6.

3 Structure of the Earth

6.3 Structure of the Earth

In this topic you will:
• describe a model of the structure of the Earth
• understand how the continents on Earth have changed.

Getting started Key words

Draw and label a diagram to show what the Earth would look like continental
if it were cut through. core
crust
drift
magma
mantle
molten
tectonic plates

205
6 Earth physics

What do we know about the Earth?

Scientists have worked out that the Earth is about 4500 million years
old. They have also worked out what is inside the Earth.
The Earth has a crust of solid rock.
Under the crust is the mantle, which is molten (hot liquid) rock that
can flow.
In the centre of the Earth is the core. It is made of the metals nickel
and iron. The outer part of the core is molten. The inner part of the
core is solid.
The rocks found in the crust contain metals and non-metals. The pie
chart below on the right shows the approximate proportions of the
most common elements in the Earth’s crust.
aluminium, Al
crust (solid rock)
iron, Fe
silicon, Si
mantle (molten rock)
calcium, Ca

outer core (molten metals,

mostly iron and nickel) others

inner core (solid metals,

mostly iron and nickel)

oxygen, O

Questions
1 State the name of the part of the Earth that forms the centre.
2 Name the metals found in this part.
3 Name the most common non-metal in the Earth’s crust.
4 Name the most common metal in the Earth’s crust.
People used to think that the Earth was only a few thousand years old.
They thought the Earth had never changed.
In 1912, a German scientist called Alfred Wegener suggested that,
millions of years ago, all the land was one large continent. Over
millions of years the land broke up and drifted apart. This idea is called
continental drift.

206
 6.3 Structure of the Earth

His evidence for this idea was that:

• the shapes of the continents fit together
• the types of rock on the different continents match up where
they fit together
• the fossils on the different continents match up where they
fit together.
Wegener could not explain how continental drift happened,
so not everyone believed his ideas.

Laurasia

Pangea

Gondwana

225 million years ago 150 million years ago

North
America Asia North
Europe Europe Asia
America
Africa India
Africa
South
South
America India America Australia
Australia
Antarctica Antarctica

100 million years ago Earth today

These drawings show how the continents have drifted apart over a very long time.

We now know that the Earth’s crust is made up of large tectonic plates.
Some of the plates are under the oceans: they are called oceanic plates.
Some of the plates form the continents: they are called continental plates.
These tectonic plates move slowly on the liquid rock called magma
beneath them. This is how continental drift occurs.
The plates only move about 4 cm each year, which is about same speed
as your fingernails grow.

207
6 Earth physics

Key
plate boundary
Eurasian plate
Juan de North American Pacific
Fuca plate plate plate
Arabian
Caribbean Indian Philippine
plate
plate plate Sea plate
Cocos plate African plate
Nazca South
Pacific plate American
plate plate Indo-Australian plate

Antarctic plate
Scotia plate

The red lines show the edges of the tectonic plates.

Questions
5 What evidence did Wegener have for his idea of continental drift?
6 Why did some people reject his idea?
7 Which tectonic plate do you live on?
8 What causes the tectonic plates to move?

Activity 6.3.1
Drifting plates
You are going to model continental drift.

You will need:

some pieces of polystyrene, water, a large heat-proof dish,
something to heat the water, such as a Bunsen burner

Safety
Take care when heating the water, as the dish may get very hot.
1 Pour some water into the heat-proof dish.
2 Place the pieces of polystyrene on the water. Wait for them to stop moving.

208
 6.3 Structure of the Earth

Continued
3 Heat the water gently.
4 Observe what happens.
polystyrene pieces

heat-proof dish

water

electric hot plate

Questions
1 In your model for continental drift, state what is represented by:
a the polystyrene
b the heat source
c the water.
2 Explain the strengths and weaknesses of this model of continental drift.

Summary checklist
I can describe the structure of the Earth.
I can state the evidence for continental drift.

209
6 Earth physics

6.4 Changes in the Earth

In this topic you will:
• explain how fold mountains and volcanoes are formed
• explain how earthquakes happen.

Getting started Key words

Work with a partner. active

Make a list of ways that mountains and volcanoes are: dormant
1 the same earthquake
extinct
2 different.
fold mountains
geological
change
inactive
lava
magnitude
plat boundary
subduction
volcano

210
 6.4 Changes in the Earth

Geological change
The places where tectonic plates meet are called plate boundaries.
Geological change happens at plate boundaries. This is because the
tectonic plates are always moving. Some of the geological change is very
slow – it happens over millions of years. But some of the geological
change is very sudden and violent.
This illustration shows the plate boundaries around the edge of the
Pacific Ocean. There are many geological changes and events, such as
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, here. This area is often called the
Pacific Ring of Fire.

Key
plate boundary
ring of fire
Eurasian plate
North American plate volcano

Caribbean
plate
Philippine
Sea plate
Cocos
plate
Pacific plate
South
Nazca American
plate plate
Indo-Australian plate

Pacific Ring of Fire

Movement of plates
The movement of tectonic plates creates three types of plate boundaries.

Plates moving together

One plate may slide underneath
the other one. This is called
subduction. The rocks in the
Earth’s crust melt as they move
into the mantle. They become
part of the mantle.

211
6 Earth physics

Plates moving apart

As tectonic plates drift away
from each other, they break and
crack when they become too
thin. Lava (liquid rock) erupts
from the mantle and hardens to
form new crust with new rocks.
This causes a volcano.

Plates sliding past

Because the plates are
very large and heavy, there
is a lot of friction between
the plates. Over the years,
this makes the plates stick
together. There is always
force on the tectonic plates,
so the pressure builds up and
eventually the pressure causes
violent movement. This is an
earthquake.

Fold mountains
Sometimes, when tectonic plates move rock layers pushed
together, the rocks crumple and fold into folds
upwards. The mountains that this produces
are called fold mountains.
This can happen under the ocean or
on land.
The newest fold mountains are between
10 and 25 million years old. These include
the Himalayas in Asia and the Rocky
Mountains in North America. The
oldest fold mountains are more than 200
compression from
million years old. These include the Ural tectonic plate movement
Mountains in Russia.

212
 6.4 Changes in the Earth

The Himalayas, Rocky Mountains and Ural Mountains were all formed when tectonic plates pushed against each other.

Volcanoes
ash cloud
Volcanoes are usually formed at the plate crater
boundaries when magma from the mantle
rises up through cracks in the Earth’s crust.
secondary vent
At the Earth’s surface, magma erupts to lava flow
form lava flows and ash deposits. Magma
is the name for liquid rock when it is
underground. Lava is the name for liquid layers of ash and lava main vent
rock when it is on the surface. The lava
and ash harden as they cool to form new
magma
rocks. So each time the volcano erupts, it
gets bigger.
The parts of a volcano.
Sometimes, if the magma is really thick,
and contains dissolved gas, pressure builds
up and the eruption is violent. Gases and
rock shoot up through the opening. Violent
eruptions can even cause avalanches and
earthquakes – and tsunamis if the volcano
is close to the sea.
Some volcanoes are active and may erupt
at any time. Some volcanoes are inactive or
dormant, which means they have not erupted
for a very long time. Other volcanoes are
extinct, which means they will not
erupt again.

A powerful eruption at Anak Krakatau volcano, Indonesia. Part of

the volcano was blown off into the sea, causing a tsunami.

213
6 Earth physics

Earthquakes
Some earthquakes are extremely violent and
cause a lot of damage. Some are so slight that
they only register on scientific instruments.
The size or magnitude of the earthquake
depends on the size of the faults at the plate
boundaries, and how far the rocks move
when the earthquake happens. In the largest
earthquakes, the rocks can move tens of
metres in seconds.

Questions Earthquakes can cause damage to roads and buildings.

1 Which statement is true about tectonic plates?
Write the letter.
A They never move.
B They move in different ways.
C They always move towards each other.
D They always move away from each other.
2 Explain how tectonic plates can cause fold mountains to form.
3 Which word is used to describe the strength of an earthquake?
Write the letter.
A force
B energy
C magnitude
D destruction
4 Explain what causes an earthquake.

Activity
Model for moving tectonic plates
Try out these models to show what happens where tectonic plates meet.

You will need:

a large piece of cloth, 2 pieces of paper, modelling clay ,2 chocolate bars with
soft centres (not solid chocolate)

214
 6.4 Changes in the Earth

Continued
Model A
Place a large piece of cloth on the table.
Place your hands flat on the cloth, about 30 cm apart. Push your hands together.
Model B
Place two pieces of paper flat on the table so that they are touching. Push them together.
Can you make them slide so that one piece goes over the other one? This is similar to
what happens when one tectonic plate slides over another. Can you make the pieces of
paper form mountains?
Model C
Use modelling clay and make two flat pieces. Place them on the table and then push
them together. What happens?
Model D
Push the two chocolate-covered bars together. What happens?
Questions
For each of the models you used:
1 Describe what happened.
2 Explain what it was modelling.
3 Discuss the strengths and limitations of the model.
4 Could you improve that particular model in any way?
5 Which do you think was the best model? Why?

Summary checklist
I can describe how fold mountains are formed.
I can explain how earthquakes occur.
I can describe how volcanoes are formed.

215
6 Earth physics

6.5 Solar and lunar eclipses

In this topic you will:
• find out how solar eclipses happen
• find out how lunar eclipses happen.

Getting started Key words

Discuss the answers to these questions. Work in groups of three lunar eclipse
or four. opaque
1 Which of these describes how light travels? partial
in curved paths  in straight lines  in circles   ray
randomly in straight and curved paths shadow
solar eclipse
2 Explain how a shadow is formed.
total
3 Decide whether each of these statements is true or false.
The Moon gives out its own light.
The Sun gives out its own light.

216
 6.5 Solar and lunar eclipses

Shadows
An opaque object is an object that
will not allow light to pass through.
When an opaque object passes in
front of a source of light, a shadow
will form.
Look at the shadow of the aeroplane
in the picture. The shadow looks
dark because the light from the Sun
has been blocked from reaching the
ground. The aeroplane is made from
metal which is opaque.
The grass around the shadow looks
The aeroplane is opaque so it makes a shadow on the ground.
brighter because light from the Sun is
reaching those areas.
The next picture shows how the shadow is formed.

aeroplane in the air

rays of light from the Sun

shadow on the ground

Light travels in straight lines called rays. Light rays from the Sun cannot
pass through the aeroplane, so light rays that reach the aeroplane cannot
reach the ground.
Imagine you were standing on the grass. When the shadow of the
aeroplane passes you, it will seem to go dark. When the shadow has
gone, it will get brighter again.

217
6 Earth physics

Solar eclipse total solar eclipse

is seen here
partial solar eclipse
is seen here
A solar eclipse happens when the Moon
comes between the Sun and the Earth. rays of light
Sun
The Moon is made from rock, so is an from the Sun
Moon
opaque object. The Moon blocks the
rays of light coming from the Sun. Earth

The shadow of the Moon forms on the

Earth. A solar eclipse happens when the Moon comes between the Sun and
The diagram shows how the shadow of the Earth.
the Moon is formed on the Earth. In the
middle of the shadow, all the light rays
from the Sun are blocked. People in the
middle of the shadow observe a total
solar eclipse.
The left picture shows what a total solar
eclipse looks like.
Away from the middle of the shadow of
the Moon, some of the light rays from
the Sun can reach the Earth. Away from
A total solar eclipse is seen from A partial solar eclipse is seen
the middle of the shadow there is a
the middle of the away from the middle of the
partial solar eclipse. Moon’s shadow. shadow of the Moon.
The right picture shows what a partial
solar eclipse looks like.
The picture below shows a series of photographs taken as the Moon
passes between the Earth and the Sun.
The picture on the next page shows what a solar eclipse looks like from
space. The dark part of the Earth is in the shadow of the Moon. At the
centre of the shadow, there is a total solar eclipse. Away from the centre,
there is a partial solar eclipse.

The Moon is passing between the Sun and the Earth in these photographs.

218
 6.5 Solar and lunar eclipses

You must never look directly at the Sun, even when there is an
eclipse. The light from the Sun is very bright and can cause
permanent damage to your eyes.

Lunar eclipse
A lunar eclipse happens when the Earth comes between the
Sun and the Moon.
The Earth is also an opaque object, so the Earth blocks the
light from the Sun. The shadow of the Earth is formed on
the Moon.
The dark part of the Earth is in the shadow of
The diagram shows how the shadow of the Earth forms on the Moon. People here see a solar eclipse.
the Moon.
The picture shows a series of three photographs of the
shadow of the Earth passing across the Moon.
You might think that solar and lunar eclipses should happen every
month. The Moon takes 28 days to orbit the Earth, but the orbit of the
Moon is tilted slightly. The orbit of the Moon is not exactly in the same
plane as the orbit of the Earth around the Sun.
It is only when the Sun, Earth and Moon are in the same straight line
that eclipses can happen.

partial lunar
eclipse when
Moon is here

Sun rays of light from the Sun total lunar

eclipse when
Moon Moon is here

Earth partial lunar

eclipse when
Moon is here
orbit of Moon
A lunar eclipse happens when the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon.

219
6 Earth physics

The Earth is passing between the Sun and the Moon in these photographs.

Questions
1 Which of these describes how a solar eclipse happens?
Write the letter.
A The Sun comes between the Moon and the Earth.
B The Earth comes between the Moon and the Sun.
C The Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun.
2 Which of these describes how a lunar eclipse happens?
Write the letter.
A The Sun comes between the Moon and the Earth.
B The Earth comes between the Moon and the Sun.
C The Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun.
3 Explain why a solar eclipse can only ever be seen in the daytime.
4 Write true or false for this statement.
A total lunar eclipse can only ever be seen in the daytime.
Explain your answer.

Activity 6.5.1
Classroom eclipses
In this activity, you will make models to show how eclipses happen.
Work in groups of four or five.

220
 6.5 Solar and lunar eclipses

Continued

You will need (per group):

an electric lamp and power supply – 12 V lamps work well, a white soccer ball,
a tennis ball, a paper cup, a light string or thread, adhesive tape

Safety
Take care not to touch the lamp because it will be hot.
You need to work in a shaded position in the room. You should turn the classroom lights
off. If your classroom has blinds or curtains, these should be closed.
In your model:
• the electric lamp will be the Sun
• the white soccer ball will be the Earth
• the tennis ball will be the Moon.
1 Attach the string to the tennis ball with the adhesive tape.
2 Place the soccer ball on the plastic cup. This will lift the ball off the desk and also stop
the ball from rolling.
3 Place the lamp about 50 cm from the soccer ball. Switch on the lamp.
4 One side of the soccer ball should be lit from the lamp. The other side of the soccer
ball should be in the shade.
Questions
1 In your model, which side of the Earth is in the day and which side is in the night?
Hold the string so the tennis ball hangs down.
Move the tennis ball between the lamp and the soccer ball. The shadow of the tennis ball
should be seen on the soccer ball.
2 What type of eclipse is the model showing?
3 Point out where there is a total eclipse and where there is a partial eclipse.
Now move the tennis ball to the other side of the soccer ball. Make sure the tennis
ball is in the shade of the soccer ball.
4 What type of eclipse is the model showing now?

221
6 Earth physics

Continued
Self-assessment
Give each of these statements a number from 1 to 5.
1 means ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 means ‘strongly agree’.
• I understood why a lamp was used to model the Sun.
• I understood why the model of the Earth was bigger than the model for the Moon.
• I understood how the model showed a solar eclipse.
• I understood how the model showed a lunar eclipse.

• How did you decide which type of eclipse happened in

your model?
• How well do you think the model showed eclipses?

Think like a scientist

Making predictions about eclipses
In this task, you will think about making observations and using them to make predictions.
Astronomers in the Middle East made the earliest known predictions of when eclipses
would happen. The astronomers were working about 3000 years ago.
1 List the facts that need to be given when making a prediction about an eclipse.
2 These astronomers 3000 years ago knew that the pattern of solar eclipses
repeats after every 223 lunar months.
One lunar month is 29.5 days.
Calculate the number of days in 223 lunar months.
3 Suggest what must happen to the Sun, the Moon and the Earth every
223 lunar months.
4 Explain how a pattern of observations can be used to make future predictions.
5 Scientists working in the present day have predicted eclipses into the future.
Scientists think these predictions are accurate until 17 April 3009.
Describe how the accuracy of an eclipse prediction can be tested.

222
 6.5 Solar and lunar eclipses

Continued
6 Suggest why the accuracy of
eclipse predictions decreases
as the time into the future of
the prediction increases.
7 Scientists working in the present
day have also calculated when
eclipses happened in the past.
There was a battle in Greece in
the year 585 BCE. People at that
time recorded that there was an
eclipse during the battle.
Scientists in modern times have
worked out that the battle
happened on 28 May 585 BCE.
Explain how scientists can use
information about the eclipse
to work out the exact date of
the battle. A solar eclipse occurred during a battle in Greece in 585 BCE.

8 What type of eclipse is shown in

the photograph?
Explain your answer.

Summary checklist
I can understand how a solar eclipse happens.
I can understand how a lunar eclipse happens.

223
6 Earth physics

Project
Volcanoes and earthquakes
The actions of volcanoes and earthquakes change the rocks and the shape of the
land on Earth.
You have four tasks to complete in your group.
1 Make a model to show how a volcano erupts or an earthquake takes place.
You may use any materials you choose but you need to label the parts.
2 Explain how the volcano erupts or an earthquake takes place. You can do this by
making a poster or writing a statement as if you are an expert who needs to explain,
to a journalist, why a recent volcanic eruption or earthquake has happened.
3 Research a recent volcanic eruption or earthquake. Write a report about:
• the immediate damage it has caused, and how this affects people
• the long-term effects to the lives of people, plants and wildlife in the area.
You will present your model and explanations to the whole class.
4 Research how scientists detect movements in the Earth’s crust. Include how
this technology:
• has developed over the last 2000 years
• can be used to make predictions about earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

224
 6 Earth physics

Check your Progress

6.1 Which of these is needed for a sound to be made? [1]
heat  light  liquid  vibration

6.2 Arun drops his pen on the floor. Sofia hears the pen hit the floor.
Copy the sentences and use words from the list to complete them. [2]
You can use the words once, more than once or not at all.
the pen  sound wave  Sofia’s ears  air  particles

A ………………… travels from ………………… to ………………… .

The ………………… travels through the ………………… .
6.3 Draw an arrow to show the direction of a sound wave. Your arrow can be in any direction.
Now show the direction of movement of the particles in your sound wave. [3]
6.4 A slinky spring can be used to show how particles move in a sound wave.
Which of these describes this use of a slinky spring? [1]
modelling  predicting  concluding  observing

6.5 a Match the parts of the of the Earth’s structure, A–D, with the descriptions, W–Z.
 [2]

Parts of the Earth’s structure

A Inner core
B Outer core
C Mantle
D Crust
Descriptions
W molten iron and nickel at the centre
X solid outer layer of the Earth
Y molten rock below the crust
Z solid iron and nickel at the centre of the Earth

b What are tectonic plates? [2]

225