TE

18
Movement in
humans

e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccfc18.e

The human skeleton and muscles work together to allow movement of the body.

Links to prior knowledge Chapter preview

This chapter first explores the human
skeletal system, and then explains 18.1 The human skeleton
how bones interact with muscles to 18.2 Joints and ligaments
produce movement. Prior knowledge
of transmission of nerve impulses
18.3 Skeletal muscles
(Chapter 17) will help you understand 18.4 How movement occurs
how nerve impulses initiate muscle
18.5 Initiation of muscle contraction
contraction.
by nerve impulses
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18 Movement in humans

What does a skeleton tell you?

Skeletons sometimes provide useful clues to past events. They remain intact long after
a person has died and the soft body parts have decomposed. Police can use bones
to identify the sex of a decomposed murder victim. Most obviously, males tend to have
larger bones, and hence larger surface areas for muscle attachment. In addition, the
female pelvis is larger and broader than the male’s, and it has a wider opening for
childbirth. Bones can also reveal events of a person’s life. For example, bone fractures
may suggest accidents or abuse.

Fossilized bones can reveal the details of human

history and evolution. By examining the skeletons
and teeth of primate fossils, paleontologists can
learn about the size of the brain, walking posture
and diet of our ancestors. Animal skeletons also
tell the larger story of evolution of all vertebrates.

 A paleontologist digging up human bones

Think about …
1. Why do bones remain intact long after a person has died? What are bones made up of?
2. How do the skeleton and muscles bring about movement?
3. Other than movement, what are the functions of our skeleton?
Answer
(Refer to p.A3 for answers.)

pelvis
18- 2 fracture
paleontologist
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18 Movement in humans

Movement is one of the seven characteristics of organisms. Animals

move from place to place in search of food, mates and shelter, and
to escape from danger. The human musculo-skeletal system is a
body system that gives humans the ability to move. It consists of
skeletal muscles and the skeleton.

Learning objective 18.1 The human skeleton

Understand the general plan and
functions of the human skeleton
A. Components of the human skeleton
The human skeleton is composed of two main components: bones
and cartilage.

1. Bones
Bones have both organic and inorganic content. The organic
materials include living cells and proteins (e.g. collagen) which
provide flexibility and certain degree of elasticity to the bones. The
inorganic materials are minerals (mainly calcium phosphate and
some calcium carbonate) which make the bones hard.

Figure 18.1 shows the structure of a long bone.

cartilage spongy bone

compact bone (T.S.)(x150)

compact red blood

blood vessels bone cell
and nerves

yellow bone white blood

marrow cell

canal containing blood spongy bone with red bone

vessels and nerves marrow (L.S.)(x250)

cartilage

Figure 18.1 Structure of a long bone

movement skeleton calcium phosphate

musculo-skeletal system bone calcium carbonate 18- 3
skeletal muscle cartilage
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18 Movement in humans

There are two types of bone tissue:

Compact bone is the dense bone that makes up the outer part
of all bones and most of the shaft of long bones. It provides
strength for weight bearing.

Spongy bone is found at the ends of long bones. It contains

many small cavities (i.e. it is porous). It adds strength to the
bone with the minimum of weight.

Bone marrow is found in the cavities of bone. There are two kinds
of bone marrow:

Red bone marrow fills the cavities of spongy bone. It is the site
of formation of blood cells.

Yellow bone marrow fills the central cavity in the shaft of long
bones. It contains stored fat.

Bones also contain blood vessels and nerves. Blood vessels run
through the bone tissue to supply nutrients and oxygen to the bone
cells and remove waste from them. Nerves allow the detection of
pain.

2. Cartilage
Remember this Cartilage is made up of living cells (Figure 18.2). It is softer and less
Both bones and cartilage can grow rigid than bones because it contains fewer minerals. It is more
and repair themselves because elastic than bones due to a higher content of collagen.
they are living tissues. However,
since cartilage does not have any
blood vessels and nerves, it Cartilage covers the end surfaces of bones (Figure 18.3). It acts as
repairs more slowly than other a shock absorber, reduces friction between the bones during
tissues. movement, and prevents wearing of bones at the joints.

Cartilage is also found in various structures, such as the pinna,

trachea and epiglottis, to maintain shape and provide support.

cartilage bones
cells

cartilage

bones

x300
Figure 18.2 Cartilage tissue Figure 18.3 Cartilage in the knee joint

compact bone red bone marrow

18- 4 spongy bone yellow bone marrow
bone marrow
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18 Movement in humans

Remember this B. General plan of the human skeleton

The human skeleton is located The human skeleton consists of two divisions: the axial skeleton
inside the body, so it is called an
endoskeleton. Some other and the appendicular skeleton (Figure 18.4).
animals (e.g. insects) have an
exoskeleton which is a hard
covering on the outside of their
bodies.

Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton

skull

collar
bone
pectoral girdle
shoulder
sternum bone
rib cage
ribs humerus

vertebral column
upper limb (arm)
ulna

radius
3D model
Human skeleton
e-aristo.hk/r/
biocc3dm1801.e pelvic girdle
femur

knee cap

lower limb (leg)

tibia

fibula

Figure 18.4 The human skeleton AR

axial skeleton endoskeleton

appendicular skeleton exoskeleton 18- 5
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18 Movement in humans

1. Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body. It consists of
the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs and the sternum.

a. Skull
The skull consists of the cranium and facial bones (e.g. cheekbones
and jaws).

The cranium is formed by eight flattened bones fused together at

immovable joints called sutures (Figure 18.5). The cranium encloses
and protects the brain, the eyeballs, and the middle and inner ears.

The upper jaw is fused to the cranium and is not movable. The
lower jaw forms a movable joint with the cranium. The upper and
the lower jaws contain sockets that hold the teeth in place.

suture
cranium

orbit

upper jaw
Figure 18.5 Front view (left)
and side view (right) of the
lower jaw
human skull

Extras: Do you know…

A baby’s skull is flexible
The bones that make up the cranium are not yet fused together in newborn
babies. This means that the skull can flex and change shape during birth,
making it easier for the baby to move through the birth canal. These bones
begin to fuse together about 24 months after birth.

gap

 X-ray photograph showing the skull of a newborn (left), a child (middle) and
an adult (right). The newborn's skull has gaps in the cranium where the bones
have not yet fused.

skull sternum suture

18- 6 vertebral column cranium
rib jaw
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18 Movement in humans

b. Vertebral column
The vertebral column consists of 33 vertebrae (singular: vertebra).
It supports the weight of the upper part of the body and provides
surfaces for muscle attachment to maintain posture and allow
movement. It also encloses and protects the spinal cord.

Between the vertebrae are pieces of cartilage called intervertebral

discs (Figure 18.6). They can be compressed and allows the
vertebral column to bend. They also help absorb shock and prevent
wearing of the vertebrae during movement.

spinal cord
spinal nerve

vertebra

intervertebral
disc

side view Ventral Dorsal

Figure 18.6 Structure of the vertebral column

Extras: Health issue

Problems with intervertebral discs
bulging disc
As the intervertebral discs become
compressed over the years, a
person may become shorter with
age. Other problems can also arise
if too much pressure is applied to
the vertebral column. The
intervertebral discs can bulge from
between the vertebrae and press
against the spinal cord or spinal
nerves. This interferes with the
transmission of nerve impulses and
 A bulging disc presses against the
can cause numbness, muscle
spinal cord and spinal nerves, causing
weakness and pain. back pain.

vertebra
intervertebral disc 18- 7
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18 Movement in humans

c. Rib cage
Remember this
There are twelve pairs of ribs. All
The ribs, the sternum and part of the vertebral column form the rib
are connected to vertebrae. The cage. The rib cage protects the heart and the lungs, and is involved
first ten pairs are connected to the in breathing.
sternum by cartilage. The other
two pairs are not connected to the
sternum and are called floating
ribs.

1 vertebra
2
3 sternum
4 ribs
5
6
rib
7
cartilage
8 11
vertebral column
9 12 sternum
10 floating ribs (not attached
to the sternum) cartilage

Figure 18.7 Front view of the rib cage Figure 18.8 Top view of the rib cage showing a
pair of ribs attached to a vertebra and the sternum

2. Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is the part of the skeleton that lies on
either side of the body. It consists of limb bones and limb girdles.
Its main function is to allow movement of the body.

a. Limb bones
Limb bones are the bones of the two arms and the two legs.

b. Limb girdles
Limb girdles provide a connection between the limbs and the axial
skeleton. There are two limb girdles in the human body:

The pectoral girdle forms the shoulders. It attaches the arms to

the axial skeleton (Figure 18.9 on the next page).

The pelvic girdle forms the hips. It attaches the legs to the axial
skeleton. It also protects the urinary bladder and part of the
reproductive system (Figure 18.10 on the next page).

rib cage floating rib

18- 8 pectoral girdle
pelvic girdle
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18 Movement in humans

pelvic girdle
hip joint

femur
collar
bone pectoral
shoulder
girdle
joint knee cap
shoulder
bone

humerus fibula
tibia
ulna
radius

Figure 18.9 Bones in the pectoral girdle and the right arm Figure 18.10 Bones in the pelvic girdle and the
right leg

C. Functions of the skeleton

The human skeleton serves the following functions:

It provides a rigid framework to support the body weight and

hold the body upright. It also gives definite shapes to different
parts of the body.

It provides surfaces for the attachment of skeletal muscles;

bones and skeletal muscles work together to allow movement
of the body.

It protects internal organs. For example, the skull protects the

brain, the eyeballs and the ears; the vertebral column protects
the spinal cord; the rib cage protects the heart and the lungs;
the pelvic girdle protects the urinary bladder and parts of the
reproductive system.

Bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphate. Yellow

bone marrow stores fat.

Many bones contain red bone marrow that produces red blood
cells, white blood cells and blood platelets.

collar bone ulna knee cap

shoulder bone radius fibula 18- 9
humerus femur tibia
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18 Movement in humans

Extras: Health issue

Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a bone disease which leads to a reduction in bone density. The
affected bones become porous and brittle. The disease often develops
unnoticed over many years, with no symptoms until serious conditions appear.
These may be fractures in the wrist or hip, lower back pain, loss of height or a
hunched back.

x25 x25
 Healthy bone tissue  Bone tissue with osteoporosis

Key point
1. The human skeleton is composed of bones and cartilage.
2. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the vertebral column and the rib
cage. The appendicular skeleton consists of the limb bones, the pectoral
girdle and the pelvic girdle.
3. The skeleton provides support and allows movement of the body. It also
protects internal organs, stores minerals and fat, and produces blood
cells.

Checkpoint
Directions: Questions 1 and 2 refer to the photograph below which
shows part of a human skeleton.
1. Which of the labelled structures are
1
components of the axial skeleton?
A. 1, 2 and 4 only
2
B. 1, 3 and 4 only
C. 1, 3 and 5 only
3 D. 1, 4 and 5 only

2. Which of the following is not a

4 function of structure 5?
5 A. supporting the body weight
B. protecting the reproductive
organs
C. storing iron
D. producing blood cells

osteoporosis
18- 10
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18 Movement in humans

Learning objective 18.2 Joints and ligaments

• Understand the role of joints
and ligaments in movement
A joint is the junction where two or more bones meet. Some joints
• Compare the degree of
are immovable, such as those between the bones of the cranium.
movement between hinge
joints and ball-and-socket Some others allow movement, such as those of the shoulder, hips,
joints knees, elbows, fingers and toes. These joints are called movable
joints.

A. Structure of a movable joint

Remember this
The bones of a movable joint are held together by tough, elastic
Movable joints are also called ligaments which form the fibrous capsule enclosing the joint
synovial joints.
(Figure 18.11). While allowing the bones to move, the ligaments
hold the bones in position and prevent dislocation of the joint
during movement.

The end surfaces of the bones are covered with cartilage. It serves
to reduce friction between the bones and prevents wearing during
movement. Because of its elastic property, the cartilage also acts as
a shock absorber.

The inner surface of the fibrous capsule is lined by a synovial

membrane. It secretes synovial fluid into the synovial cavity. The
synovial fluid serves as a lubricant to reduce friction between bones
during movement. It also supplies oxygen and nutrients to the
cartilage.

bone

fibrous capsule made up of

ligaments

cartilage synovial membrane

synovial cavity
bone (contains synovial fluid)

Figure 18.11 Structure of a movable joint

joint dislocation synovial joint

movable joint synovial membrane 18- 11
ligament synovial fluid
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18 Movement in humans

B. Two types of movable joints

Movable joints can be classified into different types according to the
movement they allow and the shapes of their parts.

1. Hinge joint
In a hinge joint, the convex surface of one bone fits into the concave
surface of another bone. Like the hinge of a door, hinge joints allow
movement in one plane only (Figure 18.12). The elbow joint (Figure
18.13 a ), the knee joint (Figure 18.13 b ) and some joints in the
fingers and the toes are hinge joints.

a b

hinge

Key: direction of movement Elbow joint Knee joint

Figure 18.12 Movement of a Figure 18.13 Examples of hinge joints

hinge joint

2. Ball-and-socket joint
In a ball-and-socket joint, one of the bones has a rounded head (the
ball) and the other bone has a cup-like depression (the socket).
This type of joint allows movement in many planes (i.e. the bones
can rotate in almost all directions) (Figure 18.14). The shoulder joint
(Figure 18.15 a ) and the hip joint (Figure 18.15   b ) are ball-and-
socket joints.
a b

ball socket

Key: direction of movement Shoulder joint Hip joint

Figure 18.14 Movement of a ball-and- Figure 18.15 Examples of ball-and-socket joints
socket joint

hinge joint
18- 12 ball-and-socket joint
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18 Movement in humans

Extras: Health issue

Arthritis
Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints. There are different types of arthritis.
The most common type is osteoarthritis. It occurs when the cartilage covering
the ends of bones wears away over time. The bones rub against each other,
causing pain, swelling and stiffness.
bone

synovial
membrane

cartilage
thinned
cartilage
synovial fluid
bone ends
rub together
 Normal joint (left) and a joint with osteoarthritis (right)

Osteoarthritis is related to aging and is more

common in overweight people. When the
symptoms are mild or moderate, they can be
managed by maintaining a healthy weight and
strengthening the muscles around the joint for artificial
joint
added support.
In severe arthritis, a surgery may be carried out to
remove all or part of the damaged joint and an
artificial joint can be put in its place.  Artificial knee joint
replacement

Key point
1. A joint is the junction where two or more bones meet.
2. At a movable joint, ligaments hold bones in position and prevent
dislocation of the joint during movement. The synovial fluid and the
cartilage covering the ends of the bones reduce friction between the
bones during movement.
3. A hinge joint allows movement of bones in one plane only, whereas a
ball-and-socket joint allows movement of bones in many planes.

Checkpoint
The diagram on the right shows the elbow joint.
Which of the labelled parts help reduce friction Q
between the bones at the joint during movement? R

A. P and R P S

B. P and S
C. Q and R
D. Q and S

arthritis
osteoarthritis 18- 13
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18 Movement in humans

Learning objective 18.3 Skeletal muscles

Describe the structure of skeletal
muscles
The muscles that work together with bones to produce movement
are called skeletal muscles. These muscles are attached to
bones by tough, inelastic tendons made up mainly of collagen
fibres.

A skeletal muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fibres

surrounded by connective tissues (Figure 18.16). Each muscle
fibre is a single, elongated muscle cell that contains a number
of nuclei.

Skeletal muscles are also called striated muscles because they

appear to have striations of light bands and dark bands when
viewed with a microscope (Figure 18.17).

blood vessels
nuclei

bone tendon

muscle
fibre

connective a bundle of
tissue muscle fibres

Figure 18.16 Structure of a skeletal muscle

nuclei

muscle fibre

x350

Figure 18.17 Skeletal muscle (L.S.)

tendon
18- 14 muscle fibre
striated muscle
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18 Movement in humans

Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles because their contractions

Link it
can be consciously controlled by the cerebrum. However, they can
Shivering is caused by involuntary also contract involuntarily through reflex actions.
contractions of skeletal muscles in
response to a sudden drop in body
temperature. You will learn more
Skeletal muscles contract quickly but they also fatigue quickly.
about this in the Elective Part, Contractions of skeletal muscles produce heat, which helps maintain
Chapter 32. a stable body temperature.

Taking it further
Muscles of the human body
There are three types of muscle in the human body: skeletal, smooth and
cardiac. Unlike skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscle are
involuntary muscles.
Smooth muscles can be found in the
walls of hollow organs (e.g. blood
vessels, alimentary canal). Smooth
muscles do not have the striations that
skeletal muscles have. The cells in
smooth muscles are also much shorter
than skeletal muscle cells and only
have one nucleus. Smooth muscles x200
contract slowly and do not fatigue
 Smooth muscle
easily.
Cardiac muscle is the type of muscle
that makes up the heart. Like skeletal
muscles, cardiac muscle is striated.
However, cardiac muscle cells are
branched and only have one nucleus.
Cardiac muscle contracts automatically
and does not fatigue.
x200
 Cardiac muscle

Key point
1. A skeletal muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fibres surrounded by
connective tissues.
2. Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles. They contract quickly but they
also fatigue quickly.

shivering
smooth muscle 18- 15
cardiac muscle
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18 Movement in humans

Learning objective 18.4 How movement occurs

Understand how muscles and
bones work together to bring
about movement A. Transmission of pulling force
Typically, one end of a skeletal muscle is attached to a bone that
does not move, and the other end is attached across a joint to
another bone that moves when the muscle contracts. Attachment is
by means of tendons (Figure 18.18). Since tendons are tough and
inelastic, they can effectively transmit the pulling force from
muscles to bones.

tendon
tendons

tendon

tendons

Figure 18.18 Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons

Extras: Do you know…

Fingers do not contain muscles
Our fingers are moved by tendons that
connect the finger bones to muscles in the
forearm. Excessive, repetitive movements of
muscle
the fingers and the wrist, such as tapping
on a smartphone, can put stress on the
tendons. The tendons may become tendon
inflamed and swollen, and may press on
nerves, causing numbness and pain.

 Each finger has a separate

tendon connecting it to
muscles in the forearm.

18- 16
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18 Movement in humans

Flipped classroom B. Action of opposing muscles

Opposing muscles
e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccflip1801.e
Muscles can only pull on bones but cannot push. To move bones in
opposite directions, skeletal muscles must work in pairs.
Contraction of one muscle pulls a bone into one position, and
contraction of another muscle returns the bone to its original
position. Pairs of muscles working in this way are called opposing
muscles or antagonistic muscles. They can be classified according
to the type of movement they bring about:

A flexor bends a limb when it contracts.

An extensor straightens the same limb when it contracts.

When the flexor contracts, the extensor is relaxed, and vice versa.
Consider the muscles of the arm (Figure 18.19). The biceps is the
flexor and the triceps is the extensor. When the biceps contracts to
bend the arm at the elbow, the triceps must relax. When the triceps
contracts to straighten the arm, the biceps must relax.

a Bending the arm b Straightening the arm

shoulder
bone
tendons

biceps biceps is
contracts triceps relaxed
contracts
triceps is
radius
relaxed
humerus

ulna

elbow joint
Figure 18.19 Movement of the arm

Practical 18.1 Examination of a human arm model

Your teacher will show you a human arm model. Observe the action of the
biceps and triceps as you lift and lower the forearm of the model.

 A human arm model

opposing muscle extensor

antagonistic muscle biceps 18- 17
flexor triceps
 18 Movement in humans

Worked example 18.1

Figure 1 shows the legs of a person sitting on a block. Figure 2 shows a model used to demonstrate the
movement of the leg. The balloons in the model represent muscles of the legs.

W Key:
P
X wooden board
Q
Y balloon

S R inelastic string
screw

Figure 1 Figure 2

(a) Name the types of body structures that the wooden boards and the screws in the model represent.
(2 marks)
(b) If the model were set to a position to show the lower leg kicking forward with the toes pointed, which
balloons (P, Q, R or S) would appear to be shorter and thicker? What is the condition of the muscles
being represented? (2 marks)
(c) Put P, Q, R and S into two categories according to the functions of the muscles they represent.
Name the categories and explain your answer. (4 marks)
(d) Explain why the string used in the model must be inelastic. (1 mark)

Solution
(a) Wooden boards represent bones;................................. (1)
Reminder
screws represent joints................................................ (1)
A muscle becomes shorter and
(b) P and S....................................................................... (1) thicker as it contracts, and becomes
longer and thinner as it relaxes.
The muscles are contracting....................................... (1)
(c) P and S are extensors.................................................. (1)
Reminder
because they contract to straighten the limb............... (1)
Always look at one joint at one time
Q and R are flexors..................................................... (1) when identifying the extensor and
the flexor. In this case, movement of
because they contract to bend the limb....................... (1) the knee joint is caused by P and Q,
while movement of the ankle joint is
(d) It must be inelastic to transmit the force that moves the caused by R and S.
wooden boards............................................................ (1)

18- 18
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18 Movement in humans

Taking it further
Levers in the human body
The musculo-skeletal system can be considered as a system of levers. A lever system is a rigid rod that pivots around
a stationary point called the fulcrum. It can be used to amplify force or movement. Take the bones and the muscles
of the arm as an example. When we raise the forearm, the bones act as the lever and the elbow joint acts as the
fulcrum (F). The weight of the bones and any other weight to be moved are the load (L). The pulling force produced
by the contraction of the biceps is the effort (E) to move the load.
Levers are classified into three classes according to the relative positions of the fulcrum, the load and the effort.
Below are examples of the three classes of levers in the human body.

Class one lever: nodding the head Class two lever: standing on tip toes Class three lever: bending the arm

force of
muscles (E)

force of muscles (E)

fulcrum
(F)

weight of fulcrum (F) weight of the forearm

force of fulcrum
the head (L) body and other weight (L)
muscles (E) (F)
weight (L)
E E

F F F
E L L L

Key point
1. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons. Tendons are tough
and inelastic. They effectively transmit the pulling force from muscles
to bones.
2. Skeletal muscles usually work in pairs as opposing muscles to move
bones in opposite directions.
3. When a flexor contracts, the opposing extensor is relaxed to allow the
limb to bend. When an extensor contracts, the opposing flexor is relaxed
to allow the limb to straighten.

lever effort
fulcrum 18- 19
load
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18 Movement in humans

Checkpoint
The diagram shows muscles and bones of a human arm.

When X contracts, what will happen to Y and to the arm?

Y The arm
A. lengthens bends
B. lengthens straightens
C. increases in tension bends
D. increases in tension straightens

Learning objective 18.5 Initiation of muscle

Describe how a nerve impulse
transmits across a neuromuscular
contraction by nerve
junction leading to muscle
contraction
impulses

Skeletal muscles are effectors. They contract in response to

stimulation by nerve impulses from motor neurones. The axon
of a motor neurone extends to a skeletal muscle and branches
into a number of motor nerve endings, forming synapses with
the muscle fibres. This special type of synapse between a motor
neurone and a skeletal muscle is called a neuromuscular
junction (Figure 18.20 on the next page).

At a neuromuscular junction, the membrane of the muscle fibre

becomes highly folded to form a motor end plate.

neuromuscular junction
18- 20 motor end plate
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18 Movement in humans

axon

axon of motor
neurone
muscle fibre

neuromuscular
skeletal muscle junction

neuromuscular muscle
junction fibres

x240

Figure 18.20 The axon of a motor neurone branches to form Figure 18.21 Neuromuscular
neuromuscular junctions with the muscle fibres of a skeletal muscle. junctions

The arrival of nerve impulses at the motor nerve ending triggers the
release of neurotransmitters from vesicles in the ending. The
neurotransmitters then diffuse across the cleft in the neuromuscular
junction and bind to receptor sites on the membrane of the muscle
fibre to initiate muscle contraction (Figure 18.22).

Remember this
Mitochondria generate ATP to  A nerve impulse
provide energy for the synthesis arrives at the ending
and release of neurotransmitters. of an axon of a motor
ending of neurone.
an axon

mitochondrion  The vesicle releases

neurotransmitters.

vesicle

cleft  Neurotransmitters
diffuse across the
cleft.

 Neurotransmitters
muscle fibre bind to the receptor
sites on the
membrane of the
muscle fibre,
triggering muscle
contraction.
Figure 18.22 Transmission of nerve impulses across a neuromuscular junction

Since a motor neurone forms neuromuscular junctions with a

number of muscle fibres, many muscle fibres can contract at the
same time to produce a great pulling force.

18- 21
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18 Movement in humans

Practical 18.2 Observation of the contraction of teased muscle from

the leg of a pithed frog

Your teacher will provide you with a pithed frog. You are going to observe the Video
contraction of teased muscle from the leg of the frog. ATP solution can be Practical 18.2
added to the muscle to make it contract. e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccpv1802.e

Procedure
Caution
1. Place a pithed frog on a dissecting board. • Wear a mask and disposable gloves.
2. Cut open the skin of the frog along its leg. Peel the skin off with a • Scissors and scalpels are sharp.
pair of forceps to expose the thigh muscles. Handle them with care.

3. Cut a small piece of thigh muscle and place it into a Petri dish. Keep the muscle moistened with
Ringer’s solution throughout the practical.
4. Tease the muscle to obtain three strands of muscle fibers. Cut them to about 2 cm long. Place each
of these strands on a microscope slide. Straighten it and measure its length.
5. Add a drop of ATP solution to each strand of muscle fibres. Wait for 3 minutes and then measure
the length of each strand of muscle fibres again. Calculate the average percentage change in length
of the muscle strands.

forceps

Petri dish a strand of ATP solution

muscle fibres
a strand of
muscle fibres
thigh muscle

6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 using distilled water instead of ATP solution.

Caution
After the practical,
• dispose of the dissected frog, the mask and the gloves as directed.
• collect the apparatus used for central sterilization by the technician.
• wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water.

Results and discussion

The length of muscle fibres decreases when ATP solution is added, but does not change when distilled
water is added. This shows that ATP is required for muscle to contract.

Ringer's solution
18- 22
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18 Movement in humans

Practical 18.3 Electrical stimulation of the sciatic nerve of a pithed frog

In this practical, an electrical stimulation will be applied to the sciatic nerve to Video
trigger contraction of the calf muscle in the leg of a frog. Practical 18.3
e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccpv1803.e

sciatic nerve

calf muscle

 The sciatic nerve travels down

the calf muscle in the leg of a frog.

Procedure
Caution
1. Place a pithed frog on a dissecting board. • Wear a mask and disposable gloves.
2. Cut open the skin of the frog along its leg. Peel the skin off with a • Scissors, scalpels and pins are
pair of forceps to expose the thigh muscles. sharp. Handle them with care.

3. Turn the frog so that its dorsal side faces upwards. Cut open the thigh muscles with a scalpel to
expose the sciatic nerve. Use pins to fix the muscles in position at the sides. Keep the muscles and
the nerve moistened with Ringer’s solution throughout the practical.
4. Free the sciatic nerve from the surrounding tissue with a glass rod. Insert two toothpicks beneath
the nerve.
5. Connect one end of the sciatic nerve to the anode (+) and the other end to the cathode (-) of a
power supply.
6. Apply a low voltage (about 2 V) and then a high voltage (about 6 V) to the nerve. Observe any
changes in the calf muscle.

Caution
After the practical,
• dispose of the dissected frog, the mask and the gloves as directed.
• collect the apparatus used for central sterilization by the technician.
• wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water.

Results and discussion

When a voltage is applied to the sciatic nerve, the calf muscle twitches. The strength of the twitch
increases when a higher voltage is applied to the nerve.

sciatic nerve
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18 Movement in humans

Key point
1. A neuromuscular junction is a special synapse between a motor neurone
and a muscle fibre.
2. When a nerve impulse arrives at the ending of the axon of a motor
neurone, the vesicles release neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters
diffuse across the cleft in the neuromuscular junction and bind to
receptor sites on the membrane of the muscle fibre to trigger muscle
contraction.

Checkpoint
Chemicals released at the synapse are responsible for the impulse
transmission from
(1) sensory neurone to interneurone.
(2) interneurone to motor neurone.
(3) motor neurone to muscle.
A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

HKDSEE Biology 2012 Paper 1 Section A Q5

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18 Movement in humans

Article reading

How microgravity affects

our musculo-skeletal system
Have you ever dreamed of being an astronaut? It might look fun, but the microgravity
environment of space has negative effects on the human body, especially the musculo-
skeletal system.

In space, the amount of weight that bones must support is reduced to almost zero. Over
time, calcium is lost from bones, leading to a decrease in bone density. The bones become
weak and brittle, putting astronauts at a higher risk of bone fracture upon return to the
Earth. Besides, the vertebral column may lengthen by as much as eight millimeters in
microgravity. This can affect the nervous system and lead to back pain.

Like bones, muscles become weaker from

lack of use. This is why preceding a lengthy
space mission, astronauts are required to
undergo serious physical training to strengthen
their bones and muscles. There are some in-
space exercises that astronauts can carry out
too. Scientists are developing good
programmes to prevent the weakening of
bones and muscles in space. With their
findings, it may be possible to develop new
treatments for bone and muscle diseases.
▲ An astronaut exercising in a spacecraft

Questions

1. Name the bone disease characterized by reduced bone density. (1 mark)

2. Explain why the vertebral column lengthens in microgravity conditions. (2 marks)

3. Apart from exercising, suggest what astronauts can do to prevent the weakening of bones in
space. Explain your answer. (2 marks)

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 18 Movement in humans

e-dictionary
Key terms e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccedict.e

ball-and-socket joint 球窩關節 p.12 motor end plate 運動終板 p.20

biceps 二頭肌 p.17 muscle fibre 肌纖維 p.14

bone marrow 骨髓 p.4 neuromuscular junction 神經肌肉接點 p.20

bone 骨 p.3 opposing muscle 拮抗肌 p.17

cartilage 軟骨 p.3, 4 skeletal muscle 骨骼肌 p.3, 14

extensor 伸肌 p.17 skeleton 骨骼 p.3

flexor 屈肌 p.17 synovial fluid 滑液 p.11

hinge joint 鉸鏈關節 p.12 synovial membrane 滑液膜 p.11

joint 關節 p.11 tendon 腱 p.14

ligament 韌帶 p.11 triceps 三頭肌 p.17

Summary

18.1 The human skeleton

1. The human skeleton is composed of bones and cartilage.

2. The axial skeleton makes up the central axis of the body. It consists of the skull, the vertebral column and
the rib cage.

3. The appendicular skeleton is the part of the skeleton that lies on either side of the body. It consists of the
limb bones and limb girdles.

4. The human skeleton has several functions:

Function Explanation

Support • It provides a rigid framework to support the body weight and hold the body
upright. It also gives shape to the body.

Movement • It provides surfaces for the attachment of skeletal muscles, and works with the
muscles to allow movement of the body.

Protection of • The skull protects the brain, the eyeballs and the ears.
internal organs
• The vertebral column protects the spinal cord.
• The rib cage protects the heart and the lungs.
• The pelvic girdle protects the urinary bladder and parts of the reproductive
system.

Storage • The skeleton stores minerals, such as calcium and phosphate.

• The yellow bone marrow stores fat.

Blood cell • The red bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells and blood
formation platelets.

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 18 Movement in humans

Joints and ligaments

18.2

5. A joint is the junction where two or more bones meet. Some joints are immovable while others are
movable.

6. The structure of a movable joint is shown below:

ligament
• holds bones in position
bone • prevents dislocation of
the joint

cartilage synovial membrane

• reduces friction • secretes synovial fluid to
• prevents the bone surfaces reduce friction and supply
from wear oxygen and nutrients to
• absorbs shock the cartilage

bone
synovial cavity
(contains synovial fluid)

7. Hinge joints and ball-and-socket joints are examples of movable joints.

Hinge joint Ball-and-socket joint

Degree of Allows movement in one plane only Allows movement in many planes
movement

hinge
socket

ball

Key: direction of movement Key: direction of movement

Examples Elbow joint, knee joint Shoulder joint, hip joint

Skeletal muscles
18.3

8. A skeletal muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fibres surrounded by connective tissues. Each muscle
fibre is a single, elongated muscle cell that contains a number of nuclei.

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 18 Movement in humans

How movement occurs

18.4

9. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons. Tendons are tough and inelastic. They effectively
transmit the pulling force from muscles to bones.

10. Skeletal muscles usually work in pairs as opposing muscles to move bones in opposite directions.

11. When a flexor contracts, the opposing extensor is relaxed to allow the limb to bend. When an extensor
contracts, the opposing flexor is relaxed to allow the limb to straighten.

Bending the arm Straightening the arm

shoulder bone

tendons

biceps (flexor) biceps is

contracts triceps relaxed
contracts
triceps (extensor)
radius
is relaxed
humerus

ulna

elbow joint

Initiation of muscle contraction by nerve impulses

18.5

12. A neuromuscular junction is a specialised synapse between a motor neurone and a muscle fibre.

13. The process of initiation of muscle contraction by nerve impulses is as follows:

 A nerve impulse arrives at the ending of an

axon of a motor neruone.

mitochondrion
 The vesicle releases neurotransmitters.

vesicle
cleft  Neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft in
the neuromuscular junction.

muscle fibre
 Neurotransmitters bind to the receptor sites
on the membrane of the muscle fibre, triggering
muscle contraction.

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18 Movement in humans

Concept map
Complete the following concept map to review the key points of this chapter.

Movement in humans

is brought about by

skeleton skeletal muscles

attach by
tendons to
is composed
is divided into
of

work in are made

pairs as up of

cartilage bones

consists of consists of
are
stimulated
skull limb to contract
are held
bones together by connect at by

motor
joints neurones
vertebral pectoral
column girdle
two types are

pelvic
rib cage
girdle

hinge ball-and-socket
joint joint

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18 Movement in humans

Time allowed: 40 minutes

Self quiz Total score: 30 marks

Level 1: Understanding basic concepts (10 marks, 1 mark for each multiple-choice question)

1. Which of the following comparisons between bones Directions: Questions 4 and 5 refer to the diagram
and cartilage is incorrect? below which shows some of the muscles associated
with a human leg.
Bones Cartilage
A. inflexible relatively flexible
B. contain more calcium contains less calcium joint X
C. have blood supply no blood supply
muscle 1
D. living non-living
muscle 3

2. Which of the following structures does not contain

cartilage?
muscle 2 muscle 4
A. pinna
B. teeth Y
C. trachea
D. rib cage
4. Which of the following muscles are flexors?

3. The diagram shows the longitudinal section of a A. 1 and 2

long bone. B. 1 and 4
C. 2 and 3
R
D. 3 and 4

S 5. Which of the following correctly states the functions

P
of joint X and structure Y?

Joint X Structure Y
A. allows movement of holds bones in position
Q
bones in one plane
B. allows movement of transmits forces to
bones in one plane bones
Which of the following combinations about the part
C. allows movement of holds bones in position
of the long bone and its functions is incorrect?
bones in many planes
Part Function D. allows movement of transmits forces to
A. P to breakdown red blood cells bones in many planes bones

B. Q to produce white blood cells

C. R to absorb shock
D. S to support weight

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 18 Movement in humans

6. The diagram below shows the structure of an elbow joint.

P
Q
R

(a) What type of movable joint is the elbow joint? (1 mark)Answer

(b) Using the letters, identify two parts of the joint which reduce friction during movement. (2 marks)Answer
(c) P is elastic while Q is not. Explain how the property of each structure allows it to carry out its function.
(2 marks)Answer

Level 2: Applying concepts (17 marks)

7. The diagram below shows Stephanie throwing a javelin on Sports Day.

Position 1 Position 2

(a) Describe the movement in her right arm between position 1 and 2. How is this movement brought about by the
biceps and triceps? (3 marks)Answer
(b) Stephanie hurt her shoulder when throwing the javelin. She felt great pain and had an X-ray examination in the
emergency room. The X-ray photograph below shows the condition of her shoulder.

(i) With reference to the X-ray photograph, suggest what had happened to Stephanie’s shoulder.
Give one piece of evidence to support your answer. (2 marks)Answer
(ii) Which structure is most probably damaged in Stephanie’s shoulder that led to the condition shown?
Answer
(1 mark)
(iii) The injured shoulder began to swell because of damage to some blood vessels. The doctor advised
Stephanie to apply an ice pack to the swollen area. Explain how applying an ice pack can reduce swelling
and pain. (4 marks)Answer

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 18 Movement in humans

8. The diagram below shows a neuromuscular junction.

Q motor neurone

(a) Name structures P to S. (4 marks)Answer

(b) Botulism is a type of food poisoning caused by a bacterial toxin which prevents the release of neurotransmitters
from the pre-synaptic neurone. It typically leads to the paralysis of muscles (i.e. the muscles cannot contract).
Based on your biological knowledge, explain how the bacterial toxin mentioned causes paralysis of muscles.
(3 marks)Answer

Level 3: Building a better answer (3 marks)

9. Read the following question and student A’s answer. Re-write and improve the answer based on the teacher’s
comment.

Question
The diagram below shows some bones and muscles of a human arm.

Muscles A and B are an antagonistic muscle pair. Explain the meaning of this term by reference to the movement
of the forearm. (3 marks) Answer

Student A’s answer

When muscle A contracts, muscle B is relaxed to allow the forearm to move upwards. ✔

Teacher's comment
The student only described how muscles A and B work to raise the forearm, but did not mention how they
work to lower the forearm. Also, the meaning of antagonistic muscles should be mentioned.

Answers are available on p. A3. If you miss any of the questions, review the relevant section(s) again.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7(a) 7(b) 8 9

Section(s) 18.1 18.1 18.1 18.4 18.2 18.2 18.4 18.2 18.5 18.4

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18 Movement in humans

Exam practice

Multiple-choice questions Section 18.4

Section 18.1 Directions: Questions 4 and 5 refer to the Diagram I

and Diagram II below. Diagram I shows a yoga
1. Which of the following organs are protected by the instructor in a yoga posture. Diagram II shows some of
rib cage? the muscles associated with her left leg.

(1) lung
(2) liver
(3) heart
A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

HKDSEE Biology 2016 Paper 1 Section A Q33 Diagram I

Section 18.2
Directions: Questions 2 and 3 refer to the diagram
below, which shows an elbow joint and its associated 4
structures: 1

3 2
S P

R Diagram II

2. Which of the above structures are elastic? 4. Which muscles of the left leg of the yoga instructor
are contracting when she maintains the posture
A. P and R only
shown in diagram I?
B. P and S only
A. 1 and 2
C. Q and R only
B. 1 and 3
D. Q and S only
C. 2 and 4
HKDSEE Biology 2015 Paper 1 Section A Q20
D. 3 and 4

3. Structure S is able to HKDSEE Biology 2014 Paper 1 Section A Q34

(1) carry out respiration.

5. Which muscles of the left leg are flexors?
(2) store minerals.
A. 1 and 2
(3) produce blood cells.
B. 1 and 3
A. (1) and (2) only
C. 2 and 4
B. (1) and (3) only
D. 3 and 4
C. (2) and (3) only
HKDSEE Biology 2014 Paper 1 Section A Q35
D. (1), (2) and (3)

HKDSEE Biology 2015 Paper 1 Section A Q21

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18 Movement in humans

6. The photograph shows a woman playing Section 18.5

badminton.
7. Which of the following statements about the
contraction of skeletal muscles is incorrect?

A. It requires ATP.
B. Heat is produced.
C. The cerebrum is always involved.
D. The muscle that contracts becomes shorter
and thicker.

Which of the following combinations correctly

describes the conditions of her biceps muscles in
this posture?

Biceps of right arm Biceps of left arm

A. contracts contracts
B. contracts relaxes
C. relaxes contracts
D. relaxes relaxes

Short questions
Section 18.2
8. In the elderly, knee joints degenerate and the secretion of synovial fluid decreases. This results in knee pain when
they walk. Account for the phenomenon in relation to the structure and functioning of the knee joint. (4 marks)

HKALE Biology 2010 Paper 2 Q5(b)

Section 18.4
9. The diagram below shows the structures of a joint.

muscle

B A

(a) Name the type of joint shown and suggest an example of such a joint in the body. (2 marks)
(b) Briefly describe how A and B work together to bring about movement at the joint shown. (4 marks)

HKDSEE Biology 2013 Paper 1 Section B Q2

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18 Movement in humans

10. The diagram below shows the bones in the human forearm and the leg.

Y Y

(a) Describe how the arrangement of bones is similar in the forearm and the leg, excluding the joints. (3 marks)Answer
(b) Describe the movement that can be made at X and Y. (2 marks)Answer

Cambridge International O Level Biology 5090 Paper 62 Q3 Nov 2012

11. The diagram below shows the right shoulder bone and arm bones of a man holding a dumbbell in his hand.

shoulder bone

humerus

(a) On the diagram, draw the muscles that are needed to lift the forearm as shown. Label them as the extensor and
the flexor. (4 marks)
(b) Explain why it is important for the shoulder bone and the humerus to remain still while the forearm moves.
(2 marks)Answer

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 18 Movement in humans

Structured questions

Section 18.1
12. The diagram below shows part of a human skeleton.

(a) Using the letters in the diagram, state the components of the appendicular skeleton. (2 marks)Answer
(b) Deficiency of vitamin D in childhood can cause rickets. The bones become soft and deformed.
Using the letters in the diagram, indicate which part of the skeleton is most susceptible to deformation. Explain
your answer. Hint 1 (3 marks)Answer
(c) (i) Name the structure protected by the bones of M. (1 mark)Answer
(ii) What is the advantage of structure M being made up of a series of bones instead of one piece of long
bone? (1 mark)Answer
(d) Other than protection and movement, state one more function of bones. (1 mark)Answer

Section 18.4
13. Physiotherapists need to understand how muscles and bones work together.
Figure 1 shows the bones of the hand and two muscles that help to move the thumb.

muscle A

thumb

muscle B
Figure 1

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Hint 1: Think about which part of the skeleton supports most of the body weight.
 18 Movement in humans

Answer
(a) (i) Which muscle, A or B, moves the thumb towards the fingers? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
(ii) Muscle B is ‘antagonistic’ to muscle A. Explain what this means. (2 marks)Answer
Figure 2 shows a joint between two bones in a finger.

bone

Q
fluid

bone

Figure 2

Structure P makes a fluid. This fluid fills the space between the bones.

(b) (i) Name structure P. (1 mark)Answer

(ii) Describe the functions of the fluid made by structure P. (2 marks)Answer
(iii) Structure Q covers the ends of the bones in the joint. Name structure Q. (1 mark)Answer
(iv) In a healthy joint, structure Q is smooth. When a person has arthritis, structure Q can become rough and
uneven. Explain how arthritis will affect the functioning of the joint. (2 marks)Answer

AQA GCSE Human Health and Physiology (Higher) Jun 2015 Q5

17
18
14. The diagram below shows some of the bones and muscles in the right leg of a sprinter waiting for the starting signal.

D
E

(a) Describe how the structure of joint X allows a smooth movement at the joint. (4 marks)Answer
(b) Using the letters in the diagram, indicate two sets of antagonistic muscles. (2 marks)Answer
(c) The sprinter started to sprint as soon as he heard the starting signal.
(i) State the muscle(s) that contracted to produce the forward thrust. (1 mark)Answer
(ii) Use a flowchart to show the nervous pathway involved in beginning the forward thrust. (3 marks)Answer

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 18 Movement in humans

Section 18.5
15. Photograph P shows several muscle fibres associated with the terminal parts of neurone R and Photograph Q shows
the detailed structure of a neuromuscular junction.

neurone R

muscle fibre

neuromuscular
junction

(x400) Photograph P

part of muscle fibre

(x4500)
Photograph Q

(a) Which type of neurones does R belong to? Give a reason for your answer. (2 marks)
(b) What is the functional relationship between S and T shown in Photograph Q? Hint 2 (2 marks)
(c) Describe how nerve impulses can be transmitted across the neuromuscular junction leading to muscle
contraction. (3 marks)
HKDSEE Biology 2015 Paper 1 Section B Q5

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Hint 2: You will not be able to score full marks if you give the functions of S and T separately.
 18 Movement in humans

Essay

Section 18.4
16. Explain how the contraction and relaxation of the muscles of the upper arm bring about the movement of the
forearm. Describe the initiation of muscle contraction by the nervous system. (12 marks)Answer

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