Mesoponatia and Egypt

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Early Urban Civilizations

Early civilizations arose near rivers, where fertile land enabled successful
agriculture.
Large cities were built, and trade, politics, and culture flourished.
Main Civilizations:
Mesopotamia (3200 B.C.): located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Egypt (2850 B.C.): along the Nile River.
India (2500 B.C.): in the Indus Valley.
China (2000–1500 B.C.): near the Yellow River.
Writing appeared in Mesopotamia and Egypt to record financial and
commercial transactions.
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Mesopotamia:
The emerge of writting
Cuneiform script on clay tablets.
Evolved from pictograms to ideograms.
Only scribes could write, granting them high social status.
Egypt:
Hieroglyphic writing on temple walls and papyrus.
Simplified into hieratic and demotic scripts.
The Rosetta Stone was key to deciphering hieroglyphics.
China:
Character-based writing system (pictograms and ideograms) dating back to around 1300 B.C.
Modern Chinese writing still uses these principles.
Alphabet:
Invented by the Phoenicians around 1200 B.C.
Represented sounds rather than ideas, influencing most modern alphabets.
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Political organisation and society

1. Political Organization
Early civilizations required strong governments to manage their territories and regulate social life.
Kings or monarchs held both military and religious power, supported by a bureaucracy of officials.
Government structures could be theocratic (based on religious authority) or monarchical, with the king at
the top.
2. Society
During the Bronze and Iron Ages, growth in agriculture and trade led to the emergence of new professions
and social strata.
A social pyramid took shape:
Top: King (or pharaoh) and the royal family.
Upper class: Nobles, priests, high-ranking officials.
Middle class: Merchants, artisans, scribes.
Peasants and laborers: The majority, with fewer resources.
Slaves: At the bottom, without freedom or full rights.
Women typically had fewer rights, though some, like Pharaoh Hatshepsut in Egypt, rose to prominence.
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The first laws

The Code of Hammurabi (18th century B.C. in Babylon) is one of the earliest
written law codes.
It was based on the principle of "an eye for eye" and addressed
commerce, debts, family matters, and punishments.
These laws were inscribed on stone stelae and placed in public areas for
everyone to see.
It influenced legal and judicial systems in later civilizations.
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Mesopotamia-The natural Enviroment and Historical Context

1. Natural Environment
Mesopotamia means land between rivers, referring to the Tigris and
Euphrates.
Fertile soil favored agriculture and led to the rise of the first city-states.
2. Historical Context
The Sumerians (in southern Mesopotamia) established city-states like Uruk
and Ur, each with its own government and main deity.
They developed cuneiform writing for economic, administrative, and
religious records.
The region experienced periods of unification and division under various
peoples (Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, etc.).
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The Political Evolution Of Mesopotamia

Akkadian Empire (c. 2334-2193 B.C.): Founded by Sargon of Akkad, it was one of the earliest
empires, conquering several Sumerian city-states.
Babylonian Empire (Hammurabi, c. 1792-1750 B.C.): Unified much of Mesopotamia;
produced the famous Code of Hammurabi.
Assyrian Empire: Dominated Mesopotamia and surrounding regions, renowned for its military
might.
Neo-Babylonian Empire (Nabuchadnezzar II, c. 626-539 B.C.): Rebuilt Babylon, constructing
famous monuments such as the Ishtar Gate.
Persian Conquest (539 B.C.): Under Cyrus the Great, Mesopotamia became part of the
Persian Empire.

Curiosities
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
World.
The Ishtar Gate is a notable example of monumental Babylonian architecture.
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Culture and Art in Mesopotamia

Sumerian Achievements: Developed cuneiform writing, the sexagesimal

(base-60) system, and made advances in astronomy and mathematics.
Architecture: Built temples and palaces using mud bricks. Ziggurats (stepped
structures) were dedicated to deities.
Sculpture and Reliefs: Depicted rulers and gods on commemorative stelae
and cylinder seals.
Purpose of Art: Primarily religious or political, underscoring the ruler's power
and divine connections.
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Mesopotamia Art and Architecture

Ziggurat: The most important religious structure; a massive tiered pyramid

serving as a center for worship and offerings.
Palaces: Symbols of royal authority and administrative centers.
Reliefs and Stelae: Illustrated military victories or legal proclamations (e.g.,
the Stele of Naram-Sin, the Code of Hammurabi).
Materials: Mud bricks and adobe were used extensively due to scarce
supplies of stone and wood.
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Ancient Egypt-The Natural Enviroment And Historical Context

The Nile River: Core of Egyptian civilization; its regular floods fertilized
farmland, enabling intensive agriculture.
Geographical Division: Egypt was split into Upper Egypt (south) and Lower
Egypt (north) until unification around 3100 B.C.
Role of the Desert: Served as a natural barrier against invasions but
limited agricultural expansion.
Historical Periods: Divided into the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and
New Kingdom, each with varying degrees of territorial control and
development.
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The political evolution of Ancient Egypt

Unification: King Narmer (or Menes) unified Upper and Lower Egypt,
founding the first dynasty.
Old Kingdom: Era of the Great Pyramids (e.g., Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure).
Middle Kingdom: A period of political reorganization and economic and
cultural growth.
New Kingdom: Marked by military expansion (notable pharaohs like
Thutmose III and Ramses II) and the construction of monumental temples
(Karnak, Luxor).
Decline: Egypt eventually fell to foreign powers (Assyrians, Persians) and
later to Alexander the Great.
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Culture and religion of Ancient Egypt

Polytheism: Worship of many gods (Ra, Osiris, Isis, Horus), each with
distinct roles.
Afterlife Beliefs: Mummification and funerary rituals aimed to preserve the
body for the journey to the afterlife.
Judgment of Osiris: The heart of the deceased was weighed to determine
moral worthiness for eternal life.
Art and Symbolism: Templos and tombs were richly decorated, reflecting
the deep religious significance in daily life.
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The Egyptian Gods

Major Deities:
Osiris: God of resurrection and judge of the dead.
Isis: Protector goddess, wife of Osiris, symbol of motherhood.
Horus: Falcon-headed god, son of Osiris and Isis, associated with the
pharaoh.
Anubis: Jackal-headed god overseeing mummification and guiding souls.
Ra (Re): Sun god, regarded as creator and father of all gods
Representations: Often combined human and animal features (zoomorphic)
to convey divine powers or attributes.