Digestive System - Anatomy and Physiology

Digestive System and Body Metabolism ● Initiation of swallowing by the tongue

● Digestion ● Allowing for the sense of taste
○ Breakdown of ingested food
○ Absorption of nutrients into the Pharynx Anatomy
blood ● Nasopharynx – not part of the digestive
system
● Metabolism ● Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity
○ Production of cellular energy ● Laryngopharynx – below the
(ATP) oropharynx and connected to the
○ Constructive and degradative esophagus
○ cellular activities > Pharynx Function
Organs of the Digestive System ● Serves as a passageway for air and food
● Two main groups ● Food is propelled to the esophagus by
○ Alimentary canal – continuous two muscle layers
coiled hollow tube ○ Longitudinal inner layer
○ Circular outer layer
■ Mouth ● Food movement is by alternating
■ Pharynx contractions of the muscle layers
■ Esophagus (peristalsis)
■ Stomach Esophagus
■ Small intestine ● Runs from pharynx to stomach through
the diaphragm
■ Large intestine
● Conducts food by peristalsis (slow
■ Anus rhythmic squeezing)
○ Accessory digestive organs ● Passageway for food only (respiratory
system branches off after the pharynx)
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
● Lips (labia) – protect the anterior Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
opening Mucosa
● Cheeks – form the lateral walls ● Innermost layer
● Hard palate – forms the anterior roof ● Moist membrane
● Soft palate – forms the posterior roof ○ Surface epithelium
● Uvula – fleshy projection of the soft ○ Small amount of
palate (“Bell”) connective tissue
● Vestibule – space between lips (lamina propria)
externally and teeth and gums internally ○ Small smooth muscle
● Oral cavity – area contained by the teeth layer
● Tongue – attached at hyoid and styloid
Submucosa
processes of the skull, and by the lingual
frenulum ● Just beneath the mucosa
● Tonsils ● Soft connective tissue with
○ Palatine tonsils blood vessels, nerve endings,
○ Lingual tonsil and lymphatics
Extra Infos: Muscularis externa – smooth muscle
● Lingual Frenulum - a thin band of ● Inner circular layer
tissue that connects the tongue to the ● Outer longitudinal layer
floor of the mouth (Responsible for Serosa
speech) ● Outermost layer – visceral
peritoneum
> Process of the mouth ● Layer of serous fluid-producing
cells
● Mastication (chewing) of food
● Mixing masticated food with saliva
Digestive System - Anatomy and Physiology

Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses ● Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa

● All are part of the autonomic nervous ● Glands and specialized cells are in the
system gastric gland region
● Three separate networks of nerve fibers
○ Submucosal nerve plexus Small Intestine (Final Destination & taking
○ Myenteric nerve plexus place)
○ Subserous plexus
● The body’s major digestive organ
Stomach Anatomy ● Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
● Located on the left side of the ● Muscular tube extending form the
abdominal cavity pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
● Food enters at the cardioesophageal ● Suspended from the posterior abdominal
sphincter wall by the mesentery
● Regions of the stomach > Subdivision of Small Intestine
○ Cardiac region – near the heart
● Duodenum
○ Fundus
○ Attached to the stomach
○ Body
○ Curves around the head of the
○ Phylorus – funnel-shaped
pancreas
terminal end
● Jejunum
● Food empties into the small intestine at
the pyloric sphincter ○ Attaches anteriorly to the
duodenum
● Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa
● Ileum
● External regions
○ Extends from jejunum to large
○ Lesser curvature
intestine
○ Greater curvature
● Layers of peritoneum attached to the > Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
stomach ● Source of enzymes that are mixed with
○ Lesser omentum – attaches the chyme
liver to the lesser curvature ○ Intestinal cells
○ Greater omentum – attaches the ○ Pancreas
greater curvature to the ● Bile enters from the gallbladder
posterior body wall > Villi of the Small Intestine
○ Contains fat to insulate,
cushion, and protect abdominal ● Fingerlike structures formed by the
organs mucosa
● Give the small intestine more surface
> Stomach Functions area
● Acts as a storage tank for food > Microvilli of the Small Intestine
● Site of food breakdown
● Chemical breakdown of protein begins ● Small projections of the plasma
● Delivers chyme (processed food) to the membrane
small intestine ● Found on absorptive cells
> Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach
● Simple columnar epithelium Structures Involved in Absorption of
○ Mucous neck cells – produce a Nutrients
sticky alkaline mucus ● Absorptive cells
○ Gastric glands – secrete gastric ● Blood capillaries
juice ● Lacteals (specialized lymphatic
○ Chief cells – produce capillaries)
protein-digesting enzymes
(pepsinogens) Function of the Large Intestine
○ Parietal cells – produce
hydrochloric acid ● Absorption of water
○ Endocrine cells – produce ● Eliminates indigestible food from the
gastrin body as feces
● Does not participate in digestion of food
> Structure of the stomach mucosa
Digestive System - Anatomy and Physiology

● Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a ○ Replace deciduous teeth

lubricant beginning between the ages of 6
> Structure of the large intestine to 12
○ A full set is 32 teeth, but some
● Cecum – saclike first part of the large people do not have wisdom
intestine teeth
● Appendix
○ Accumulation of lymphatic > Classification of teeth
tissue that sometimes becomes ● Incisors
inflamed (appendicitis) ● Canines
○ Hangs from the cecum ● Premolars
● Colon ● Molars
○ Ascending
○ Transverse
○ Descending
○ S-shaped sigmoidal > Regions of a tooth
● Rectum ● Crown – exposed part
● Anus – external body opening ○ Outer enamel
● ○ Dentin
> Modifications to the Muscularis Externa in ○ Pulp cavity
the Large Intestine ● Neck
● Smooth muscle is reduced to three ○ Region in contact with the gum
bands (teniae coli) ○ Connects crown to root
● Muscle bands have some degree of tone ● Root
● Walls are formed into pocketlike sacs ○ Periodontal membrane attached
called haustra to the bone
○ Root canal carrying blood
Accessory digestive organ vessels and nerves
● Salivary glands Pancreas
● Teeth
● Pancreas ● Produces a wide spectrum of digestive
enzymes that break down all categories
● Liver
of food
● Gallbladder
● Enzymes are secreted into the
duodenum
Salivary Glands ● Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes
● Saliva-producing glands neutralizes acidic chyme
○ Parotid glands – located anterior ● Endocrine products of pancreas
to ears ○ Insulin
○ Submandibular glands ○ Glucagon
○ Sublingual glands Liver
Saliva ● Largest gland in the body
● Mixture of mucus and serous fluids ● Located on the right side of the body
● Helps to form a food bolus under the diaphragm
● Contains salivary amylase to begin ● Consists of four lobes suspended from
starch digestion the diaphragm and abdominal wall by
● Dissolves chemicals so they can be the falciform ligament
tasted ● Connected to the gall bladder via the
common hepatic duct
Teeth
(Produce bile)
● The role is to masticate (chew) food
● Humans have two sets of teeth Bile
○ Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth ● Produced by cells in the liver
○ 20 teeth are fully formed by age ● Composition
two ○ Bile salts
● Permanent teeth ○ Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin
Digestive System - Anatomy and Physiology

from the breakdown of parasympathetic division

hemoglobin) ● Chemical and mechanical receptors are
○ Cholesterol located in organ walls that trigger
○ Phospholipids reflexes
○ Electrolytes ● Stimuli include:
Gallbladder ○ Stretch of the organ
○ pH of the contents
● Sac found in hollow fossa of liver ○ Presence of breakdown products
● Stores bile from the liver by way of the ● Reflexes include:
cystic duct ○ Activation or inhibition of
● Bile is introduced into the duodenum in glandular secretions
the presence of fatty food ○ Smooth muscle activity
● Gallstones can cause blockages
If no gallbladder its will limit the
absorption and takes time to digest Digestive Activity of the Mouth
● Mechanical breakdown
○ Food is physically broken down
Process of Digestive System
by chewing
● Ingestion – getting food into the mouth ● Chemical digestion
● Propulsion – moving foods from one ○ Food is mixed with saliva
region of the digestive system to another ○ Breaking of starch into maltose
● Peristalsis – alternating waves of by salivary amylase
contraction
● Segmentation – moving materials back
and forth to aid in mixing Activities of the Pharynx and Esophagus
● Mechanical digestion ● These organs have no digestive function
○ Mixing of food in the mouth by ● Serve as passageways to the stomach
the tongue
○ Churning of food in the stomach
○ Segmentation in the small Deglutition (Swallowing)
intestine ● Buccal phase
● Chemical Digestion ○ Voluntary
○ Enzymes break down food ○ Occurs in the mouth
molecules into their building ○ Food is formed into a bolus
blocks ○ The bolus is forced into the
○ Each major food group uses pharynx by the tongue
different enzymes ● Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
■ Carbohydrates are ○ Involuntary transport of the
broken to simple sugars bolus
■ Proteins are broken to ○ All passageways except to the
amino acids stomach are blocked
■ Fats are broken to fatty ■ Tongue blocks off the
acids and alcohols mouth
● Absorption ■ Soft palate (uvula)
○ End products of digestion are blocks the nasopharynx
absorbed in the blood or lymph ■ Epiglottis blocks the
○ Food must enter mucosal cells larynx
and then into blood or lymph ● Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
capillaries (continued)
● Defecation ○ Peristalsis moves the bolus
○ Elimination of indigestible toward the stomach
substances as feces ○ The cardioesophageal sphincter
is opened when food presses
against it
Control of Digestive Activity
● Mostly controlled by reflexes via the
Digestive System - Anatomy and Physiology

Food Breakdown in the Stomach Stimulation of the Release of Pancreatic Juice

● Gastric juice is regulated by neural and ● Vagus nerve
hormonal factors ● Local hormones
● Presence of food or falling pH causes ○ Secretin
the release of gastrin ○ Cholecystokinin
● Gastrin causes stomach glands to Absorption in the Small Intestine
produce protein-digesting enzymes
● Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach ● Water is absorbed along the length of
contents very acidic the small intestine
● End products of digestion
Necessity of an Extremely Acid Environment ○ Most substances are absorbed
in the Stomach by active transport through cell
● Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for membranes
protein digestion ○ Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
● Provides a hostile environment for ● Substances are transported to the liver
microorganisms by the hepatic portal vein or lymph
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
● Protein digestion enzymes Propulsion in the Small Intestine
○ Pepsin – an active protein ● Peristalsis is the major means of moving
digesting enzyme food
○ Rennin – works on digesting ● Segmental movements
milk protein ○ Mix chyme with digestive juices
(You can't easily digest if there's ○ Aid in propelling food
no pepsin and rennin)
● The only absorption that occurs in the Food Breakdown and Absorption in the
stomach is of alcohol and aspirin Large Intestine
Propulsion in the Stomach ● No digestive enzymes are produced
● Food must first be well mixed ● Resident bacteria digest remaining
● Rippling peristalsis occurs in the lower nutrients
stomach ○ Produce some vitamin K and B
● The pylorus meters out chyme into the ○ Release gases
small intestine (30 ml at a time) ● Water and vitamins K and B are
● The stomach empties in four to six hours absorbed
● Remaining materials are eliminated via
feces
Digestion in the Small Intestine
● Enzymes from the brush border
○ Break double sugars into simple Propulsion in the Large Intestine
sugars ● Sluggish peristalsis
○ Complete some protein ● Mass movements
digestion ○ Slow, powerful movements
● Pancreatic enzymes play the major ○ Occur three to four times per
digestive function day
○ Help complete digestion of ● Presence of feces in the rectum causes a
starch (pancreatic amylase) defecation reflex
○ Carry out about half of all ○ Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
protein digestion (trypsin, etc.) ○ Defecation occurs with
● Pancreatic enzymes play the major relaxation of the voluntary
digestive function (continued) (external) anal sphincter
○ Responsible for fat digestion Nutrition
(lipase)
○ Digest nucleic acids (nucleases) ● Nutrient – substance used by the body
○ Alkaline content neutralizes for growth, maintenance, and repair
acidic chyme ● Categories of nutrients
○ Carbohydrates
Digestive System - Anatomy and Physiology

○ Lipids Cellular Respiration

○ Proteins ● Oxygen-using events take place within
○ Vitamins the cell to create ATP from ADP
○ Mineral ● Carbon leaves cells as carbon dioxide
○ Water (CO2)
> Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients ● Hydrogen atoms are combined with
● Carbohydrates oxygen to form water
○ Most are derived from plants ● Energy produced by these reactions adds
○ Exceptions: lactose from milk a phosphorus to ADP to produce ATP
and small amounts of glycogens ● ATP can be broken down to release
from meats energy for cellular use
● Lipids
○ Saturated fats from animal
products
EXTRA INFOS:
○ Unsaturated fats from nuts,
seeds, and vegetable oils ● Propulsion - moving food from one
○ Cholesterol from egg yolk, region to another
meats, and milk products
● Proteins
○ Complete proteins – contain all
essential amino acids
■ Most are from animal
products
○ Legumes and beans also have
proteins, but are incomplete
● Vitamins
○ Most vitamins are used as
cofactors and act with enzymes
○ Found in all major food groups
● Minerals
○ Play many roles in the body
○ Most mineral-rich foods are
vegetables, legumes, milk, and
some meats
Metabolism
● Chemical reactions necessary to
maintain life
○ Catabolism – substances are
broken down to simpler
substances
○ Anabolism – larger molecules
are built from smaller ones
○ Energy is released during
catabolism
> Carbohydrate Metabolism
● The body’s preferred source to produce
cellular energy (ATP)
● Glucose (blood sugar) is the major
breakdown product and fuel to make
ATP