Visit https://ebookultra.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks or textbooks

Humanoid Robots Human like Machines 1st edition

Edition Hackel M. (Ed.)

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookultra.com/download/humanoid-robots-human-like-
machines-1st-edition-edition-hackel-m-ed/

Explore and download more ebooks or textbooks at ebookultra.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Robots and Cyborgs 1st Edition David Kassnoff

https://ebookultra.com/download/robots-and-cyborgs-1st-edition-david-
kassnoff/

Robots and Aliens 1 1st Edition Stephen Leigh

https://ebookultra.com/download/robots-and-aliens-1-1st-edition-
stephen-leigh/

Minding the Machines 1st Edition Jeremy Adamson

https://ebookultra.com/download/minding-the-machines-1st-edition-
jeremy-adamson/

Governing lethal behavior in autonomous robots 1st Edition

Ronald Arkin

https://ebookultra.com/download/governing-lethal-behavior-in-
autonomous-robots-1st-edition-ronald-arkin/
Advances in Insect Physiology Vol 29 1st Edition Peter
Evans

https://ebookultra.com/download/advances-in-insect-physiology-
vol-29-1st-edition-peter-evans/

Electrical Machines 2nd Edition Smarajit Ghosh

https://ebookultra.com/download/electrical-machines-2nd-edition-
smarajit-ghosh/

Introduction to Autonomous Mobile Robots 2nd Edition

Roland Siegwart

https://ebookultra.com/download/introduction-to-autonomous-mobile-
robots-2nd-edition-roland-siegwart/

Electrical Machines S. K. Bhattacharya

https://ebookultra.com/download/electrical-machines-s-k-bhattacharya/

Military Robots Mapping the Moral Landscape Jai Galliott

https://ebookultra.com/download/military-robots-mapping-the-moral-
landscape-jai-galliott/
Humanoid Robots Human like Machines 1st edition
Edition Hackel M. (Ed.) Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Hackel M. (ed.)
ISBN(s): 9783902613073, 3902613076
Edition: 1st edition
File Details: PDF, 11.29 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
Humanoid Robots
Human-like Machines
 Humanoid Robots
Human-like Machines

Edited by
Matthias Hackel

I-Tech
IV

Published by Advanced Robotic Systems International and I-Tech Education and Publishing

I-Tech Education and Publishing

Vienna
Austria

Abstracting and non-profit use of the material is permitted with credit to the source. Statements and
opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of
the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the
published articles. Publisher assumes no responsibility liability for any damage or injury to persons or
property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained inside. After
this work has been published by the Advanced Robotic Systems International, authors have the right to
republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are an author or editor, and the make
other personal use of the work.

© 2007 I-Tech Education and Publishing

www.ars-journal.com
Additional copies can be obtained from:
[email protected]

First published July 2007

Printed in Croatia

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Austrian Library.
Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines, Edited by Matthias Hackel
p. cm.
ISBN 978-3-902613-07-3
1. Humanoid Robots. 2. Applications. I. Matthias Hackel
 V

Preface

As the world at our time has to face developments like keen climate change and
globalisation, one may ask about the significance of building human-like machines,
which probably will never operate as effective as humans in their diversity of po-
tentialities. The benefits from tumbling two-legged mechatronic creatures and mul-
tiprocessor-based question-and-answer games seem hard to discover for non-
involved persons. In general the benefits from fundamental research are not evi-
dent – and humanoid robotics research means fundamental research in the field of
robotics. It is an enormous challenge for all humanoid researchers that evolution
has originated such effective sensors, controllers and actuators. Building humanoid
robots involves the development of lightweight and energy-saving actuators, fast
and intelligent sensors and exceptional complex control systems. By merging these
technologies we investigate the cooperation of complex sensor-actor systems as
well as and human-machine interaction. In analogy to space research humanoid
robotics research, driven by the goal to copy and serve the pride of creation, will
have a strong impact in daily live products.

In this book the variety of humanoid robotic research can be obtained. The first
chapter deals with remarkable hardware developments, whereby complete hu-
manoid robotic systems are as well described as partial solutions.
In the second chapter diverse results around the biped motion of humanoid robots
are presented. The autonomous, efficient and adaptive two-legged walking is one
of the main challenge in humanoid robotics. The two-legged walking will enable
humanoid robots to enter our environment without rearrangement.
Developments in the field of visual sensors, data acquisition, processing and con-
trol are to be observed in third chapter. In the fourth chapter some “mind build-
ing” and communication technologies are presented.

Editor
Matthias Hackel
 VII

Contents

Preface V

Hardware Development: Components and Systems

1. Design of an Assistive Gait Device for Strength Endurance 001

and Rehabilitation
K. H. Low, Xiaopeng Liu and Haoyong Yu

2. A Novel Anthropomorphic Robot Hand and its Master Slave System 029
Tetsuya Mouri and Haruhisa Kawasaki

3. Development of Biped Humanoid Robots at the Humanoid Robot Research 043

Center, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
Ill-Woo Park, Jung-Yup Kim, Jungho Lee, Min-Su Kim, Baek-Kyu Cho and Jun-Ho Oh

4. Multipurpose Low-Cost Humanoid Platform and 065

Modular Control Software Development
Filipe Silva and Vítor Santos

5. Artificial Muscles for Humanoid Robots 089

Bertrand Tondu

6. Development of a CORBA-based Humanoid Robot and its Applications 123

Yasuo Nasu, Genci Capi, Hanafiah Yussof, Mitsuhiro Yamano and Masahiro Ohka

Biped Motion: Walking, Running and Self-orientation

7. Stability Analysis of a Simple Active Biped Robot with a Torso 163

on Level Ground Based on Passive Walking Mechanisms
Terumasa Narukawa, Masaki Takahashi and Kazuo Yoshida

8. Inertial Forces Posture Control for Humanoid Robots Locomotion 175

Victor Nunez, Nelly Nadjar-Gauthier, Kazuhito Yokoi,
Pierre Blazevic and Olivier Stasse

9. Towards Adaptive Control Strategy for BipedRobots 191

Christophe Sabourin, Kurosh Madan and Olivier Bruneau

10. Reinforcement Learning of Stable Trajectory for Quasi-Passive 211

Dynamic Walking of an Unstable Biped Robot
Tomohiro Shibata, Kentarou Hitomoi, Yutaka Nakamura and Shin Ishii

11. An Adaptive Biped Gait Generation Scheme Utilizing 227

Characteristics of Various Gaits
Kengo Toda and Ken Tomiyama
VIII

12. Momentum Compensation for the Fast Dynamic Walk of Humanoids 245
based on the Pelvic Rotation of Contact Sport Athletes
Jun Ueda, Kenji Shirae, Shingo Oda and Tsukasa Ogasawara

13. Vision-based Motion Control of a Biped Robot Using 263

2 DOF Gaze Control Structure
Shun Ushida and Koichiro Deguchi

14. Limit Cycle Walking 277

Daan G.E. Hobbelen and Martijn Wisse

15. A Human-Like Approach to Footstep Planning 295

Yasar Ayaz, Khalid Munawar, Mohammad Bilal Malik,
Atsushi Konno and Masaru Uchiyama

16. Mixed Logic Dynamical Modeling and On Line 315

Optimal Control of Biped Robot
Yingjie Yin and Shigeyuki Hosoe

17. Bipedal Walking Pattern Design by Synchronizing the Motions 329

in the Sagittal and Lateral Planes
Chi Zhu and Atsuo Kawamura

Sensing the Environment: Acquisition, Data Processing and Control

18. Generating Natural Motion in an Android by Mapping Human Motion 351

Daisuke Matsui, Takashi Minato, Karl F. MacDorman and Hiroshi Ishiguro

19. Towards an Interactive Humanoid Companon with 367

Visual Tracking Modalities
Paulo Menezes, Frédéric Lerasle, Jorge Dias and Thierry Germa

20. Methods for Environment Recognition based on 399

Active Behaviour Selection and Simple Sensor History
Takahiro Miyashita, Reo Matsumura, Kazuhiko Shinozawa,
Hiroshi Ishiguro and Norihiro Hagita

21. Simulation Study on Acquisition Process of Locomotion 409

by using an Infant Robot
Katsuyoshi Tsujita and Tatsuya Masuda

22. Visual Attention and Distributed Processing of Visual Information 423

for the Control of Humanoid Robots
Ales
Ude Jan Moren and Gordon Cheng

23. Visual Guided Approach-to-grasp for Humanoid Robots 437

Yang Shen, De Xu, Min Tan and Ze-Min Jiang

24. Dexterous Humanoid Whole-Body Manipulation by Pivoting 459

Eiichi Yoshida, Vincent Hugel, Pierre Blazevic,
Kazuhito Yokoi and Kensuke Harada
 IX

Mind Organisation: Learning and Interaction

25. Imitation Learning Based Talking Heads in Humanoid Robotics 475

Enzo Mumolo and Massimiliano Nolich

26. Bilinear Time Delay Neural Network System for Humanoid Robot Software 497
Fumio Nagashima

27. Robot Learning by Active Imitation 519

Juan Pedro Bandera, Rebeca Marfil, Luis Molina-Tanco,
Juan Antonio Rodríguez, Antonio Bandera and Francisco Sandoval

28. Affective Communication Model with Multimodality for Humanoids 545

Hyun Seung Yang, Yong-Ho Seo, Il-Woong Jeong and Ju-Ho Lee

29. Communication Robots in Real Environments 567

Masahiro Shiomi, Takayuki Kanda, Hiroshi Ishiguro and Norihiro Hagita

30. Neural Control of Actions Involving Different Coordinate Systems 577

Cornelius Weber, Mark Elshaw, Jochen Triesch and Stefan Wermter

31. Towards Tutoring an Interactive Robot 601

Britta Wrede, Katharina J. Rohlfing, Thorsten P. Spexard and Jannik Fritsch

32. Intuitive Multimodal Interaction with Communication Robot Fritz 613

Maren Bennewitz, Felix Faber, Dominik Joho and Sven Behnke

33. Hierarchical Reactive Control for Soccer Playing Humanoid Robots 625
Sven Behnke, Jörg Stückler, Hauke Strasdat and Michael Schreiber
 1

Design of an Assistive Gait Device for Strength

Endurance and Rehabilitation
K. H. Low1, Xiaopeng Liu1 and Haoyong Yu2
1School of MAE, Nanyang Technological University
2Dept. of ME, National University of Singapore
Singapore

1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Exoskeletons for human performance augmentation (EHPA) are controlled and wearable
devices and machines that can increase the speed, strength, and endurance of the operator.
EHPA is expected to do that by increasing the physical performance of the solider wearing
it, including:
• Increased payload: more fire power, more supplies, and thicker and heavier armor
increasing the soldier chance of surviving a direct hit or even an explosion.
• Increased speed and extended range: enhanced ground reconnaissance and battle space
dominance.
• Increased strength: larger caliber weapons, obstacle clearance, repairing heavy ma
chinery such as tack.
Besides these, "Imagine the psychological impact upon a foe when encountering squads of
seemingly invincible warriors protected by armor and endowed with superhuman
capabilities, such as the ability to leap over 20-foot walls, " said Ned Thomas, the director of
Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies (ISN) (Wakefield, 2002). Another use of exoskeletons
is that they could help integrate women into combat situations. John Knowles, publisher of
the defense industry newsletter, The Knowles Report, said that in terms of marksmanship
and other combat skills, "Women have proven themselves very equal." The prevailing
argument against women in combat is that most can't meet the job's physical requirements.
Exoskeletons, could "radically equalize that," thus enabling a 130-pound woman to lift, carry
and be as effective as a 180-pound man (Hembree, 2001). In non-military areas, one of the
most possible applications of exoskeletons may be used to help aged or disabled people
whose lower extremities have locomotor deficiencies due to various reasons: polio,
paraparesis, paralysis, dystrophia, etc. They are unable to walk without assistance and may
lose muscular strength in their legs and become bedridden. They can only move around by
a wheelchair or by using a wheeled walker. Unfortunately, barriers such as bumps and steps
restrict the area that these people have access to. It is hoped that the lower exoskeleton can
enhance their muscular strength and enable them walk as normal people.
2 Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines

1.2 Objective and Scopes

In light of the recent surge of interest in exoskeletons, much research has been devoted to
developing exoskeleton systems. However, most of these studies only focus on upper
extremity exoskeletons, which are ground based. Lacking the locomotion capabilities for
walking with the user, their application is inevitably limited. With fund from Ministry of
Defense, Singapore, we are considering to develop a lower extremity exoskeleton (LEE). The
LEE is aiming to help the user carry heavy loads by transferring the load weight to the
ground (not to the wearer). It could provide soldiers the ability to carry heavy loads such as
food, communications gear, and weaponry, without the strain typically associated with
demanding labor. We also hope with improvements it might provide a versatile transport
platform for mission-critical equipment. The scopes of the present work are:
• Study and examination of the key technologies required to successfully build an ex
oskeleton
• Investigation of the control strategy and the exoskeleton to user interface
• Design and construction of an experimental prototype
• Implementation of the control algorithm on the constructed prototype
• Realization of normal walking

2. Literature Review
Exoskeleton has been an active field of research in recent years (Guizzo & Goldstein, 2005).
This section briefly describe some exoskeleton systems and assistive devices developed
around the world.

2.1 UC Berkeley's Exoskeletons

In 2000, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) launched a program
over five years on developing EHAP to give infantry soldiers an extra edge (Exoskeletons for
Human Performance Augmentation Projects, 2002). One of the facilities that received the
research founds from DAPRA is located at the UC Berkeley.
In 2004, Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) was first unveiled. The BLEEX is
designed to have the same degrees of freedom similar to those of the pilot: three degrees at
the ankle and the hip, and one degree at the knee. However, it is hydraulically actuated only
at the hips, knees and ankles to allow flexion and extension of the hip joints and knee joints
as well as dorsiflexion and plantarflexion of the ankle joints. The other non-actuated degrees
of movements are then spring loaded to a default standing posture. The exoskeleton
connects to the user at the foot by strapping onto the user's boots. A bendable sole allows for
bending of the users toes; and ankle abduction and vertical rotation are allowed for better
flexibility. A torso connects the user's back and hips to the exoskeleton legs. A full-body vest
is incorporated onto the torso to avoid discomfort or abrasion to the user. The BLEEX
employs a high-tech compact Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU). The stand-alone hybrid power
source is able to deliver hydraulic power for actuation and electric power for the computers
and sensors for long hours. The HPU is the synthesis of a gasoline engine, a three-phase
brushless generator and a hydraulic gear pump. Exclusive designing by UC Berkeley
enables the HPU to regulate the hydraulic pressure and engine speed via an engine throttle
and a hydraulic valve. This unique employment of power supply enables the BLEEX to
operate more efficiently and lightweight for a longer period of time. The control scheme
Design of an Assistive Gait Device for Strength Endurance and Rehabilitation 3

needs no direct measurements from the pilot or the human-machine interface, instead, the
controller estimates, based on measurements from the exoskeleton only. The basic principle
for the control of BLEEX rests on the notion that the exoskeleton needs to shadow the
wearers voluntary and involuntary movements quickly, and without delay (Kazerooni,
Racine, Huang, & Steger, 2005). This requires a high level of sensitivity in response to all
forces and torques on the exoskeleton. However, an exoskeleton with high sensitivity to
external forces and torques would respond to other external forces not initiated by its pilot,
the pilot would receive motion from the exoskeleton unexpectedly and would have to
struggle with it to avoid unwanted movement. The other concern is that systems with high
sensitivity to external forces and torques are not robust to variations and therefore the
precision of the system performance will be proportional to the precision of the exoskeleton
dynamic model. Hence the model accuracy is crucial to exoskeleton control. The dynamics
of the exoskeleton should be understand quite well and the controller is heavily model
based. In together, that maximizing system sensitivity leads to a loss of robustness in the
system. However, inventive or state-of-the-art the BLEEX may sound, actual videos of tests
done on the BLEEX shows certain drawbacks. First of all, the user seemed hampered and
unnatural during walking. Also, the backpack looks bulky and makes the whole system
rather unbalanced. The costs of building a BLEEX prototype were also not mentioned by the
developers. One would suspect that such a complex system, especially with its high-tech
HPU, would cost quite considerably.

Figure 1. BLEEX prototype (Berkeley Robotics Laboratory, Dec. 2004)

2.2 Assistive Devices

Many institutions around the world have carried out research and development on
exoskeletons and assistive devices to empower or aid the human limbs. Yobotics
Incorporation's RoboKnee (Robo Walker, Dec. 2003), Japan's hybrid assistive limbs (HAL)
(Powered Suit HAL (Hybrid Assistive Leg), Dec. 2003), Northeastern University's Active Knee
Rehabilitation Device (AKROD) (Mavroidis, 2005) are some of the leading developments in
the area of assistive devices to aid the human limb.
4 Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines

2.3 RoboWalker

Figure 2. RoboKnee developed by Yobotics, Inc. (RoboWalker, Dec. 2003)

To help people who are suffering from weakness in their lower extremities, Yobotics, Inc., is
developing a powered, wearable device called the RoboWalker. The RoboWalker augments
or replaces muscular functions of the lower extremities. In 2001, they produced a prototype
powered knee orthotic, called the RoboKnee, shown in Figure 2. With the computer, am-
plifiers, and batteries in a backpack, while not super impressive, the RoboKnee did provide
for super-human capabilities by allowing the user to perform deep knee bends almost indef-
initely. According to their homepage (RoboWalker, Dec. 2003), they are still looking for funds
for the next stage of development.

2.4 Hybrid Assistive Leg

As shown in Figure 3, Hybrid Assistive Leg (HAL) (Kasaoka & Sankai, 2001; Kawamoto &
Sankai, 2002; Tomohiro Hayashi & Sankai, 2005) is an exoskeleton type power assist system
developed by Tsukuba University to realize the walking aid for aged people or gait-disorder
persons.

2.5 AKROD
The AKROD-v2 (Mavroidis, 2005) developed by the Northeastern University consists of a
robotic knee brace that is portable and programmable. As shown in Figure 4, the device
contains electro-rheological fluid on one side of its structure such that it can turn solid in
less than a millisecond with the application of a voltage. This would provide resistance to
motion on a healing joint and it aims to help the muscle regain strength. The purpose of this
device is to retrain the gait of a stroke patient.

Figure 3. HAL-3 developed by Japan's Tsukuba University (Powered-suit gives aged a leg up,
Dec. 2003)
Design of an Assistive Gait Device for Strength Endurance and Rehabilitation 5

2.6 NTU Assistive Device

For the purpose of assisted walking, another prototype with the footpad design, as shown in
Figure 5, has bee developed and tested for the walking and stair-climbing (Low & Yin,
2007).

Figure 4. Northeastern University's AKROD (Mavroidis, 2005)

Figure 5. NTU's Assistive Device (Low & Yin, 2007)

3. Gait Dynamics
Biped locomotion has been at the focus of researchers for decades. It is well known that
biped gait can be divided into two phases: single support phase and double support phase
(Whittle, 1991). In the single support phase, one leg is moving in the air, while the other leg
is in contact with the ground. In the double support phase, both feet are with contact with
the ground. The two support phases take place in sequence during walking. All of the biped
mechanism joints are powered and directly controllable, except for the contact area between
the foot and the ground. Foot behavior cannot be controlled directly, it is controlled
indirectly by ensuring appropriate dynamics of the mechanism above the foot. To account
for this, the concept of zero moment point (ZMP) (Vukobratoviþ & Juricic, 1969), which is
denned as the point on the ground at which the net moment of the inertial forces and the
gravity forces has no component along the horizontal axes, has been used. The gait is
balanced when and only when the ZMP trajectory remains within the support area. In this
case, the system dynamics is perfectly balanced by the ground reaction force and
overturning will not occur. In the single-support phase, the support polygon is identical to
the foot surface. In the double support phase, however, the size of the support polygon is
denned by the size of the foot surface and by the distance between them (the convex hulls of
the two supporting feet).
The ZMP concept provides a useful dynamic criterion for the analysis and synthesis of
biped locomotion. The ZMP ensures the gait balance during the entire gait cycle and
provides a quantitative measure for the unbalanced moment about the support foot and for
the robustness (balancing margin) of the dynamic gait equilibrium. Another term is center of
pressure (CoP) (Vukobratoviþ, Borovaþ, Šurdiloviþ, & Stokiþ, 2001), which is commonly
6 Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines

used in biped gait analysis based on force or pressure measurements. CoP represents the
point on the support foot polygon at which the resultant of distributed foot ground reaction
force acts. According to their definitions, it is obviously that in the considered single-
support phase and for balanced dynamic gait equilibrium, the ZMP coincides with the CoP.
However, in the dynamically unbalanced single-support situation that is characterized by a
moment about CoP that could not be balanced by the sole reaction forces, the CoP and the
ZMP do not coincide. The ZMP location outside the support area provides useful
information for gait balancing (Low, Liu, Goh, & Yu, 2006). The fact that ZMP is
instantaneously on the edge or outside of the support polygon indicates the occurrence of an
unbalanced moment that cannot be compensated for by foot reaction forces. The distance of
ZMP from the foot edge provides the measure for the unbalanced moment that tends to
rotate the biped around the supporting foot and, possibly, to cause a fall. As depicted in
Figure 6, the exoskeleton is composed of the trunk, the pelvis, two shanks, two thighs and
two feet, will be considered. The trunk carries the payload, which can be seen as a part of
the trunk. The vertical Z-axis and horizontal X-axis lie in the sagittal plane, as shown in
Figure 6. By observing typical human joint trajectories, it is noted that the motion range is
greater in sagittal plane than in other planes (Marchese, Muscato, & Virk, 2001) and most
movements happen in the sagittal plane during walking. Hence, at the first stage, only the
joints rotating around the Y-axis are actuated and movements in the sagittal plane are
studied. The dynamical equation that describes the movement of a biped (or exoskeleton)
has the following form:
(1)

where is the vector of generalized coordinates, which are the joint angles.

Figure 6. The model of the exoskeleton

Design of an Assistive Gait Device for Strength Endurance and Rehabilitation 7

The matrix function takes into account the mass distribution, and the vector function
describes the effect of both inertial and gravity forces. The elements of the vector
are generalized forces applied to the system, while the dots denote the time derivatives.
Applying the basic theorems of rigid body kinematics, we obtain the following recursive
(Low et al., 2006):

(2)

where and are the angular velocity, linear velocity of the center of mass,
angular acceleration, and linear acceleration of the center of mass of the i-th link,
respectively. The inertial force of the center of mass of the i-th link and moment of the i-th
link can then be obtained by using Newton-Euler equations, respectively,
& &
Fi = mi ai (3)
& & & &
M i = I iα i + ωi × I iωi (4)

4. Control Strategy of the Exoskeleton System

An important feature of the exoskeleton system, which is also the main difference between
exoskeleton and biped robot, is the participation role of human in the process of control and
decision-making. By introducing human as part of the control system, some intractable tasks
for robots such as navigation, path planning, obstacle crossing and gait selection can be
easily undertaken by the pilot instead of robot's complex artificial controller and vision
system. However, two problems remain for the exoskeleton controller to solve: how to
transfer the pilot's intention to the exoskeleton and how to keep the stability of the
exoskeleton. Accordingly, the proposed control strategy can be divided into two parts,
namely Locomotion control and ZMP control.

4.1 Locomotion Control

During the single support phase, the trajectory of the swinging foot determines the gait
parameters such as step length, step height, etc. To ensure that the exoskeleton and the
wearer can walk together, the trajectory of the exoskeleton's swing foot should trace that of
the user in time. To do that, a mechanical linkage named inner exoskeleton is attached to the
wearer operator (Low et al., 2006). Accordingly, the exoskeleton that is controllable and
carrying payloads is named outer exoskeleton. The inner exoskeleton equipped with encoders
is to capture the joint information of the pilot.

4.2 Control of the ZMP

If the ZMP of the exoskeleton is within the support area, it implies that the exoskeleton can
keep the stability only by using the ground reaction force without adding any force to the
user. In other words, the user will not feel any extra burden from the exoskeleton. Hence the
8 Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines

purpose of the ZMP control is to make sure the ZMP remain within the support polygon.
From the definition of the ZMP, we have
(5)
(6)

where is the total movement of gravity forces with respect to ZMP, is the total
moment of inertial forces of all the links with respect to ZMP, while and denote unit
vectors of the X and Y axes of the absolute coordinate frame. Equation (6) can be further
replaced with

(7)

where is the ZMP coordinates in the global coordinate frame, is the position vector of
the center of mass of the i-th link,

(8)

where is the gravity force of link i, is the position vector of joint 1 with respect
to the global coordinate system. Substitute Eqs. (2), (3), (4), (8) into Eq. (7), one can obtain

(9)

where the coefficients ai, bij and ci are the functions of the generalized coordinates qi. The
trajectories of q1 to q6 are determined by the signals measured from the pilot's legs, as
mentioned before, while q7 is determined according to Eq. (9) to ensure the ZMP in the
support polygon. Such a ZMP is the desired ZMP. However, the actual ZMP may be
different from the desired ZMP due to all kinds of reasons such as disturbance from the
environment or error of the actuators. A footpad that can online measure the actual ZMP is
thus designed.

4.3 Measurement of ZMPs

In a stable gait, during the single support phase, the CoP of the supporting foot is also the
ZMP of the whole exoskeleton; during the double support phase, the relationship between
the ZMP and the CoP is described by

(10)

where
ZMP= (Xp , Yp , Zp): ZMP of the whole biped
CoPL, = (XL , YL ,ZL): CoP of the left foot
CoPR = (XR, YR, ZR): CoP of the right foot
fL = (fLX,fLY,fLZ): ground reaction force at CoPL
fR = (fRX, fRY, fRZ): ground reaction force at CoPR
Design of an Assistive Gait Device for Strength Endurance and Rehabilitation 9

Figure 7. Design of the exoskeleton foot

To measure the ZMPs of the wearer and the exoskeleton, a footpad is designed as shown in
Figure 7. The wearer's foot will be on the upper plate, and the exoskeleton leg will be
connected to the middle plate. There are four force sensors between the upper plate and
middle plate, the middle plate and lower plate, respectively. The sensors are distributed as
shown in Figure 8. During the single support phase, Sensors 1-4 measure the ground
reaction force under the human foot, and the ZMP coordinates of the human in the foot's
local coordinate frame can be obtained according to

(11)

where Fi is the force measured by sensor i at the distance (ri) from O, as denned in Figure 8.
Sensors 5-8 measure the ground reaction force under the whole system (the human and the
exoskeleton). Similarly, the ZMP of the whole system can be calculated by

(12)

The ZMP of the exoskeleton is on the radial distance from the human ZMP to the whole
system's ZMP, and its position can be obtained by

(13)

as we take the moment about the point of ZMPW,

(14)

in which rh and rw are the coordinates of the human's ZMP and the ZMP of the whole system
(human plus exoskeleton), respectively, as shown in Figure 9. Note that the ZMP is
expressed in terms of X, Y coordinates. During the double support phase, instead of the
ZMPs, the CoPs of each foot are obtained from Eqs. (11) - (13). By substituting those CoPs of
the human and the exoskeleton into Eq. (10), respectively, ZMP of the human and that of the
exoskeleton can be obtained accordingly.
10 Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines

Figure 8. Location of the distributed sensors

Figure 9. Relationship between the human ZMP and the exoskeleton's ZMP

4.4 Trunk Compensation

If the actual (currently measured) ZMP of the exoskeleton differs from the desired ZMP,
trunk compensation will be applied to shift the actual ZMP to an appropriate position.
Without losing generality, only motion in the sagittal plane during single support phase is
discussed here. The trunk compensation in the frontal plane or during double support phase
can be performed in the similar way. As shown in Figure 10, the actual ZMP differs from the
desired ZMP in the direction of X axis by x. Note that the ground reaction force Fz acts on
the exoskeleton can be derived from . For simplicity, we assume
that the action of the trunk joint k will not cause a change in the motion at any other joint.
The system will then behave as if it was composed of two rigid links connected at trunk joint
k, as depicted in Figure 10. The payload and the exoskeleton trunk as shown in the figure are
considered as an upper part of total mass m and inertia moment Ik for the axis of joint k
. Point c is the mass center of the upper part, and the distance from k to C
is denoted by l1. The lower part, representing the sum of all the links below the trunk joint k,
including another leg that is not drawn in the figure, is also considered as a rigid body,
which is standing on the ground surface and does not move. The distance from O to k is
denoted by l2. Note that Tk stands for the correctional actuator torque, applied at joint k.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com