1

ALTERNATING CURRENT

The direction of a direct current (d.c) remains constant with time. An alternating current a.c
or emf/voltage varies periodically with time both in magnitude and direction.
a.c voltage V varies sinusoidally with time: V (t )=V 0 sinωt
For a complete circuit, a.c I varies with time in the same way as the voltage:
I (t)=I 0 sinωt
V is the voltage at time t (instantaneous p.d)
V0 is the peak (maximum) value of V.
T is the time period of the alternating voltage – i.e. time for one complete cycle.
1
f = (Hz or s-1) is the frequency of the alternating p.d - i.e. number of cycles in one second.
T
ω=2 πf is the angular frequency in rads-1.

Examples of direct currents (d.c):

I or V

Examples of alternating currents (a.c):

I or V

sinusoidal a.c Saw-tooth a.c rectangular a.c

The r.m.s value of alternative current or voltage

The average (mean) value of any periodic function f(t) over its period T is given by
T

∫ f ( t ) dt
⟨ f (t )⟩= 0
T
So, the mathematical average value of a.c I or a.c voltage V is equal to zero.

A method of finding an "average" or “effective” value of an alternating current (or voltage) is

finding its root-mean-square (r.m.s) value.

The root-mean-square (r.m.s) value of an alternating current (or voltage) is the value of the
direct current (or voltage) which would dissipate heat at the same rate as the a.c in a resistor.
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Note: The specified supply voltage is the r.m.s value. A.c voltmeter measures r.m.s value

Sinusoidally-varying current & voltage

For a sinusoidally-varying current & voltage, I =I 0 sinωt and V =V 0 sinωt

T

The mean square current =

I0
2
∫ sin2 ωdt I
2
⟨ I ⟩=
2 0
= 0
T 2
I0
The r.m.s value of I is given by I r .m . s= =0.707 I 0
√2
V0
Similarly, the r.m.s. value of V is given by V r . m . s= =0.707 V 0
√2
The instantaneous maximum power is given by
2
2 V0
Pmax =I 0 V 0 =I 0 R=
R
The mean power <P> is given by ⟨ P ⟩= ⟨ I 2 ⟩ R=
2
I0 R
or ⟨ P ⟩=
⟨ V 2 ⟩ V 0 or 2
=
2 R R
I0 V 0 I0 V 0
⟨ P ⟩=I r . m . s V r .m . s= =
√2 √ 2 2
Hence mean (or average power) is half maximum power
I2

I02
I2

mean squared current

I0

0 t
T
-I0 I

Note: The I2 curve, hence power curve, is always positive. Even though the current becomes
negative, power is equal to current squared, and the square of a negative number is positive.

Square-wave current and voltage

I or V

I0 or V0 I02 or V02

T 2T t
-I0 or - V0
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2
⟨ I ⟩= I 0 ×T =I 02
2
T

Ir.m.s =√<I2> = I0

Vr.m.s=V0
I2 or V2
I or V

I0 or V0 I02 or V02

T 2T t
-I0 or - V0

2 T T 2T
I0 × 2
2 I0
⟨ I 2 ⟩= =
T 2
I
I r .m . s= √ ⟨ I 2 ⟩ = 0
√2
V0
Similarly, V r . m . s=√ ⟨ V ⟩=
2

√2
Exercises:

1) A 1.5 kW heater is connected to the domestic supply which is quoted as 240 V. Calculate
the peak current in the heater, and its resistance. (ans: 8.8 A, 38 )

2) An a.c of peak value 3A flows in a 2  resistor. What is (i) the r.m.s value of the a.c, (ii)
the mean rate of heat dissipation in the resistor, (iii) the value of the d.c which produces the
same heating effect as the a.c in the resistor?

3) An electric heater is rated at 800 W for a 240 V r.m.s alternating supply. What is
(i) the power output if it is used on a 240 V direct supply, (ii) the r.m.s current in the heater,
(iii) the resistance of the heater, (iv) the minimum and maximum instantaneous output power.

4) An a.c current I/A varies with time t/s by the equation I =3 sin ( 100 πt ) and flows in a
resistor of 10. Find (a) its peak value (b) its r.m.s value (c) its frequency (d) the maximum
instantaneous power in the resistor (e) the mean power dissipated in the resistor (f) the r.m.s
p.d across the resistor. (ans: 3.0 A, 2.12 A, 50 Hz, 90 W, 45 W, 21.2 V)
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RECTIFICATION

Rectification is the process of changing change a.c to d.c using one or more diodes.

In the forward bias, the diode (ideal) has zero resistance and so zero voltage across it in a
series circuit (Vd ≈0 as Rd ≈ 0). In the reverse bias, the diode (ideal) has an infinite resistance
and so in a series circuit the voltage across the diode V d must be equal to the supply voltage
Vs (Vs=Vd in reverse bias).
Vs

0 t
Vs R VR
Vd

0 t

VR

0 t
Half-Wave a.c voltage rectification

The half-wave rectified p.d is too jerky for most electric equipment. It can be “smoothed
out”, i.e made steadier by reducing the voltage fluctuations or ripple across the load R, by
connecting a capacitor in parallel with the load resistor R (or across the output terminals f the
power supply). With the half-wave rectification there is a current for only half a cycle.

When the applied a.c voltage rises, the capacitor C charges up to its value (during forward
peak) and then discharges through the resistor R when this voltage falls and the diode is in
reverse bias. Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it
discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. Increasing either the resistance R of the load or the
capacitance C of the capacitor will decrease the ‘ripple’ on the output voltage.

VR

Vs C R VR

t
0
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Full- wave a.c voltage rectification

A bridge rectifier circuit is used to produce full-wave rectification. It consists of four diodes
connected as shown below. When the point P is positive with respect to Q, then a current will
pass from P through diode B, through the resistor, then through diode D to point Q. When
point P is negative with respect to Q then the current will pass from Q through diode C,
through the resistor, and through diode A to point P. In both cases the current is in the same
direction through the resistor, so the potential difference across it is always in the same
direction. There is a full-wave rectified output voltage, as shown in the graph. When the
polarity of the power supply changes, the current will pass through R in the same direction.

A B
VR
+

Vs D C R VR
Q
0 BD CA BD CA t
-
Full-wave rectification

A bridge rectifier circuit

VR

Vs V
C R VR

0 t
Smoothed full-wave rectification
At (+) terminal: current out and (-) terminal: current in.
∆ Q charge lost
Capacitance of capacitor C= =
∆ V drop∈ p . d

∆Q
Average current flowing in time t: ⟨ I ⟩=
t
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The product CR is called the time constant () of a capacitor-resistor circuit. It is the time
1
taken for the charge on the capacitor to fall to 37 % times the original value. It should be
e
greater than the time period of the original alternating input.