ELASTICITY

Young’s Modulus: Elasticity in length

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Temperature and Heat
• The temperature of a system is closely related to its
internal thermal energy. In general, this thermal energy
can be described in terms of several microscopic
thermodynamic variable such as temperature and
pressure.
• Heat describes the transfer of thermal energy between
molecule within a system, measured in Joule(J), whereas
temperature describe the average kinetic energy of
molecules within the materials or system, it is a
measurable Physical property of an object (in Kelvin).

• One technique used in measuring amount of heat in bulb

in chemical and physical is known as Calorimetry,
calorimetry is used to measure the amount of heat to and
fro. The change in temperature of measuring part of
calorimeter is converted to the amount of heat.
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Thermometer Thermometric Symbol

Property

1. Constant volume gas thermometer Pressure P

2. Constant pressure gas thermometer Volume V
3. Electrical resistance thermometer Resistance R
4. Thermocouple Thermal e.m.f ℇ
5. Mercury-in-glass thermometer Length L
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 Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics, which began as an effort to increase the
efficiency of steam engines in the early 1800s, can be thought of
as the study of the relationship between heat transferred to or
from an object, and the work done on or by an object. Both heat
and work deal with the transfer of energy, but heat involves
energy transfer due to a temperature difference.
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if object A is in
thermal equilibrium with object B, and object B is in thermal
equilibrium with object C, then objects A and C must be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• The first law of thermodynamics is really a restatement of the law
of conservation of energy. Specifically, it states that the change in
the internal energy of a closed system is equal to the heat added
to the system plus the work done on the system, and is written as:
• In this equation it is important to note the sign
conventions, where a positive value for heat,
Q, represents heat added to the system, and a
positive value for work, W, indicates work
done on the gas. If energy were being pulled
from the system, as in heat taken from the
system or work done by the system, those
quantities would be negative.
• In most cases, you’ll utilize the first law of
thermodynamics to analyze the behavior of
ideal gases, which can be streamlined by
analyzing the definition of work on a gas.
• Question: Five thousand joules of heat is added to a
closed system, which then does 3000 joules of work.
What is the net change in the internal energy of the
system?
• Question: A liquid is changed to a gas at atmospheric
pressure (101,325 Pa). The volume of the liquid was
5×10-6 m3. The volume of gas is 5×10-3 m3. How much
work was done in the process?
• Question: Using the PV diagram at right, find the
amount of work required to transition from state A to
B, and then the amount of work required to transition
from state B to state C.
• In exploring ideal gas state changes, there are a
number of state changes in which one of the
characteristics of the gas or process remain
constant, and are illustrated on the PV diagram
below.
• The types of processes include:
• Adiabatic -- Heat (Q) isn’t transferred into or out
of the system
• Isobaric -- Pressure (P) remains constant
• Isochoric -- Volume (V) remains constant
• Isothermal -- Temperature (T) remains constant
Closed and Open Systems
A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The mass or
region outside the system is called the surroundings.
• Boundary: the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings.
• The boundaries of a system can be fixed or movable. Mathematically, the boundary has zero
thickness, no mass, and no volume.
• Closed system or control mass: consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross
• its boundary. But, energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary, and the
• volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed.
• Open system or control volume: is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a
device that involves mass flow such as a compressor. Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Isolated system: A closed system that does not communicate with the surroundings by any
means.
• Rigid system: A closed system that communicates with the surroundings by heat only.
• Adiabatic system: A closed or open system that does not exchange energy with the
surroundings by heat.
Properties of a System
• Intensive properties: are those that are independent of the size (mass) of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density. They are not additive.
• Extensive properties: values that are dependant on size of the system such as mass, volume,
and total energy U. They are additive.
GAS LAW
Gas law gave the relationship that exist among the pressure, volume and temperature of a gas , An
ideal gas is the one that completely obey the gas law in particle, no gas is ideal gas although Air is
very close to be one . i.e
PV = nRT where R =8.344jk, n=no of mole, p=pressure and T=temperature
Considering the Ideal gas law from the macroscopic point of view on the basis of what is
happening on the atomic scale, using the model of an ideal gas , we will describe the kinetic
theory of gases model:
• The number of molecules in the gas is large and the average separation between them is large
compared with their dimensions
• The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole they move randomly i.e they
can move in any direction with equal probability, with a wide distribution of speeds
• The molecule interact only through short-range forces during elastic collisions
• The molecules makes elastic collisions with the walls.
• All molecules in the gas are identical