and understood by
best interests, retaining professional independence the client. Ideally the client should appoint them
in reaching conclusions and avoiding being swayed directly which will ensure that the testing house
by commercial or similar pressures, whether from or specialist is directly responsible to the client
the client or from others. Unless within the engineer’s for their performance. Alternatively, if the engineer
experience, commercial judgements should be left to takes them on as part of the appraising team,
others. the responsibility for their performance ordinarily
lies with the engineer. Such an arrangement is
Whilst much of the guidance in this chapter can be often favoured by clients since it simplifies their
applicable to large, possibly complex, appraisals, the arrangements. The engineer should, however, be
principles outlined apply to all appraisals and should aware of the liability implications and ensure that
be considered in that light. a sub-contract with terms and conditions back to
back with the engineer’s appointment is in place,
where appropriate, and that the sub-contractor’s
insurance cover (for both professional indemnity and
2.2 The brief public liability) is adequate. In such circumstances
it would be reasonable for the engineer to agree
a ‘handling charge’ which would include some
The first stage of an appraisal is the establishment recognition of the additional risk, responsibility and
of a brief for the engineer to work to. However insurance liability taken on by the engineer. The
informal an initial request to carry out an appraisal, legal implications of sub-contract arrangements can
a written brief should be prepared and agreed by be complicated and legal advice may be advisable
both parties. Prudently, this should be carried out, before entering into them.
wherever possible, before significant appraisal work
is undertaken. It is sometimes appropriate for the If an appraisal is to be carried out jointly with another
engineer to develop the brief and explain it to and engineer employed by another client or if the
discuss it with the client to ensure that it covers the appraisal is to be done by one engineering practice
client’s requirements. It is often prudent to insist on a representing more than one client, as for example in
site visit before finalising the brief and thus the scope some expert witness work 2.1, the division and extent
of the appraisal. of responsibilities should be carefully defined and
appropriate safeguards put in place. The written
An engineer may be called in by a client who does brief is the correct place for such safeguards to be
not fully understand the need for, or cannot fully recorded. There are additional duties placed on
define the extent of, the appraisal. It is essential to expert witnesses by Civil Procedure Rules2.2 (CPR),
find out at the start exactly what the client needs, Part 35 in particular, which are outside the scope of
what aspects are to be considered and in what detail, this Report.
and to what use the report is to be put and by whom.
The client should be informed by the engineer what
scope of appraisal work is being proposed and what
the report will cover, clearly defining the ‘structural’ 2.3 Commercial aspects
aspects. Some building elements will clearly be
beyond the remit of a structural appraisal, such as
building services. Other elements are less clearly Although they should not form part of the brief itself,
within, or beyond, the scope; items of building fabric the conditions of the engineer’s appointment and
such as roof tiles and partition walls are examples the fee arrangement should also be clearly stated
of where misunderstandings may occur unless their and recorded in writing. The engineer must be
inclusion or exclusion is stated in the brief. aware how and when the contract of appointment is
formed and what terms are incorporated. It is best
The extent of the appraisal and the subsequent for the engineer to be appointed using a written
report should be appropriate to the client and may agreement clearly setting out each party’s rights and
be partly influenced by the client’s status (e.g. owner, obligations; this may be in the form of a simple letter
tenant, potential buyer, etc.). If so, due account referring to standard Forms of Agreement2.3 such
should be taken of this when preparing the brief. as those of the Association for Consultancy and
Engineering (ACE). The commercial arrangements
In addition the brief may usefully include other between the client and engineer would normally not
details such as programme, the need for specialists, be included in the report.

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 2.4 The brief, legal implications and the report

By its very nature, the amount of work involved is significantly more onerous than required under
in appraisal is unknown and therefore the most common law, e.g. a strict obligation or a warranty of
equitable fee arrangement would be a time charge fitness for purpose, is inadvisable. In particular, the
basis with perhaps a budget and an absolute ceiling engineer should check whether the PII covers work
identified, neither of which would be exceeded that is subject to such an obligation.
without good reason and the client’s prior approval.
Such an arrangement requires trust between the two Unless a specialist in a certain type of appraisal
parties. If that trust does not exist, the commission work, and intending to exercise such specialist skill in
should not be accepted. If the client requires the fee the appraisal, engineers should be careful not to hold
to be quoted as a lump sum, the risks inherent in themselves out, or accept terms of appointment, as
predicting the amount of work involved in appraisal specialists. Otherwise, they will be measured against
work should be recognised by the engineer and the a higher standard of care.
fee quotation prepared accordingly. Clients who
try to pass risk on to other parties do not always Engineers need to exercise the required standard of
understand that they are likely to pay for the risk, skill and care at every stage of the appraisal process
whether the risk is realised or not. It should be noted (including planning the survey, site observations,
that even if an appraisal has been undertaken without recording and analysing data, writing and checking
payment it still carries liability. the report and recommending any further appraisal
work). Failure to do so may make them liable to
The Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration pay damages in breach of contract (or in the tort of
Act 19962.4 contains minimum provisions for a negligence: see Section 2.4.3).
payment timetable and mechanism and may be
applicable. Under the law of contract, the engineer is normally
only liable to the client for whom the appraisal
Whilst professional indemnity (PI) insurance is work is being carried out and the report is being
not currently compulsory for structural engineers, prepared. The engineer may be liable to this client
practising within the construction industry without for any losses incurred as a result of the incorrect
adequate PI cover is inadvisable. Again this applies to conclusion or recommendations in, or omissions
all engineering work but is particularly relevant in the from, the report, provided that such conclusions,
field of appraisal. The engineer should be sure to hold recommendations or omissions are a result of the
insurance covering the engineer’s potential liabilities engineer’s negligence and/or breach of the terms of
arising from the work undertaken. The engineer must the appointment.
be alert to any limits to insurance cover, particularly
in relation to pollution, contamination, asbestos, If the client is allowed to assign the benefit of the
fungus and mould. The Institution of Structural report to another party, then the engineer may be
Engineers requires any member practising without liable to this other party for any losses suffered as a
PI cover to inform the client accordingly. Many result of reliance upon the report and as a result of
clients commissioning appraisals will be laymen the engineer’s negligence and/or breach of contract.
and probably unaware of such insurance and the
implications; this issue will need to be managed A third party is not normally entitled to rely on the
carefully in such circumstances. report unless the engineer knows of the existence
and interest of that party at the time of the appraisal
The engineer is advised to limit total liability by a and report preparation and that such third party will
contract term agreed with the client which should read and rely on the report. The engineer should
reflect a realistic assessment of the potential therefore consider this carefully before re-addressing
consequences of any negligence or breach. A the report to a named third party, particularly if the
starting point for such an assessment may be to limit interest and requirement of the client and of the
liability to a multiple of the fee. named third party are not the same and may even
conflict. The engineer should identify such a conflict
and may need to re-negotiate the contract for the
additional cost of resolving the conflict.
2.4 Legal responsibilities
The Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 19992.6
sets out third party rights. In some situations, third
2.4.1 Introduction parties may be able to enforce the terms of the
original appointment and thus rely on the report by
Engineers cannot avoid responsibility for their actions virtue of this Act. The engineer will need to consider
and statements2.5. Those in breach of legislation may the interests and requirements of such third parties.
attract criminal sanctions (see Chapter 7). However,
claims against engineers are normally civil claims The engineer can seek to reduce the liability to third
either via a breach of contract or negligence under parties by excluding rights of third parties and strictly
the law of tort. controlling any assignment by express contractual
terms in the appointment or by careful use of caveats
2.4.2 Law of contract in the brief and in the report. Such provisions should
be used with care as they will be interpreted ‘strictly’
The normal common law standard of care expected (e.g. contra proferentum [against the offeror] rule)
from the engineer will be ‘reasonable skill and care’, by the courts and need to pass the ‘reasonableness
i.e. the skill and care reasonably to be expected test’ under the Unfair Contract Terms Act 19772.7 and
of a competent engineer performing an appraisal Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations
of the type in question. However, the contract can 19992.8. Therefore, they may not always give the
require a different standard of care, and the engineer engineer as much protection as wished for. (See also
needs to check this. Accepting any obligation which Section 2.6.2.)

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 The brief, legal implications and the report 2.5

2.4.3 Law of tort 2.5 Appraisal findings

Under the law of tort, the engineer owes a duty of
care to the client and to certain third parties. If a To many engineers, the uncertainty inherent in
claim in the tort of negligence is pursued against the appraisal work is one of its attractions but the client
engineer, the court will first have to decide whether must be kept informed of unexpected findings during
the engineer owes the claimant a duty of care; then the appraisal where they have relevance. It may be
the court will decide whether there has been a failure necessary to give an interim report and perhaps even
to meet the duty of care, normally assessed by alter the brief. This must be agreed in advance with
reference to the ‘standard of the ordinary skilled man the client however, particularly if there are financial
exercising and professing to have that special skill’ – implications such as a need for additional inspection,
Bolam Test2.9. research, testing, access equipment and so on.

In appraisal work, the engineer may be liable in tort, If a client requires advice on items beyond the
for negligence, to all persons who are physically structural appraisal, such as building services, the
injured or whose property is damaged by the engineer may reasonably suggest to the client that
engineer’s actions in carrying out the appraisal or such advice is sought from an appropriate source
because of a negligent appraisal. Pure economic but should not give the advice unless competent to
losses (such as diminution of value in property) do so. If a building services engineer for example is
may be recoverable from the engineer in certain also commissioned to appraise the building, liaison
cases. The injury, damage or losses recoverable are between the engineers can be helpful to plan and
normally those which are reasonably foreseeable at co-ordinate the on-site survey work. If the building
the time of the appraisal as a consequence of such is occupied, such an approach becomes even more
actions or negligence. important.

The engineer owes a duty of care to the public An engineer has a responsibility for the safety of the
which includes passers-by, neighbours and public including anyone in or around the structure.
adjacent owners. The engineer has a duty to raise If any hint of significant danger is discovered with
any issues regarding hazards discovered during the structure being appraised, the engineer must
the appraisal that might be outside the brief or inform the client immediately and act accordingly, for
represent dangers to the public. This can include example ensuring only controlled access is allowed
notifying local authorities or others, as well as the and propping is introduced. This applies even if the
client, about dangerous or potentially dangerous danger is not relevant to the brief, for example the
structures. Providing this is handled sensitively and suspected presence of asbestos or defective wiring.
expeditiously, it need not be unduly onerous. It will In that case the engineer should again avoid giving
be sensible for the engineer to record such actions advice unless professionally competent but should
in writing. highlight the potential danger and advise the client
clearly to seek such advice as may be necessary and
2.4.4 General with the appropriate urgency. Chapter 7 gives further
advice in the unlikely scenario of a client ignoring
The engineer is unlikely to have the professional what appear to be critical health and safety matters.
expertise to advise the client on the legal implications
of the appraisal. If for example defects are found
which could be considered to be someone’s fault,
this opinion could be included in the report but the 2.6 Report
engineer should avoid advising the client to seek
legal advice. If, based on the evidence contained
within the report, the client does decide to then that 2.6.1 Introduction
is the client’s prerogative.
Every appraisal will have a report describing the
An engineer who is commissioned to comment brief, what was done, the findings, the conclusions
on the work of others should always maintain and the recommendations as its end result. It is
professional standards, in particular avoiding essential to employ as much care and expertise in its
irrelevant or derogatory statements whether made preparation as has been used in the appraisal work
in writing or orally. The Institution of Structural and, above all, the report must answer the brief. This
Engineers’ Code of Conduct and its Guidance fundamental need highlights the requirement for
Notes2.10 includes the requirement for those whose a realistic brief at the start. The care and diligence
work is being reviewed to be consulted and notified required when preparing a report are generally not
where feasible. related to the size or complexity of the structure
to be appraised, but will be influenced by the
On becoming aware of circumstances that might consequences of failure.
give rise to a claim under their PII policy, engineers
should, as required by the policy, notify insurers It is recommended that the report is a written one.
immediately and keep them updated. Most insurers If an oral report is given in advance of the written
provide legal advice but, if not, the engineer should report, the client is entitled to rely on it in the same
consider seeking it at the earliest opportunity and way as a written one. In law there is no difference.
certainly before responding to any possible claim. However, disputes as to the substance of an oral
report may arise so it is essential to confirm the
This section contains only a very brief synopsis of contents of an oral report in writing as soon as
some legal aspects of appraisal work. Care must possible. The advice given below applies primarily to
always be taken when considering legal aspects written reports, but some of it is equally applicable to
since the law is constantly developing. oral reports.

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 2.6 The brief, legal implications and the report

2.6.2 Caveats The report should include appropriate background

information to allow a stranger to the structure to
It is important for the engineer to define become aware of the full situation by reading the
responsibilities by quoting the authority for report. This approach also ensures that, if a report
the inspection and the brief, and the physical, is left for some period or if personnel changes
administrative, timing and other limitations on the occur within the client’s or engineer’s organisations,
appraisal, including, where required, areas with repeated familiarisation work is minimised.
limited need for inspection, restricted access or not
inspected. It may also be prudent to discuss the The conclusions should be definite, reasoned,
accuracy of the methods employed in the appraisal engineering judgements, reached after careful
and the relevant significance of the findings. Any consideration of the information obtained. Each
reservations or limitations implicit in the appraisal conclusion should be based on the information in
methods, techniques employed or interpretations of the report and be expressed explicitly without the
results should be clearly stated. use of vague generalities. Where there is insufficient
information or the results of the survey and/or tests
Excessive use of caveats in a report is not helpful to are inconclusive, this should be clearly stated and the
the client nor, in reality, to the engineer; it is unlikely conclusions qualified accordingly.
to be well received in the courts. The employment of
a professional engineer, capable of using reasonable Any recommendations should be based only on
skill and care, entitles the client to expect a clear the conclusions. They may include proposals
response to the brief. It is considered reasonable for remedial work, regular maintenance work,
however to include two important caveats: monitoring, inspections or further appraisal work. If a
report includes a recommendation that advice from
(1) The report has been prepared for the other experts should be sought, it is imperative that
client alone and no third party should rely the report does not contain any advice beyond the
on it. This caveat is particularly important expertise of the author.
following the Contracts (Rights of Third
Parties) Act 19992.6. If the engineer is If the recommendations from the appraisal leave the
made aware during the briefing stage that client with a choice as to a future course of action,
a third party will rely on the report, such a it is important that the report provides sufficient
caveat needs to reflect the fact. An example information, or indicates that (and preferably how)
occurs when a report is commissioned by a such information should be obtained, for the
potential purchaser but is to be passed on client to make a valid decision. Only if required
to a provider of finance. by the brief, the recommendations may include
appropriate engineering solutions, with their
(2) S
 hort of the whole structure involved being advantages and disadvantages and the engineer’s
dismantled, an appraisal can only ever be recommendation(s) for these solutions. Advice
based on the areas investigated in the belief regarding the design of remedial schemes however
they are representative. is beyond the remit of an appraisal and is not
considered further in this publication.
The engineer should also consider restricting any
‘assignment’ of the report, as discussed in Some clients may wish to make comments on the
Section 2.4.2. report at draft stage. This is acceptable provided the
engineer remains confident that the final report is a
2.6.3 General considerations true record of the appraisal and continues to follow the
advice given in this section. Since the report will be
When writing the report the engineer should consider issued under the engineer’s name and the engineer will
the potential readers, e.g. owners, tenants, financiers, remain responsible for it, the final decision in the event
etc, and their probably limited familiarity with of a disagreement over content must be the engineer’s.
technical issues and any (essential) jargon. Drafting
requires careful thought, review and redrafting. 2.6.4 Practical aspects
The meaning of each sentence must be examined
critically. Whilst many reports remain largely unread The report will be in hard copy and, quite likely
by the client other than for their synopsis and nowadays, in electronic format. Both should be
recommendations, other parties such as lawyers and presented in a professional manner, the latter in a
checking engineers are likely to assess each word format which cannot be altered. Elaborate use of
with rigour if a difficulty arises. graphics is not usually required. Hard copies should
have durable bindings since reports often circulate
The report should be as simple and clear as within clients’ organisations and suffer in handling
possible. At the same time it must be technically as a consequence. A client may wish to receive an
accurate. If it is necessary to use symbols or unbound copy for ease of copying, particularly if an
abbreviations, these must be generally understood electronic version is not available.
or should be defined in the text so as to avoid
confusion. The report’s format should be logical, Photographs are likely to be helpful but any included
have continuity and be easy to follow. should be referred to in the text. Their excessive
use in the report should be avoided unless the brief
The engineer should, when writing the report, keep specifically requires a comprehensive photographic
observed facts and hypothetical interpretations record. Typical defects only should be illustrated,
clearly distinguished. This can be achieved by together with general informative photographs of the
allocating separate sections of the report to each, structure. The subject matter should be intelligible to
although this process can lead to repetition. a reader who has not inspected the real-life situation.

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 The brief, legal implications and the report 2.6

Photographs should show general views of the Title page

structure as well as detail. Detail on its own is often This should normally read ‘Structural appraisal of
confusing. It is often helpful for reference, and for <name of structure>’ and include its address, the
reproduction, if coloured material such as figures, identities of the client and the engineer and their
tables, charts and photographs is bound separately. contact details. It should be dated, include the
engineer’s job or reference number and revision
In principle, the report should include all the detailed number, and may give the status of the report, e.g.
technical information produced by the appraisal, confidential, interim, final, etc.
including test results, etc. Their inclusion in the main
report, however, can produce an unwieldy document Synopsis
and appendices should be used for such information. This should comprise one or two pages of succinct
It should, however, be appreciated that many readers language, generally understandable to a layman,
will not refer to the appendices, and the main text summarising the problem, the investigations carried out
should be written accordingly. The information in and the principal conclusions and recommendations,
the appendices must be properly summarised in including any important caveats, reservations and
the main report. If calculations and other reference exclusions. It needs to be particularly carefully written
material are not included in the report or appendices, since the reader may rely solely on it and not bother to
they should be available to the client for inspection. read the main report. A synopsis, sometimes referred
to as an executive summary, is useful to a client who
2.6.5 Format needs to present a summary to others, e.g. a local
council committee. It should only be written after the
The format for a report is very much a personal rest of the report has been written and must only
choice of the engineer. The format set out below contain items included in the body of the report.
has been found useful for appraisals. Some of the
sections may be less relevant to smaller reports Contents
but many are generally applicable and the brief This is important for reports longer than a few pages.
and reasonable caveats mentioned above in the Sections listed must be accurately titled, so as to
introduction should be included however small the allow selective reading of the report without risk of
appraisal. missing what may be essential to a particular reader.

In the format considered below, the report is Brief

essentially subdivided thus: The brief, or a summary of it, should set out the
––Title page requirements of the appraisal, as agreed by the client
––Synopsis and engineer. Correspondence defining the brief in
––Contents detail, with dates, names and status of signatories
––Introduction, dealing with: should be referred to and relevant parts may be
––the brief quoted. If an extensive brief is involved, briefing
––the investigative procedures documentation should be reproduced in an appendix.
––a guide to the report Communications such as telephone conversations
––background description of the structure modifying the brief should also be noted.
––Sections on ‘specific issues’
––Summary of recommendations Investigative procedures
––Appendices. This section should be short but it is important,
enabling the engineer to list exactly what has
The engineer would need to consider what been done in response to the brief detailed in the
constitutes a ‘specific issue’ worthy of its own preceding section. It is essential in this section not to
section. describe the findings of the investigations but rather
just what procedures were used during the appraisal.
An alternative is to follow the introduction with a
section on findings, a discussion section, followed If other specialists have been involved in the
by conclusions and finally recommendations. This appraisal, this section should be used to explain what
approach neatly separates matter of fact from the they did. If their appraisal work is to be included in
engineer’s judgement but requires careful discipline the report, their findings will come later, probably
to avoid judgement creeping into reported facts. In summarised by the engineer in the main part but with
practice this can be very difficult. It also is likely to the specialists’ full reports included as appendices.
lead to some repetition as for example the discussion
section inevitably repeats some of the factual The dates of the inspection(s) should be recorded, also
information from the previous section. factors such as the weather and lighting conditions and
any factors which could have affected the survey work,
In either format, the use of an ‘introduction’ as follows such as the vantage points, range of observations
is worthwhile. In essence the introduction explains to and use of binoculars or other aids. The name of
the reader at the very start exactly what the engineer the engineer who carried out the inspections should
was asked to do, i.e. the brief; how the engineer be stated, together with any who may have been in
responded, i.e. the investigative procedures; and attendance, for example a client representative.
then guides the reader to the answer, i.e. the guide
to the report. This approach becomes particularly Information obtained from the desk study should be
helpful if there were to be any question over whether mentioned here, and a full list of those documents
the engineer had responded correctly to the brief, included as an appendix. If an archive search was
e.g. using ‘reasonable skill and care’ and working to attempted but did not find anything, or if particularly
‘the standard of the ordinary skilled man exercising relevant material was not found, this should also be
and professing to have that special skill’. recorded here.

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 2.6 The brief, legal implications and the report

If information was received orally, perhaps from Each section should report the findings of the
the client or an occupier of the building, that fact appraisal work although there is no need to repeat
should be noted. If possible, the name and role of the details given in the ‘investigative procedures’
the source, together with the date of the interview earlier in the report. A concise description of
should be given. The engineer’s assessment of the what was seen or done on each occasion should
information and its credibility will be covered later in be recorded or, if necessary, an appendix with
the report. a schedule of individual observations can be
referred to. If at all possible, the inference or
If samples were taken from the structure or tests significance of the observations should, however,
carried out, the nature and number of samples or not be included with the reporting of the findings
tests should be stated along with relevant dates. The themselves.
findings of the sampling/testing will be reported later
in the report and, if extensive, a full set of results may The section continues with interpretation and/
best be included as an appendix. If a testing house or or opinions. The report will be safer to use and
laboratory is involved, its name should be given. If other easier to defend in a possible conflict if ‘facts’
parties are involved in the appraisal it may be important and ‘opinions’ are clearly separated. The extent
that samples are taken or in situ tests carried out in the of discussion of the findings’ implications and the
presence of their representatives. The names of both overlap with the conclusions depend very much
testers and observers should be given. on the size and complexity of the appraisal. There
may come a point where extensive theoretical
Any calculations that have been carried out as part discussions not essential to understanding the basic
of the appraisal should be referred to here. It may message would be better placed in an appendix,
be useful to clarify here the detail to which those available to the reader if required.
calculations were prepared but, as elsewhere in this
section, any conclusions should not be given. Conclusions
Any uncertainties remaining after the investigation,
It may be useful to note the chronological order in and any need for further checks, should be stated
which activities have been done, particularly when here. Conclusions should be firm, reasoned
the appraisal is complex, e.g. an initial inspection judgements reached after careful assessments of
followed by a detailed inspection. Any limitations the information obtained. It is prudent to discuss
on the appraisal, e.g. limited access or lack of briefly the accuracy and limitations of the methods
time, should also be recorded here with a succinct employed and the true significance of the findings.
explanation if appropriate. Every conclusion should be based on matters
contained in the report.
Guide to report
This section guides the reader through the report If required by the brief, a short description of the
and is an appropriate section for the two caveats courses of action available to the client derived
mentioned in Section 2.6.2 and for any other caveats. from the conclusions should follow, with the
It could give background to what information is recommended action highlighted if appropriate
included in the report and where. It can also be used and only if required by the brief. Recommendations
to explain if some information is not included in the should probably cover broad principles only,
report and why. described in clear, plain language, intelligible to
the lay reader, e.g. the one who has to see to the
Background description of the structure implementation. Details of that implementation are
It should be assumed that a reader is unfamiliar unlikely to have been commissioned as part of the
with the structure and needs to have a clear picture appraisal brief, but, if so, should be placed in an
of what the engineer was investigating. Even if the appendix.
first intended reader knows the structure well, the
report may be used in the future by people who do Summary of recommendations
not. The section should be brief and may include Although each section on specific issues will include
selected images and diagrams, a summarised recommendations, in a lengthy report it can be
history of the structure’s original construction and useful to summarise them in a final section. In reality
subsequent alterations, and past and present use. most readers look for the recommendations first
Any information significant to the purpose of the and may then look into the background of how
appraisal need only be briefly mentioned here since it those recommendations were reached when and if
will be covered in depth later in the report. time allows. This section should give more details of
the recommendations than the synopsis but should
Sections on specific issues not include the other information necessary in the
The brief, and consideration of the client’s synopsis such as brief, caveats etc.
requirements, will determine which issues warrant
a full section and which a sub-section. It is likely Appendices
that a client would find a report more useful if sub- The report alone should answer the brief but
divided into relatively broad sections containing appendices should be included for information from
sub-sections dealing with specific issues. A general which the reader may gain a greater understanding.
appraisal may neatly divide into sections on structural A copy of the full brief is certainly worthwhile as
integrity, durability, defects and future maintenance an appendix. A list of archive information seen is
for example. Within the section on durability, for important, particularly if the appraisal relies on it. If
example regarding reinforced concrete, sub-sections further information comes to light after the appraisal,
would deal with carbonation, cover, chloride content, which perhaps brings into question the appraisal
etc. A report containing dozens of small sections, findings, the effort in listing individual documents is
sometimes covering specific issues about which the well repaid.
client has little understanding, is not helpful.

10 The Institution of Structural Engineers Appraisal of existing structures

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 Hän oli näillä sanoilla esittänyt heille asian niin selvästi, ettei
tarvinnut kauvan sitä miettiä. Komankhit olivat ääneti, paitsi heidän
johtajansa, joka lyhyeltä neuvotteli kuuden valkoihoisen kanssa ja
lausui sitten apakhille:

"Me ratsastamme 'Ryöväri-Rotkoon' ja seuraamme siis

mejikkolaisten jälkiä. Onko punainen veljeni myös sitä mieltä?"

Vinnetuu nyökkäsi myöntyväisesti ja ohjasi sitten hevostaan itään

vieville jäljille. Jos olisivat hevosiaan hoputtaneet, olisivat he kyllä
pian saavuttaneet mejikkolaiset, mutta se ei ollut Vinnetuun
tarkoitus. Mitä pikemmin hän heidät saavutti, sitä vähemmän toivoa
hänellä oli saada tietoa "Ryöväri-Rotkon" paikasta. Hän halusi kovin
saada nähdä tätä paikkaa, ja kulki sentähden samaa vauhtia, kun
hän jäljistä saattoi nähdä mejikkolaisten kulkeneen.

*****

Vähän enemmän kuin päivämatkan päässä köynnösmajasta

koilliseen liikkui pitkä jono. Se kulki suorassa linjassa hiekan halki,
joka näillä paikoin oli sangen syvää. Siinä oli 20 härkävaunua,
aseellisten ratsastajien seuraamina.

Vaunut olivat lujarakenteiset ja jokaisen eteen oli valjastettu kuusi

tahi kahdeksan härkää, jotka hyvin hitaasti laahasivat raskaita
kuormia perässään. Eläimet olivat väsymyksestä ihan uupuneet.
Ratsuhevosetkin jaksoivat tuskin enää kantaa ajajaansa. Kielet
riippuivat niitten suusta, ne läähättivät ja sääret vapisivat.

Ajajatkin kävelivät ihan näännyksissä horjuvien härkien vieressä.

He kulkivat pää riipuksissa ja näyttivät tuskin jaksavan heiluttaa isoja
piiskojansa pakottaakseen juhdat viimeisiin ponnistuksiin. Koko
karavaani näytti olevan nääntymäisillään.

Ainoastaan etunenässä ajavan oppaan ratsu oli niin vilkas, ettei

siinä huomattu väsymyksen merkkiäkään. Mutta ratsastaja istui yhtä
raskaasti ja etukumarassa satulassa kuin toisetkin, ikäänkuin hän,
samoinkuin muutkin kärsisi kauheasta vedenpuutteesta; mutta kun
joku vaunuissa istuvista naisista tahi lapsista päästi jonkun
valitushuudon, oikasihe hän voimakkaasti ja hänen ohuet huulensa
vetäytyivät pirulliseen hymyyn.

Tällä miehellä oli intiaanin tavoin pitkä tukka ja ruumiinmukainen,

punaisenruskea, tummaraitainen trikoopaita, niin että hän kaukaa
katsottuna näytti intiaanipäälliköltä. Päässään oli hänellä pitkät
kotkansulat, joka vielä enemmän lisäsi tätä yhdennäköisyyttä; kasvot
ja niskakin olivat punaisenruskeat. Tämä mies ei ollut kukaan muu
kuin Topias Taivola, hurskas mormooni-lähetyssaarnaaja. Hän oli
tarjoutunut ja otettu karavaanin oppaaksi sekä oli nyt ohjaamassa
sitä varmaan kuolemaan.

Nyt kannusti ensimmäinen ratsastaja hevosensa ja pääsi, kovasti

ponnistaen, Taivolan viereen.

"Tämä ei enään käy päinsä", lausui hän tälle. "Me ihmiset emme
toissa päivästä asti ole saaneet tippaakaan vettä, kun meidän täytyi
säästää viime jäännöksen eläimillemme. Ja tämäkin loppui jo tänä
aamuna, kun molemmat viimeiset astiat selittämättömällä tavalla
olivat tyhjiin juosseet."

"Se oli kuumuuden syy", selitti Taivola. "Tynnyrinvanteet eivät ole

tiiviit, kun ne ovat kuumuudesta ravistuneet."
 "Asian laita ei ole niin. Niin kauvan kuin astiassa on vettä, ei se
ravistu. Joku on nävertänyt niihin reiän, niin että vesi on yöllä
huomaamatta juossut pois. Meidän joukossa on joku, joka tahtoo
saattaa meidät turmioon."

"Mahdotonta! Joka salaa päästää veden poisjuoksemaan,

täytyyhän sen itsekin janoon nääntyä.

"Sen olen kyllä itselleni sanonut, mutta kuitenkin on asia niin. En

ole tästä puhunut sanaakaan toisille, etteivät he vielä enemmän
hätääntyisi. Vielä olen salaa pitänyt jokaista tarkasti silmällä, mutta
en ole nähnyt mitään semmoista, josta voisin ketään syyttää Eläimet
kuolevat janoon; ne jaksavat tuskin eteenpäin, naiset valittavat ja
lapset itkevät vedenpuutetta — mutta kaikki turhaan! Ei löydy
tippaakaan enää jäljellä. Katsokaa taivasta kohti! Tuolla liitelevät
korppikotkat, ikäänkuin tietäisivät meidän pian joutuvan heidän
saaliikseen. Oletteko sitäpaitsi varma siitä, että olemme oikealla
tiellä?"

Taivolahan itse juuri oli yöllä nävertänyt reiän molempiin

vesiastioihin. Silloin oli hän itse juonut ja juottanut hevosensakin.
Sitten hän oli täyttänyt ison läkkisen kotelon, joka nyt, vuotaan hyvin
käärittynä oli hänen satulansa taakse kiinnitettynä, jotta hän
tänäänkin, pimeän tultua, voisi salaisesti virvoittaa itsensä ja
hevosensa.

"Olen ihan varma", sanoi hän, viitaten tolppiin, jotka seisoivat

sannassa, yhtä kaukana toisistaan. "Tuossahan näette oppaamme,
joihin levollisesti saamme luottaa."

"Levollisesti? Olemmehan kaikin kuulleet puhuttavan siitä, että

Ljaano-kotkat toisinaan kiskovat tolpat maasta ja asettavat ne ihan
toiseen suuntaan, johtamaan matkustajaa turmioon."

"Niin, semmoista tapahtui ennen maailmassa, mutta ei nyt enään,

kun noitten roistojen toimi on lopetettu. Muuten tunnen minä tämän
seudun sangen hyvin, ja tiedän, että tämä on oikea tie."

"Sanoittehan aamulla, että olemme aavikon hedelmättömimmällä

alalla. Mistä syystä ovat viitat juuri tänne asetetut? Tulisimmehan
jollekin toiselle suunnalle noitten suurten kaktusvainioitten luo,
joitten hedelmät sisältävät niin paljon kosteutta, että niillä voisimme
virvoittaa itsemme ja eläimemme."

"Se tekisi liian suuren mutkan. Rauhoittaakseni teitä, voin

vakuuttaa, että jos vähän kiirehdimme, niin joudumme illalla
tuommoiselle vainiolle. Huomenna saavumme lähteen luo, jolloin
kärsimyksemme loppuvat."

"Jos vähän kiirehdimme! Näettehän, etteivät eläimet enää pääse

pikemmin kulkemaan."

"No, sitte pysähdymme, että ne saavat levätä."

"Ei, sitä emme uskalla. Jos pysähdymme, emme enään saa niitä
liikkeelle. Jos ne panevat maata, niin ne varmaan eivät enää koskaan
nouse. Meidän täytyy pakoittaa niitä eteenpäin, kunnes joudumme
mainitsemallenne kaktusvainiolle."

"Niinkuin tahdotte, herrani. Minua ei janota vähemmän kuin teitä,

näen kuitenkin lohdutuksekseni, että tässä on äskettäin muitakin
kulkenut. Katsokaa jälkiä, jotka aamulla tapasimme. Ne osoittavat
suurta ratsastajajoukkoa, joka tuskin olisi uskaltanut ruveta tässä
kulkemaan, jos se ei olisi varmasti tiennyt olevansa oikealla tiellä.
Meillä ei ole mitään peljättävää. Huomenna tähän aikaan on kaikki
ohi."

Hän puhui totta, sillä tuon aiotun hyökkäyksen piti tapahtua ennen
tätä aikaa. Että nuo mainitut ratsastajat olivat hänen liittolaisensa,
jotka olivat muuttaneet viitat väärälle suunnalle, sitä hän tietysti ei
maininnut. Hän hymyili itsekseen, kun nuo kaksimieliset sanat
näyttivät toista rauhoittavan.

Tuon jo monesti ennen mainitun köynnösmajan ja Murha-Rotkon

välillä levisi pituudelleen ja leveydelleen monen tunnin kestävä
kaktusvainio. Siitä ei päässyt hevonen eikä ratsastaja lävitse
kulkemaan. Siinä syy, miksi Veri-Repo ei koskaan ratsastanut tähän
suuntaan, eikä siis milloinkaan joutunut Murha-Rotkoon. Hän kiiti nyt
tämän vainion läntistä laitaa pitkin pohjoiseen suuntaan. Jos hän
silloin olisi sen pohjoisesta laidasta poikennut itään, olisi hänen
täytynyt keksiä se notko, joka jo niin monelle oli turmion tuottanut.
Mutta hän tiesi, että hänen pelastettavansa olivat koillisessa ja
sentähden hän ratsasti siihen suuntaan, jättäen kaktus-vainion
taaksensa.

Päivä oli polttava. Kuumuus oli uuvuttava; hevoset hikoilivat,

mutta hän ei sallinut niiden levähtää. Yhtämittaa taivaanrantaa
silmäten, ratsasti hän yhä eteenpäin.

Siihen, missä taivas koillisessa näytti maahan yhtyvän, ilmestyi nyt

joukko tummia pisteitä.

"Nuo ovat siirtolaiset!" huudahti hän iloisesti. "Minä tiesin heidän

tulevan sieltä päin ja minä kohtaan heidät juuri oikeaan aikaan."
 Hän kannusti ratsuansa ja luikkasi kuormahevosille niin, että ne
lensivät aavikon yli.

Mutta hetken päästä huomasi hän, että vastaantuliat olivatkin

ratsastajia, vaunuja ei ollut. Kuitenkin luuli hän näitä ratsastajia
siirtolaisten etujoukoksi ja ajoi sentähden suoraan heitä vastaan.

Vasta sitten kun hän oli tullut heitä jotenkin lähelle, herättivät
ratsastajien sekä luku että heidän käytöksensä hänen ihmettelynsä.
He olivat nyt myös hänet huomanneet. Mutta sen siaan, että olisivat
rauhallisesti hänen tuloaan odottaneet, jakaantuivat he kolmeen
osaan. Yksi osa jäi paikalleen; molemmat muut ratsastivat oikealle ja
vasemmalle Veri-Repoa vastaan; ikäänkuin tahtoisivat hänet piirittää
ja katkaista häneltä paluumatkan.

Nyt hän huomasi erehdyksensä. Hän nousi satulassa ja katseli

asemaa.

"Taivahinen!" huudahti hän. "Heitä on enemmän kuin 30 henkeä.

Eihän siirtolaisetujoukko voi niin lukuisa olla. Heillä on
kuormahevosia muassaan, joihin on sälytetty viittatolppia. Voih! Nuo
ovat juuri Ljaano-kotkia, ja niitten ansaan olen minä ratsastanut. He
aikovat vangita minut. Noin monta minä en voi vastustaa. Minun
täytyy paeta."

Hän kääntyi ja ajoi takaisin. Mutta yhteensidotuilla hevosillaan hän

ei voinut kulkea tarpeeksi nopeasti, varsinkin kuin ne jo olivat ihan
väsyksissä. Vainoojat yhä lähenivät. Nyt alkoivat kuormahevoset
juonittelemaan, kiskoivat ohjaksista ja hihnoista sekä potkivat. Tämä
viivähdys oli turmiollinen: ensimmäiset ratsastajat olivat jo melkein
ampumamatkan päässä. Silloin katkesi ratsuhevosen häntähihna,
johon ensimmäinen kuormahevonen oli sidottuna ja nyt kaikki neljä
kuormahevosta hyökkäsi sivulle.

"Ne ovat hukassa ja vesi samoin!" valitti Repo. "Mutta minä kostan
heti." Hän viihdytti hevosensa ja sai sen pysähtymään. Hän tarttui
kaksipiippuseen pyssyynsä, tähtäsi, sitten kuului laukaus, vielä
toinenkin ja molemmat etumaiset vainoojat putosivat hevosiltaan.

"Nyt taas eteenpäin! Eiväthän taas aivan heti tule niskaani. Nyt en
voi muuta tehdä, kuin hakea Vanhaa Kovakouraa ja johtaa hänet
siirtolaisraukkojen jäljille."

Näin lausui hän kiukkuisena ja lähti täyttä laukkaa ajamaan

pohjoiseen. "Kotkat" seurasivat häntä vielä hetken vimmatusti
kirkuen; mutta pian he huomasivat Revon hevosen paremmaksi ja
palasivat takaisin ammuttujen luokse.

Ja vielä kerran: yhden päivämatkan päässä pienestä

köynnösmajasta, mutta siitä pohjoisessa, oli vielä yksi
ratsastajajoukko, matkalla etelään. Sen voima ei ollut miesten
luvussa, vaan heidän älyssään, ne olivat Vanha Kovakoura
seuralaisineen.

He seurasivat syviä jälkiä höllässä hiekassa. Nämät olivat niitten

"kotkain" jäljet, jotka olivat kiskoneet maasta tolpat ja asettamassa
ne Murha-Rotkoon vievälle suunnalle.

Vanha Kovakoura ratsasti tapansa mukaan ensimmäisenä; hänen

rinnallaan ratsasti Terässydän, nuori komankhi, Jimi ja Timi, Hono-
veljekset ratsastivat heidän takanaan ja sitten tulivat Ontuva Rankko
ja Paksu Paavo. Muut olivat jälkijoukkona.
 Vanha Kovakoura oli ääneti. Hän silmäili taukoamatta jälkiä ynnä
sitä kohtaa taivaanrannalla, jonne ne johtivat. Hän näytti olevan
kokonaan siihen toimeen kiintynyt.

Sitä kovaäänisemmät olivat toiset, varsinkin Rankko. He

keskustelivat asiasta, johon hänen huomionsa oli erittäin kiintynyt, ja
josta kumppaninsa näytti olevan toista mieltä, sillä pikku
saksenilainen puhkesi vihaisesti sanomaan:

"Tieteellisissä asioissa olet sinä ihan typerryksissä. Jollet olisi

minua tavannut, istuisit vielä kurkkujasi myöden tietämättömyyden
liejussa ja ravitsisit pimeätä sieluasi harakanvarpailla ja
kilpikonnahöystöllä. Heikko pääsi on saanut nykyisen ajatuskykynsä
vaan minun älykkäästä kirnupiimästäni. Sentähden on minulla oikeus
vaatia, että myönnät minun hevoseni paremmaksi. Sinun mielipiteesi
on ihan päin mäntyä! Tulipallo, jonka näimme, olisi tullut
ilmakehästä! Niinkuin ilmankannella ei olisi muuta tehtävää kuin
valaista sinun pimeätä sieluasi tulipallolla ja raketeilla!"

"No, sano sinä sitte mielipiteesi!" kehotti Jimi nauraen.

"Sitä en huoli tehdä."

"Miksi et?"

"Koska silloin tekisin sinut muutaman Selsiuksen asteen

viisaammaksi, etkä sinä sitä kuitenkaan kiitollisuudella tunnustaisi."

"Tahi, koska et itsekään tiedä siihen mitään selitystä."

"Voi, voi! Minä osaan, niinkuin kuningas Salomo, selittää kaikki,

seetripuusta aina siirappiin asti.. Ja mitä tuohon tulipalloon tulee,
niin sille minä tempun teen. Se on muodostunut sulikiven pitoisesta
rikistä ja — — —"

Häntä keskeytti Vanhan Kovakouran huudahdus. Tämä osoitti

etelään ja virkkoi:

"Tuolla tulee yksinäinen ratsastaja. Sen, joka täällä yksin

ratsastelee, tarvitsee olla erinomaisen rohkea ja sangen tarkoin
tuntea aavikon."

"Kuka tuo lienee?" kysyi Timi. "Hän näyttää kiirehtivän meitä

vastaan."

Vanha Kovakoura pysäytti hevosensa, otti esille kiikarinsa ja

tarkasti sillä ratsastajaa, joka täyttä laukkaa läheni. Sitten sanoi hän
iloisesti:

"Se on Veri-Repo, joka on ollut meiltä niin kauvan kadoksissa. Me

odotamme häntä tässä."

Hetken päästä tunsi Repokin heidät, heilutti kättänsä

tervehdykseksi ja huusi jo kaukaa:

"Mikä onni, että teidät tapasin! Minun täytyy pyytää teiltä pikaista
apua."

"Kenelle?" kysyi Vanha Kovakoura.

"Eräälle saksalaiselle siirtolaisjoukolle, jonka kimppuun 'kotkat'

luultavasti jo tänään hyökkäävät."

Tätä sanoessaan oli hän jo ehtinyt paikalle, pysäytti hevosensa ja

ojensi kätensä tervehdykseksi.
 "Ne ovat luultavasti samoja, joita me etsimme."

"Missä ne ovat?"

"Kaakkoisessa täältä. He näyttävät suuntaavan matkaansa suoraan

isoa kaktusvainiota kohti."

"Sitä en tunne."

"Se on laajin koko aavikolla. Minä olen lukenut yli kolmekymmentä

kotkaa, ja olen ampunut niistä kaksi. He ovat kiskoneet tolpat
maasta ylös ja asettaneet ne viemään kaktusvainiolle. Siitä on
mahdotonta lävitse päästä ja tästä saa varmasti päättää että
siirtolaiset viedään sinne kuolemaan."

"Kuinka kauvan tulee meidän ratsastaa, päästäksemme sinne?"

"Kolme tuntia, jos nelistämme."

"Hyvä! Eteenpäin siis! Älkäämme hukatko aikaa. Puhukaamme

ratsastaessamme!"

Nyt kiiti tuo pieni joukko tuulen nopeudella aavikon yli. Veri-Repo
ratsasti Vanhan Kovakouran rinnalla ja kertoi hänelle tavanneensa
"kotkat" ja menettäneensä neljä hevosta. Metsästäjä katsoi häneen
tutkivasti, ja sanoi, merkitseväisesti hymyillen:

"Teillä on viisi hevosta, sanotte, Repo? Täällä keskellä erämaata!

Kuuluuko teille sekin, jolla Kostava Henki äskettäin ajoi."'

"Kyllä, herrani", nyökkäsi Repo.

"Kyllä minä sitä ajattelin."

 "Nyt en enään voi salaisuuttani säilyttää, koska te kaikissa
tapauksissa saatte nähdä 'Hengen asunnon'. Ei tarvitse myös enää
teeskennellä, koska toivon meidän nyt onnistuvan hävittää koko tuon
roskajoukon viimeiseen mieheen. Ainoastaan yksi minulta vielä
puuttuu."

"Kuka?"

"Sen joukon johtaja, joka murhasi vanhempani, jolloin ainoastaan

minä jäin eloon."

"Kukaties hänen luunsa jo ovat vaalenneet! Repo, te olette,

nuoruudestanne huolimatta, oikea sankari. Minä kunnioitan teitä.
Sitten tulee teidän joskus kertoa meille kaikki. Mutta nyt jo tiedän,
mikä mies te olette, ja mitä vaaroja vastaan te voitollisesti olette
taistelleet. Mutta koska teillä on näin monta hevosta, ja koska noin
mielinmäärin voitte mennä ja tulla, täytyy teillä välttämättä itse
aavikolla olla joku paikka, jossa on vettä, puita, ruohoa ja hedelmiä."

"Semmoinen minulla todella onkin. Asun erään pienen järven

luona, kaktusmetsän tuolla puolen."

"Vai järven rannalla! No, tuo vanha taru on siis totta puhunut.
Kertoisitteko minulle tuosta paikasta?"

Veri-Repo teki niin. Ei kukaan muu paitsi Vanhaa Kovakouraa

kuullut sitä, ja tämä päätti olla tätä salaisuutta vielä ilmaisematta.

Pitemmän ajan päästä saivat hevoset kulkea hitaammin, koska ei

uskallettu niitä liiaksi rasittaa; mutta sitten täytyi niitten taas laukata.

Juuri kun päivä meni mailleen, tultiin vaunujen jäljille, joita nyt
seurattiin suoraan etelään. Tämä ei ollut vaikeata, sillä kuu nousi
pian ja levitti valoaan yli seudun. Kun oli noin tunnin ajan
ratsastettu, pysäytti Vanha Kovakoura äkkiä hevosensa, osoitti
suoraan eteensä ja lausui:

"Tuossa ovat siirtolaiset. Näen heidän vaunuvarustuksensa. Jääkää

tänne! Minä hiivin heidän luoksensa ja tuon sitten sieltä tietoja."

Hän astui satulasta ja hiipi pois. Hän viipyi puolen tuntia

ennenkuin hän palasi. Silloin hän kertoi:

"Siellä on kaksitoista suurta härkävaunua, asetetut neliskulmaan ja

sen sisäpuolella istuvat ihmiset. Heillä ei ole ruokaa, ei juomaa, eikä
polttopuita. Heidän oppaansa on heidät pettänyt, muutenhan heillä
olisi tuota kaikkea. Härät makaavat ähkyen maassa; ne ovat janoon
kuolemaisillaan, eivätkä varmaan jaksa huomenna minnekään.
Meidän vesivarastomme ei riitä ihmisillekään. Pelastaaksemme
eläimet, tulee meidän välttämättömästi hankkia sadetta."

"Sadettako? kysyi Ontuva Rankko Luuletteko ehkä täällä keskellä

Ljaano estakaadoa voivanne hankkia sadetta?"

"Luulen!"

"Mi — mi — mi — mitä nyt? Se ei pysty minun järkeeni. Olette

tosin hyvin välttämätön henkilö, mutta en sittenkään luule, että noin
vaan mielin määrin, voitte puhaltaa pilviä taivaalle. Millainen
'pilvenpiirtäjä' teillä sitten on?"

"Sähkö. Ei nyt ole aikaa selittää teille tuota. Saadakseni vettä,

tarvitaan tulta, niin laaja, palava ala kuin suinkin. Veri-Repo puhui
laajasta kaktusmetsästä tuolla etelässä. Siellä toivon voivani hankkia
aimo sateen. Mutta seuratkaa nyt minua!"
 Hän nousi taas satulaan ja ajoi vaunuvarustuksille. Toiset
seurasivat häntä, epäillen päätään pudistaen tuolle luvatulle sateelle,
sekä uteliaina näkemään noita ihmisraukkoja, joita he tulivat
pelastamaan.

Vaunut olivat lykätty kokoon, eikä niitten väliin päässyt ketään

ratsastajaa; mutta he kuulivat pelastajien tulon. Nämät astuivat
hevosiltaan alas vaunuvarustuksen ulkopuolella. He kuulivat jonkun
sisäpuolella huutavan:

"Kuule! Ihmisiä tulee! Herra Jumala, jos toisivat apua! Tahi ovatko
ryöväreitä?"

"Emme ole ryöväreitä. Me tuomme teille ennen kaikkea vettä",

vastasi Vanha Kovakoura lujalla äänellä. "Tulkaa tänne ja päästäkää
meidät sisään."

"Tuhat tulimmaista!" huudahti eräs suuttunut ääni. "Olisiko se

ehkä…
Odottakaa te muut. Minä katson."

Mies tuli, nojasi väliaisan yli ja kysyi:

"Keitä te, vieraat, olette?"

"Minä olen Vanha Kovakoura ja nämät ovat kumppanini, pelkkiä

rehellisiä ihmisiä."

"Vanha Kovak — — — —. Senkin vietävä?"

Tämä mies, joka sadatellen vastaanotti pelastajat, siunaamisen

sijasta, ei ollut kukaan muu kuin Topias Taivola.
 "Vai niin, tekö se olette!" sanoi Vanha Kovakoura, joka tunsi hänet,
pimeydestä ja intiaanipuvusta huolimatta. "Sangen hupaista tavata
teidät täällä!"

Mutta Taivola oli jo poissa. Hän ymmärsi, ettei hänen nyt pitäisi
viipyä silmänräpäystäkään kauvemmin. Sentähden hän hiipi toiselle
puolelle, veti äkkiä pari vaunua syrjään, päästäkseen neliöstä ulos,
heittäysi satulaan ja ryntäsi pois.

Takanaan kuuli hän siirtolaisten ilohuudot hänen poistumisestaan.

"Odottakaa vaan!" sähisi hän. "Palaan pian takaisin, ja silloin ovat

nekin hukassa, jotka ovat teitä pelastamaan tulleet. Vanha
Kovakoura! Semmoinen saalis!"

Hänen ei tarvinnut pitkälle ratsastaa. Tuskin neljännestunnin

kuluttua, tapasi hän tovereitaan, jotka odottivat hänen käskyänsä:
suorittamaan joukkomurhaamista.

He eivät ensinkään saaneet silmiänsä auki siitä, että niin kuuluisa

metsästäjä, kuin Vanha Kovakoura oli, nyt oli saapunut siirtolaisten
avuksi, vaan iloitsivat yhä uuden saaliin toivosta. He eivät pitäneet
yrityksensä epäonnistumista mahdollisena. Tosin eivät he taistelutta
uhriansa voittaisi, mutta voittaa heidän tuli, jos vaan aamuhämärää
odottaisivat, jolloin paremmin kuin yöllä eroittaisi ystävän
vihollisesta.

Vale-mejikkolaiset olivat myös jo täällä. He olivat Murha-Rotkossa

löytäneet vaan yhden ainoan etuvartian ja tämä oli vienyt heidät
tänne. He kertoivat seikkailustaan Laulavassa laaksossa ja herätti
sillä suurta iloa. Päätettiin ensin voittaa siirtolaiset, sitten etsiä
Vinnetuuta ja hyökätä hänen ynnä tämän seuralaisten kimppuun ja
täten saada runsaan saaliin.

He eivät ensinkään ajatelleet apakhin saattavan olla ihan lähellä;

ja lähellä hän kuitenkin oli.

Hän oli joukkoineen saapunut Murha-Rotkoon ja löytänyt sen

tyhjänä Tämä "murharotko" oli jotenkin syvä ja jyrkkä alanne
maassa, jonka pohjana oli samera vesirapakko. Ehkä tämä kosteus
johtui läheisestä järvestä "Erämaan Hengen asunnon" luona. Vaikka
vesi olikin sakeata, olisi se kuitenkin erinomaisen arvoista täällä
aavikon keskellä, ja sentähdenpä "kotkat" käyttävät tätä paikkaa
vasituisena asemapaikkanaan. Missä paikoin he aavikolla
retkeilivätkin, aina palasivat he tänne ja aina täytyi jonkun jäädä
tänne antamaan toisille tarpeellisia tietoja.

Tänä päivänä oli tämä tiedonantaja ratsastanut mejikkolaisten

mukana ja siitä syystä ei Vinnetuu löytänyt siellä ketään. Mutta
hänen harjaantunut silmänsä sanoi hänelle kuitenkin heti, mille
suunnalle hänen oli kääntyminen. Seuraten noitten kolmen miehen
jälkiä, löysi hän illalla sen paikan, jonne "kotkat" olivat leiriytyneet.

Hänen väkensä sai pysähtyä. Itse hän mateli kuin käärme

ryövärijoukon luokse. Hän näki erään intiaanin tulevan ja yhtyvän
heihin. Hänen terävä silmänsä tunsi heti miehen. Mutta valitettavasti
hän ei uskaltanut mennä niin lähelle, että hän olisi käsittänyt
"kotkien" puheen; mutta hänen onnistui kuitenkin lukea heidät.
Sitten hän palasi.

"Kolmekymmentäviisi kotkaa", ilmoitti hän. "Huomenna tähän

aikaan ovat nämät jo oikeitten kotkien ruokana."
 "Mitä ne tekevät?" kysyi Ben Uusikuu.

"Ne vaanivat saalista ja sitä on pohjoisessa, sillä mejikkolaiset

ratsastivat sinne, ja äsken tuli sieltä tieto, että murhaaminen on
aloitettava. Veljeni ratsastakoon nyt minun kanssani pohjoiseen,
siellä tapaamme varmaan ne ihmiset, jotka he aikovat murhata."

Hän nousi taas satulaan ja ratsasti ensin suuressa kaaressa, ettei

häntä ynnä väkeänsä nähtäisi: sitten lähti hän taas äsken
määräämäänsä suuntaan.

Ratsastettuaan jonkun aikaa, näkivät he vaunuvarustuksen

edessään. Sinne oli asetettu vartioita. Vanha Kovakoura oli ryhtynyt
varokeinoihin. Kun vartiat huusivat heille, vastasi Vinnetuu:

"Valkoisten miesten ei tarvitse olla levottomia. Tässä tulee

Vinnetuu, apakhien päällikkö, tuoden heille apua, lihaa ja vettä."

Hänen sointuva äänensä kuului selvästi. Tuskin oli hän loppuun

puhunut, kun jo vaunuvarustuksesta kuultiin Ontuvan Rankon
iloisesti huudahtavan:

"Vinnetuu! Silloin saamme soittaa voitonvirttä! Ja siinä, missä

apakhi on, siellä on myös Karhunampuja ynnä hänen pikku poikansa,
Martti. Päästäkää minä ulos! Minun täytyy oikopäätä halata heitä.
Tämmöinen juhla! Onhan tuo liian suuri ilo, kun täällä keskellä
Saharaa, pikimustassa yössä, kohtaa parhaita ystäviään!"

Hän kiipesi erään vaunun yli ja hyppäsi siitä maahan, mutta

pysähtyi hämmästyneenä, nähdessään komankhijoukon.

"Tuli ja leimaus, mitä tämä merkitsee?" kysyi hän. "Täällähän on

koko pataljoona ratsuväkeä. Se näyttää epäilyttävältä. Tulkaa tänne,
herra Vanha Kovakoura, saatte nähdä aaveita hevosten selässä!"

Mutta Martti sulki hänet jo syliinsä ja samoin teki Karhunampuja.

Nyt syntyi iloa ja riemua. Vinnetuukin tervehti iloisesti vanhaa
tuttavaansa ja sanoi sitten:

"Täytyy kai veljeni Kovakourankin olla täällä. Eikö hän ole ääntäni
kuullut?"

"Olen kyllä, tässä olen!" huudahti tämä, joka muutamien avulla oli
äkkiä lykännyt kaksi vaunua sivulle ja nyt astui esille, sulkemaan
punaisen ystävänsä syliinsä. Häntä seurasivat Paavo, Pekka,
Silmänkääntäjä-Reitto, Jimi ja Timi, toiset tervehtiäkseen ystäviään,
toiset saadakseen mahdollisen pian nähdä Vinnetuun. Siinä syntyi
nyt vilkas elämä, sydämmellisiä kätten puristuksia, kysymyksiä ja
vastauksia, vaikka ilman melutta, niinkuin tila vaati.

Mutta totisena ja suruissaan seisoi nuori Terässydän komankhiensa

luona, jotka ihmetellen näkivät hänen täällä olevan, ja hän kertoi
heille isänsä murhasta. He kuuntelivat sanaa lausumatta, mutta
itsekseen vannoivat he kotkille kuoleman.

Nyt alkoivat he kiihkeästi, mutta äänettöminä toimimaan

vaunuvarustuksen sisäpuolella. Se laajennettiin, jotta komankhitkin
sinne mahtuivat. Kotkat eivät saisi etäältä nähdä, että heillä oli niin
lukuisa vastustajajoukko. Hevosetkin vietiin varustuksen sisäpuolelle.
Komankhit jakelivat siirtolaisille lihaa ja vettä, jota viimemainittua ne
olivat kuljettaneet koverretuissa kurpitsipulloissa, mutta Vanha
Kovakoura lupasi pian toimittaa enemmän vettä, sillä tämä ei
riittänyt tyydyttämään noitten ihmisraukkojen janoa.
 Täällä tapahtui myös odottamattomia tapauksia, niinkuin esim.
silloin kun Ben Uusikuu tunsi Silmänkääntäjä-Reiton, joka kerran oli
pelastanut hänet Voro-Revon käsistä. Pian vallitsi täydellinen
hiljaisuus vaunuvarustuksen ympärillä. Tosin ei kukaan nukkunut,
mutta nämät kaikki, joilla oli toisilleen niin paljon kerrottavaa,
puhuivat vaan kuiskaamalla, joten vaunuvarustuksen ulkopuolella ei
kuulunut hiiskaustakaan.

Vanha Kovakoura oli ruvennut näitten kaikkien johtajaksi. Hän oli

istunut Veri-Revon viereen, kuuntelemaan kun tämä mitä tarkemmin
kertoi elämänsä vaiheet, ja siitä seudusta, jossa nyt oltiin. Jos
mahdollista ei nyt kukaan kotkista pääsisi pakoon, jotta heidän
katalasta toimestansa nyt kerrassaan tehtäisiin loppu.

Häntä huvitti erinomaisesti kuulla, että tuon ennen mainitun ison

kaktusvainion tasalla löytyi vielä toinen kapeampi ja että näitten
molempien välissä oli kapea hiekkakaistale, joka johti "Erämaan
Hengen" asunnolle.

"Hyvä", sanoi Vanha Kovakoura, "silloin ei kukaan noista konnista

pääse pakeneman. Jos he liian varhain huomaavat ylivoimaamme,
tahi jos ensi hyökkäyksessä pakenevat, ajamme heidät noitten
molempien kaktuskenttien väliin ja pistämme ne sitten tuleen. Siten
saamme samalla juhdille vettä, sillä muuten ne nääntyvät."

"Mutta silloin joutuvat 'kotkat' minun järveeni asti, ja voivat sitä

tietä paeta."

"Eipä niinkään, Repo; teidän tulee heti lähteä kymmenen

komankhin kanssa sinne, vastaanottamaan ne miehet, jotka me
sinne ajamme. Te ehditte sinne aikanaan, sillä minä lyön vetoa siitä,
että hyökkäys tulee vasta aamupuoleen tapahtumaan."
 Tämä tuuma pantiin heti toimeen. Repo ja komankhit päästettiin
ulos vaunuvarustuksesta ja sitten vallitsi taas mitä syvin hiljaisuus.

Vaunuvarustuksen ympärille asetettiin vartioita, ja näitten tuli heti

vihollisten lähestyessä äänettöminä hiipiä pyörien väliin. Siellä
seisoivat satuloidut hevoset valmiina silmänräpäyksessä ajamaan
pakenevia takaa, ja jokainen ratsastaja oli saanut eri määräyksensä.

Näin kului yö. Idässä alkoi päivä koittaa, ja vaunujen ja muitten

esineitten hahmot näkyivät yhä selvemmin. Aamu-usvasta ei ollut
merkkiäkään. Päivä yhä valkeni ja nyt nähtiin etelässä "kotkat"
hevosten selässä, enemmän kuin tuhannen askeleen päässä.

He pitivät nyt ajan otollisena ja lähtivät hevosineen liikkeelle. He

luulivat, että ainoastaan joku vartia pysyttelisi valveilla
vaunuvarustuksen sisäpuolella.

Vartiat olivat vetäytyneet takaisin ja kaikki miehet seisoivat nyt

sillä puolella, josta hyökkäys tapahtuisi.

"Älkää ampuko hevosia, vaan ratsastajia!" käski Vanha Kovakoura.

Nyt olivat "kotkat" sadan askeleen päässä, nyt

kahdeksankymmenen, nyt viidenkymmenen.

"Ampukaa!" huusi Vanha Kovakoura.

Enemmän kuin kolmekymmentä laukausta paukahti. "Kotkat"

joutuivat heti epäjärjestykseen. Kuolleita ja haavoitettuja putosi
hevosilta maahan; vapautuneet hevoset juoksivat pois. Vähän tahi ei
ensinkään haavoittuneita oli tuskin yli kymmenen.
 "Eläköön, eläköön Vanha Kovakoura ja Vinnetuu!" huusi Ontuva
Rankko.

Kun kotkat nyt kuulivat tämän viimemainitunkin nimen ja käsittivät

äkkinäisen tappionsa koko suuruuden, tekivät he äkkiä koko
käännöksen ja ryntäsivät etelään, etunenässä Topias Taivola, joka
helposti tunnettiin heiluvista kotkansulistaan ja joka oli peljästynein
kaikista.

"Ulos! Ja jokainen paikoilleen!" käski Vanha Kovakoura.

Kaksi vaunua vedettiin heti erikseen, jotta kaikki pääsivät ulos.

Siirtolaiset kiirehtivät ennen saaneitten käskyjen mukaan kuolleitten
ja haavoittuneitten luokse. Toiset alkoivat ajaa pakenevia takaa,
alussa ei kovin kiirettä pitäen.

Ainoastaan kaksi heistä kulki minkä hevosten kavioista lähti

lounaiseen suuntaan, pistämään kaktuskentän tuleen. Nämät kaksi
olivat Hono-veljekset, Jimi ja Timi.

Kymmenen komankhia ratsasti itään, poiketakseen sitten etelään

ja sulkeakseen pakolaisilta tien, joten näitten täytyi poiketa
kaktuskenttien väliin. Muut ratsastivat Vanhan Kovakouran ja
Vinnetuun johdossa etelään "kotkien" takana, jotka laukkasivat ja
näyttivät olevan pakoon pääsemässä.

"Kotkat" olivat raivoissaan, kun heidän aikeensa oli näin huonosti

onnistunut. He kiitivät eteenpäin kauaakaan keskenään puhumatta.
Ainoastaan kirouksia kuului heidän huuliltaan. Vasta sitten kun
saapuivat Murha-Rotkoon pysähtyivät he.
 "Mitä nyt on tehtävä?" kysyi Taivola läähättäen. "Tänne emme voi
jäädä, sillä koirat ovat takanamme."

"Emme suinkaan", myönsi Kaarlo Korteijo, joka samoin kuin

veljensäkin oli haavoittumatta. "Tännepäin!"

He poikkesivat hänen osoittamaansa suuntaan, mutta näkivät pian

kaukaa paksun savun nousevan.

"Perhana!" huusi Eemeli. "Siellä he ovat ennen meitä. He ovat

sytyttäneet kaktukset tuleen. Takaisin siis!"

He ryntäsivät taas takaisin, sivu Murha-Rotkon, itäiseen suuntaan.

Tuskin kymmenen minuutin päästä näkivät he vasemmalla Vanhan
Kovakouran tulevan joukkoineen vinosti heitä vastaan. He
kauhistuivat.
He kannustivat hevosiaan ponnistamaan viimeisiä voimiaan, ohi
päästäksensä, joka myös näytti onnistuvan.

Sitten aikoivat he raivata itselleen tien sivulta, mutta käsittivät pian

tämän mahdottomaksi, kun näkivät tänne asetetut kymmenen
komankhia, jotka sulkivat heiltä tien.

"Tänään on piru merrassa", huusi Taivola. "Luulenpa tuon

Vinnetuunkin olevan muassa. Ainakin kuulin hänen nimensä
mainittavan. Meidän on mentävä oikealle, kaktusten sekaan."

"Pääseekö sieltä pois? Eiköhän se vaan ole umpikuja?" kysyi

Kaarlo.

"En tiedä. En ole milloinkaan siellä ollut. Mutta muuta neuvoa ei

meillä ole."
 "Mutta pian vaan, ettei tuli pääse sinne ennen meitä!"

Nyt he ratsastivat juuri sinne, mihin Vanha Kovakoura heidät

tahtoi. Ja nyt hänkin kannusti hevostansa. Vasemmalta tulivat nuo
kymmenen komankhia, oikealta Timi ja Jimi, jotka nyt olivat
tehtävänsä toimittaneet, ja kaikki nelistivät "kotkien" jälestä
kaktuskentille, etäistä "Erämaan Hengen" asuntoa kohti.

Kaarlo Korteijo oli ollut oikeassa, varoittaessaan tulesta. Se

lähestyi, ensin hitaasti, mutta sitten yhä nopeammin.

Vuosisatoja olivat nuot rutikuivat kaktusjäännökset tuossa

maanneet ja aika ajottain oli niistä noussut uusia vesoja. Kaikki oli
kuin taulaa. Liekit loimusivat ensin hiljalleen, sitten alkoivat ne
rynnätä eteenpäin, hypätä ja nousta pilviin asti. Pian oli koko kenttä
tulessa ja räiske kuului kaukaiselta ukkoselta. Kuumuudesta syntyi
ilmavirta, joka yhä kiihtyi ja muodostui tuuleksi. Mitä enemmän tuli
levisi ja mitä kauvemmaksi se etelään ulettui, sitä enemmän näkyi
Vanhan Kovakouran toivo toteutuvan. Taivas kadotti sinisen värinsä,
kävi ensin kalpean keltaiseksi, sitten harmaaksi, sitten yhä
tummemmaksi ja tummemmaksi; ja todellakin kokoontui nyt
raskaita, tummia ainejoukkoja, jotka eivät olleet savua. Kova tuuli
kokosi ne paksuiksi pilviksi, jotka vähitellen levisivät yli koko taivaan.

Ilma oli painostavan kuuma; santa tuntui polttavan. Salamoita

alkoi pilvissä risteillä; nyt putosi muutama pisara, sitten yhä
useampia; nyt jo satoi ja lopuksi tuli vettä kuin saavista kaatamalla.

Siirtolaiset olivat muitta mutkitta ampuneet pahimmin

haavoittuneet vihollisensa kuoliaiksi, anastaneet heidän tavaransa ja
koonneet hevosensa. Nyt tuli heidän odottaa ystäviensä tuloa, mutta
— ilman vettä. Silloin näkivät he tulen, näkivät miten pilvet
muodostuivat ja tunsivat putoavat pisarat. Lopuksi valui sade virtana
heidän ylitsensä ja he toivat esille kaikki astiansa, täyttääksensä ne.
Janoon nääntyväiset härät saivat uutta eloa. Ne ammuivat ilosta,
petaroivat sateessa ja saivat juodakseen. Ne olivat pelastetut,
samoinkuin heidän herransakin, jotka ilman eläimiä eivät olisi
vaunuineen mihinkään päässeet. Ja tämän oli Vanha Kovakoura
saanut aikaan!

Veri-Repo ynnä kymmenen komankhia olivat heti päivän valjettua

saapuneet köynnösmajalle. Sanna ei peljästynyt intiaanien tulosta,
hän vaan iloitsi, nähdessään ihmisiä. Hän kysyi silmänräpäyksessä
nuorelta isännältään Veijo-neekeriä. Tämä elähytti hänen toivoaan ja
sitten hän meni majaan. Kun hän sieltä palasi, oli hänellä yllään
valkoinen puhvelinnahka.

"Timo-ua-ungva — Erämaan Henki!" huudahti Terässydän, joka

myös oli mukana.

Näin oli siis tuo arvoitus ratkaistu, josta he niin usein olivat
keskustelleet. Muutkin tuijottivat siihen, mutta he eivät puhuneet
mitään. Veri-Repo nousi taas hevosensa selkään ja ratsasti toisten
kanssa pois keitaalta, kaktusmetsän kaakkoiskulmaan, jonne hän
asettui. Hän tähysteli pohjoiseen.

Nyt yleni tumma seinä, jota vastaan kirkkaita liekkejä leimusi.

"Nyt ajaa tuli kotkat tänne", sanoi hän Terässydämmelle. "Ehkä

punainen veljeni niissä löytää jonkun isänsä murhaajista."

Hän tarttui aseeseensa. Terässydän teki samoin.

 Pilvenseinä läheni; sen edellä kulki tuli. Ilma kävi yhä
raskaammaksi.
Tuli ei päässyt edemmäs, sen täytyi pysähtyä kaktusmetsän rajaan.

"Uh!" huudahti eräs intiaani, pohjoiseen osoittaen. "Ne tulevat."

Niin, "kotkat" tulivatkin, mutta heitä oli nyt vaan kolme. Toiset oli
tapettu. Heidän hevosensa olivat vaahdossa; itse he vaan vaivoin
pysyivät satulassa. Vähän matkan päässä heidän takanaan näkyivät
Vanha Kovakoura ynnä Vinnetuu ja heitä seurasivat kaikki muut.
Näin lähestyi tuo hurja metsästys. Johtajat eivät hevosiaan
rasittaneet. He tahtoivat säästää kolme viimeistä "kotkaa" Veri-
Revolle ja hänen komankhilleen.

Ensimmäisenä tuli Taivola, paljon muitten edellä. Hän huomasi

puut, jotka näillä paikoin olivat varsin ihmeellisiä esineitä, ja ohjasi
suoraan niitä kohti. Repo lähti hänen perässään. Kun mormooni näki
hänet, huusi hän kauhusta ja pakotti hevosensa ponnistamaan
viimeiset voimansa päästäkseen puitten luo.

Nyt saapuivat molemmat toiset. Heidän täytyi kulkea

Terässydämmen ohi ihan läheltä. Hän tunsi heidät osallisiksi isänsä
murhaan. Hän tähtäsi — kaksi laukausta ja he olivat pudonneet
maahan. Hän ratsasti heidän luoksensa ja otti heiltä päänahat.

Tällä välin ajoi Veri-Repo "hurskaan" Taivolan, pahimman pedon

heistä kaikista, edellään puita kohti ja edelleen aina majalle esti.
Tämä ratsastus oli niin tuima, että Repo siinä pudotti valkoisen
puhvelinnahkansa. Majan edessä kaatui "kotkan" hevonen ja Taivola
lensi satulasta. Seuraavassa silmänräpäyksessä oli Repo hänen
vieressään, tempasi veitsen vyöstään ja kohotti kätensä, antaakseen
hänelle kuolon iskun. Mutta silloin hän säpsähti ja huudahti
kauhusta. Pudotessaan oli Taivolan intiaanipääkoriste irjenryt ja
silloin huomasi Repo, että senkin alla oli tekotukka, sillä se putosi
pois, ja näkyviin tuli luonnollinen, lyhyeksi leikattu tukka. Kasvonsa
olivat rasittavasta ratsastuksesta vääntyneet ja pöhöttyneet; silmissä
jäykkä, lasimainen katse — hän oli taittanut niskansa. Nyt tunsi Veri-
Repo vanhempainsa murhaajan. Hän oli silloin kuullut tämän miehen
nimen huudettavan, ja tämä nimi, Repo, oli ainoa, joka oli hänen
muistoonsa jäänyt. Hän oli mainitsemistaan sitä maininnut ja
sentähden oli hän Helmiaholta itse saanut sen nimen.

Revon astuessa taas satulaan, mennäkseen pudonnutta

puhvelinnahkaansa
etsimään, saapuivat muut rynnäten paikalle. Kaikki muut, paitsi
Vanha
Kovakoura, ihmettelivät suuresti nähdessään valkoisen
puhvelinnahan
Veri-Revon yllä.

"Henki — Erämaan Henki — se oli siis Veri-Repo", huusivat he

toisilleen.

Veri-Repo ei heitä kuunnellut. Hän osoitti Taivolan ruumista ja

lausui:

"Tuossa on murhaaja. Sentähden näytti hän minusta niin tutulta.

Nyt hän on kuollut, enkä milloinkaan saa tietää, kutka vanhempani
olivat."

Ben Uusikuu katseli kuollutta ja huudahti:

"Voro-Repo! Nyt on hän vihdoinkin vaaraton! Vahinko, että hän

niskansa taittoi, sillä nyt jään ainaiseksi hänelle kuulan velkaa."
 "Jumalan kiitos, että hän on kuollut!" sanoi Vanha Kovakoura
vakavasti. "Hänen kanssaan ovat kaikki 'kotkat' poissa ja nyt tulee
Ljaano-estakaadolla olemaan rauhallista. Ja jos vieläkin olisi
joitakuita jälellä, on helppo karkoittaa heidät täältä pois. Ei kukaan
voisi aavistaa tämmöisen keitaan täällä löytyvän."

Veijo oli tietysti myös mukana. Mutta, hän ei katsellut kuollutta,

eikä Ljaano-Henkeä. Hän katseli neekerivaimoa, ja tämä häntä.
Neekeritär kiirehti hänen luokseen ja kysyi kiihkeästi:

"Ollako sinä neekeri Veijo?" Ja kun tämä myönsi, jatkoi hän:

"Ollako äitisi nimi Sanna? Ollako sinä joskus nähnyt tämän kuvan
Sannasta ja hänen pikku Veijostaan?"

Sanna piti tuon vanhan kuvan Veijon edessä. Hän katsahti siihen
ja hyppäsi ilosta huutaen hevoselta alas. He syleilivät toisiaan,
eivätkä voineet pitkään aikaan ilmoittaa iloansa muuten kuin
tolkuttomilla äänillä.

On enään vaan vähän lisättävää. "Kotkat" olivat voitetut, ja

komankhijoukko ratsasti noutamaan siirtolaiset, että saisivat täällä
köynnösmajan luona virvoittaa itsensä, ennenkun he saatettiin
Ljaano estakaadon yli. Tuli sammui, kun ei sillä, enään ollut ravintoa,
ja koko laaja kaktuskenttä oli tuhkana.

Mutta Erämaan Hengen asunnossa ja sen ulkopuolella oli vilkas

elämä. Veri-Repo oli päivän sankari; hänen täytyi laajasti kertoa koko
elämänhistoriansa. Siinä oli melkein pelkkiä surullisia kohtia.
Kuitenkin lausui hän vakavan päätöksensä ainiaaksi jäädä tänne,
pitämään aavikkoa "kotkista" vapaana. Sanna ynnä Veijo sanoivat
tahtovansa jäädä hänen luokseen.
 Hänen kertomuksensa oli niin huvittava, ettei tuo muuten niin
puhelias Ontuva Rankkokaan häntä ainoatakaan kertaa keskeyttänyt.
Mutta kun tuo pikku saksenilainen sitten Paavon ja Hono-veljesten
seurassa käveli järven ympäri, kysyi Timi:

"No, Rankko, nyt olemme saapuneet itse henkimaahan; vieläkö

luulet
Erämaan Hengen aaveeksi?"

"Ole vaiti!" vastasi Rankko. "Jos nyt sattumalta olen tänne

eksynyt, löytyy kuitenkin muualla korkeampia Siirius-seutuja, ja mitä
ei järjellisten järki näe, sen näkee jokainen Saksenilainen, niin pian
kuin se tapahtuu."

"Niinpä niinkin, Sakseni ja varsinkin Meritsburg ovat mielelle

makeimmat", nauroi Jimi.

"Mene hiiteen mielinesi, vanha Hono! Sinä et ole vielä tarpeeksi

kauvan minua tuntenut, mutta koska joudumme olemaan vielä
muutaman kuukauden yhdessä, opit sinä minua sekä tuntemaan että
kunnioittamaan. Minun persoonani herättää jokaisessa kunnioitusta.
Eikö totta, Paavo?"

"Ihan varmaan", sanoi tämä hymyillen.

"Tuossa sen nyt molemmin kuulette. Ja oikeastaan tulee teidän

kiittää minua kaikesta, sillä jos minä en olisi tavannut Veri-Repoa
Helmiahossa, ette koskaan olisi päässeet Erämaan Hengestä selville.
Sen tunnustuksen minä nyt jo tinkimättä, vaadin. Tulevien
sukupolvien on sallittu valaa minut ynnä 'Henki' rautaan, tahi veistää
meidät marmoriin, jotta nimeni kultakirjaimissa säteilisi niinhyvin
täällä, kuin tuolla Kansallispuistossa, jossa maailma luultavasti
piankin saa hämmästyksellä minun muistopatsastani katsella."
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ERÄMAAN HENKI
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