22 types of fallacies and 10 examples for each

Fallacies of relevance

1. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam)

Definition: Attempts to persuade by appealing to emotions of pity rather
than logic.
1. "I deserve an A on this assignment because I worked really hard on it, even
though I didn't follow the instructions."
2. "You should hire me because I have a family to feed, not because of my
qualifications."
3. "I shouldn't get a speeding ticket because I was rushing to help my sick
grandmother."
4. "My client is innocent! Just look at how sad his mother is in the courtroom."
5. "Please don't fire me! My rent is due next week."
6. "You must pass me in this course, or else I won’t graduate, and my parents will
be heartbroken."
7. "We should let Mark win the competition because he’s been through a lot
lately."
8. "Don’t give me detention! I’ve already had a really bad day."
9. "The judge should be lenient on the defendant because he had a tough
childhood."
10. "Vote for me because I’ve struggled with poverty my whole life."
2. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum)
Definition: Uses threats or force instead of logical reasoning.
1. "If you don’t support this policy, you will lose your job."
2. "Agree with me, or I’ll make your life miserable."
3. "You better accept my proposal, or I will spread rumors about you."
4. "If you don’t vote for me, I’ll make sure your taxes go up."
5. "Do what I say, or you’ll regret it!"
6. "Support this law, or we’ll make sure your business suffers."
7. "If you don’t back me up, I won’t invite you to my birthday party."
8. "Change your stance on this issue, or you won’t be part of the team anymore."
9. "Buy this security system, or you might get robbed."
10. "If you don’t follow our beliefs, you’ll be punished in the afterlife."

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3. Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad Populum)
Definition: Uses popularity or emotional appeal rather than logical
reasoning.
1. "Everyone is buying this phone, so it must be the best!"
2. "You should vote for this candidate because the whole country loves them."
3. "Only weird people don’t drink coffee."
4. "You have to wear these shoes—everyone at school has them!"
5. "Real men drive trucks."
6. "Smart people use Apple products."
7. "If you don’t support this movement, you’re on the wrong side of history."
8. "Millions of people can’t be wrong—this diet must work!"
9. "Join our religion; billions of people already believe in it!"
10. "If you don’t cheer for this team, you’re not a true fan!"

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4. Appeal to Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundiam)
Definition: Uses an unqualified or irrelevant authority to support an
argument.
1. "A famous actor says this medicine works, so it must be effective."
2. "My uncle, who is a mechanic, says climate change isn’t real."
3. "This social media influencer said this diet works, so it must be true."
4. "A Nobel Prize-winning physicist believes in astrology, so it must be real."
5. "A football player endorses this brand of toothpaste, so it must be the best."
6. "The CEO of a tech company says we should invest in cryptocurrency."
7. "An artist said this political candidate is the best, so I’m voting for them."
8. "My teacher said that eating carrots improves eyesight, so it must be true."
9. "A YouTuber said this conspiracy theory is true, so I believe it."
10. "A bestselling author says ghosts are real, so they must exist."
5. Ad Hominem (Personal Attack)
Definition: Attacks the person making the argument rather than the
argument itself.
1. "You can’t trust his opinion on politics—he dropped out of college."
2. "Your argument is invalid because you’re young and inexperienced."
3. "She’s wrong about economics because she’s not rich."
4. "Why should we listen to him? He’s been divorced three times!"
5. "Your idea is dumb because you’re a bad driver."
6. "Don’t believe what he says about nutrition—he’s overweight."
7. "Only a fool would believe what you’re saying."
8. "You’re a known liar, so your argument must be false."
9. "He’s arguing for climate action, but he still drives a car."
10. "You’re just a nerd, so your opinion doesn’t count."

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6. Straw Man Fallacy
Definition: Misrepresents someone’s argument to make it easier to
attack.
1. Person A: "We should have better regulations for gun safety."
Person B: "So you want to ban all guns and leave people defenseless?"

2. Person A: "I think we should reduce our reliance on fossil fuels."

Person B: "You just want to destroy the economy and make everyone poor!"

3. Person A: "We need to improve healthcare access."

Person B: "Oh, so you want the government to control our health decisions?"

4. Person A: "I think taxes should be adjusted to help the poor."

Person B: "So you believe in communism?"

5. Person A: "Schools should focus more on critical thinking."

Person B: "So you want to remove all standard testing?"

6. Person A: "I prefer eating organic food."

Person B: "Oh, so you think non-organic food is poison?"

7. Person A: "Let’s have stricter immigration policies."

Person B: "You just hate immigrants!"
8. Person A: "I believe in free speech."
Person B: "So you support hate speech?"

9. Person A: "We need stricter rules on corporate pollution."

Person B: "So you want to shut down all businesses?"

10. Person A: "We should reform the justice system."

Person B: "So you want to let all criminals go free?"

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7. Red Herring
Definition: Distracts from the main issue by introducing an irrelevant
topic.
1. "We should discuss police reform." → "But what about rising grocery prices?"
2. "Why were you late?" → "Did you hear about the new movie coming out?"
3. "You failed the test." → "But I helped you clean the house yesterday!"
4. "We need to talk about your behavior." → "But look at what my brother did!"
5. "Why didn’t you finish your work?" → "Did you know it’s raining outside?"
6. "Our company is losing money." → "Let’s talk about how great our logo looks."
7. "You lied about your credentials." → "What about all the good things I’ve
done?"
8. "We need to fix our education system." → "The real issue is video game
addiction."
9. "Why didn’t you pay the rent?" → "Why do you always blame me for
everything?"
10. "This policy is unfair." → "But think about how much effort we put into it!"
8. Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
Definition: The conclusion does not logically follow from the premises.
1. "Teenagers are spending too much time on social media, so we should ban all
smartphones."
2. "Crime rates are increasing, so we need to ban all video games."
3. "People are getting sick from fast food, so we should outlaw all restaurants."
4. "College is expensive, so we should shut down all universities."
5. "Traffic is bad, so we should ban cars."
6. "Many students fail math, so we should remove math from the curriculum."
7. "People are losing jobs, so we should make everything free."
8. "There are homeless people, so we should get rid of big houses."
9. "Kids are addicted to video games, so we should eliminate electricity."
10. "Water pollution is rising, so we should stop drinking water."
 Fallacies Weak induction
1. Appeal to Unqualified Authority (Argumentum ad
Verecundiam)
Definition: Relies on an authority that is not qualified in the relevant
subject.
1. "A famous actor recommends this medical treatment, so it must be effective."
2. "My friend, who is a car mechanic, says global warming is a hoax."
3. "A social media influencer claims that this diet will cure cancer."
4. "A musician said that the stock market is going to crash, so I’m selling my
stocks."
5. "This best-selling author believes in astrology, so it must be real."
6. "My neighbor says vaccines are dangerous because he read it online."
7. "A famous football player says drinking only fruit juice will improve your brain
function."
8. "The CEO of a tech company says we should invest in cryptocurrency, so it must
be a good idea."
9. "A popular YouTuber says ancient aliens built the pyramids, so it must be true."
10. "A retired actor claims that a new conspiracy theory about history is correct."

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2. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam)
Definition: Assumes something is true because it hasn’t been proven false
(or vice versa).
1. "No one has ever proven ghosts don’t exist, so they must be real."
2. "Scientists haven’t discovered aliens, so they must not exist."
3. "No one has proven that Bigfoot isn’t real, so he must be out there."
4. "There’s no evidence that this new diet is harmful, so it must be safe."
5. "No one has shown that psychic powers are fake, so they must be real."
6. "Since no one has found the Loch Ness Monster, it must still be hiding."
7. "You can’t prove that my lucky socks don’t help me win games."
8. "There’s no proof that my house isn’t haunted, so it must be."
9. "If scientists can’t explain this mystery, then it must be caused by aliens."
10. "Nobody has debunked this conspiracy theory, so it must be true."

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3. Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident)
Definition: Draws a broad conclusion based on insufficient evidence.
1. "I met two rude French people, so all French people must be rude."
2. "I failed my first math test, so I’m bad at math."
3. "A few teenagers committed crimes, so all teenagers must be criminals."
4. "I saw a pit bull attack someone, so all pit bulls are dangerous."
5. "Two electric cars caught on fire, so all electric cars are unsafe."
6. "One politician lied, so all politicians must be liars."
7. "A vegan I know is unhealthy, so being vegan must be bad for you."
8. "I got food poisoning from a fast-food restaurant, so all fast food must be
unsafe."
9. "I got scammed once online, so all online businesses must be scams."
10. "My grandfather smoked every day and lived to 90, so smoking isn’t bad for
you."

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4. False Cause (Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc & Non-Causa Pro
Causa)
Definition: Assumes a causal relationship where there isn’t one.
1. "I wore my lucky shirt, and my team won—so my shirt must have helped."
2. "Every time I wash my car, it rains. Washing my car must cause rain."
3. "I got sick after eating ice cream, so the ice cream made me sick."
4. "My friend started using a new shampoo and then won the lottery—it must be
the shampoo!"
5. "People who go to the hospital often die, so hospitals must be dangerous."
6. "Crime increased after video games became popular, so video games must
cause crime."
7. "I had a headache, then I drank water, and it went away—water must cure
headaches."
8. "I saw a black cat, and later that day, I lost my wallet—the cat must have caused
bad luck."
9. "The economy crashed after a new president was elected, so it must be their
fault."
10. "More people use social media today than in the past, and depression rates are
up—so social media must cause depression."

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5. Slippery Slope
Definition: Assumes one small event will lead to a series of extreme
consequences.
1. "If we allow students to use calculators, soon they won’t learn math at all."
2. "If we legalize marijuana, next thing you know, all drugs will be legal."
3. "If we ban smoking in public, soon the government will ban everything
unhealthy."
4. "If we raise taxes slightly, soon the government will take all our money."
5. "If we let one student break the dress code, soon no one will follow any rules."
6. "If we allow robots to do some jobs, soon they will take over all jobs."
7. "If we allow children to have smartphones, they will stop reading books
completely."
8. "If we allow people to work remotely, soon no one will come to the office at all."
9. "If we teach about evolution, soon schools will ban religious teachings."
10. "If we let kids play violent video games, soon they will all become criminals."

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6. Weak Analogy
Definition: Compares two things that are not truly similar in a relevant
way.
1. "Cars and guns both cause deaths, so we should ban cars like we ban certain
guns."
2. "A school is like a prison because both have rules and authority figures."
3. "Drinking coffee is just like doing drugs because both change how you feel."
4. "People are like plants—if you don’t water them constantly, they’ll die."
5. "Banning TikTok is like banning books—it’s an attack on freedom."
6. "A teacher is just like a dictator because both controls people."
7. "Letting students choose their own homework is like letting them design the
curriculum."
8. "Owning a pet is like having a child—you have to feed them and take care of
them."
9. "Since smoking cigarettes is dangerous, drinking soda must be just as bad."
10. "Giving employees raises is like giving kids unlimited candy—it will spoil them."
 Fallacies of presumption
1. Begging the Question (Petitio Principii)
Definition: Assumes the conclusion within the premise instead of
providing actual evidence.
1. "God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is true because it’s the word
of God."
2. "Freedom of speech is important because people should be able to say
whatever they want."
3. "The death penalty is justified because it is a fair punishment for serious
crimes."
4. "Of course ghosts are real—people have seen them."
5. "Reading is important because it helps develop literacy skills."
6. "Murder is wrong because it’s illegal, and it’s illegal because it’s wrong."
7. "The defendant must be guilty because they wouldn’t have been arrested
otherwise."
8. "Democracy is the best system because no other system is as good as
democracy."
9. "This medicine works because it cures the disease."
10. "People should obey the law because breaking the law is wrong."
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2. Complex Question (Loaded Question)
Definition: Poses a question that assumes a controversial or unjustified
premise.
1. "Have you stopped cheating on tests?"
2. "Why do you hate freedom?"
3. "When did you decide to start lying to your friends?"
4. "Why are you always so rude?"
5. "How long have you been ignoring your responsibilities?"
6. "Why do you support corrupt politicians?"
7. "When will you admit that you were wrong?"
8. "Why do you disrespect your parents?"
9. "Why are you against progress?"
10. "Do you regret making such a bad decision?"
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3. False Dichotomy (False Dilemma, Either-Or Fallacy)
Definition: Presents two extreme options as the only possibilities,
ignoring other alternatives.
1. "Either you support this policy, or you’re a bad person."
2. "You’re either with us or against us."
3. "Either we ban social media, or society will collapse."
4. "You either go to college or end up homeless."
5. "Either we invade this country, or they will attack us first."
6. "Either we cut all taxes, or the economy will fail."
7. "If you don’t believe in this religion, you must be an atheist."
8. "Either you agree with me, or you’re completely ignorant."
9. "Either we win this election, or democracy is dead."
10. "Either you believe in traditional values, or you have no morals.
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4. Suppressed Evidence (Cherry-Picking)
Definition: Selects only the evidence that supports a claim while ignoring
contrary evidence.
1. "This study proves that sugar isn’t harmful!" (Ignores studies showing negative
effects.)
2. "Crime rates are down since this policy was enacted!" (Ignores that crime was
already decreasing.)
3. "This celebrity was nice to me once, so they must be a good person!" (Ignores
reports of bad behavior.)
4. "Video games improve thinking skills!" (Ignores studies linking games to
addiction.)
5. "This diet worked for me, so it must work for everyone!" (Ignores cases where it
didn’t.)
6. "Look at these five people who got rich from investing!" (Ignores thousands who
lost money.)
7. "This politician has never been caught lying!" (Ignores instances where they
were caught.)
8. "The weather is cold today, so climate change must be fake!" (Ignores global
temperature data.)
9. "This new law is great—just look at these success stories!" (Ignores those
negatively affected.)
10. "This medication has no side effects!" (Ignores studies showing rare but serious
reactions.)
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
1. Equivocation
Definition: Uses a word with multiple meanings in a misleading way.
1. "Laws can’t be broken, and the speed limit is a law, so you can’t speed."
(Confuses "law" as in legal rule with "law" as in natural law.)
2. "Fine for parking here." (Does "fine" mean acceptable or a penalty?)
3. "Feathers are light, and light things aren’t dark, so feathers can’t be dark." (Uses
different meanings of "light.")
4. "A theory is just a guess, and evolution is a theory, so evolution is just a guess."
(Confuses scientific theory with every day "guess.")
5. "He has a right to do this, so it must be the right thing to do." (Confuses legal
right with moral right.)
6. "I have the right to free speech, so I can say whatever I want without
consequences." (Confuses legal protection with freedom from criticism.)
7. "I need a good bank, so I’ll sit by the river." (Confuses financial institution with a
riverbank.)
8. "A sugar-free cake must be free, since ‘free’ means no cost." (Confuses "free" as
in "without sugar" and "without cost.")
9. "Nothing is better than eternal happiness, and a sandwich is better than
nothing, so a sandwich is better than eternal happiness." (Plays on different
meanings of "nothing.")
10. "The sign says ‘No dogs allowed.’ That means my cat is fine!" (Confuses
specificity—"no dogs"—with implying all else is permitted.)
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2. Amphiboly
Definition: Uses a grammatically ambiguous sentence to mislead or
confuse.
1. "The professor said on Monday he would give a lecture on ethics." (Was the
lecture given on Monday, or was the statement made on Monday?)
2. "Flying planes can be dangerous." (Are planes dangerous, or is flying them
dangerous?)
3. "The burglar threatened the student with a knife." (Did the burglar have a knife,
or was the student being threatened with one?)
4. "I saw the man with binoculars." (Did I use binoculars to see the man, or did the
man have binoculars?)
5. "The panda eats, shoots, and leaves." (Did it eat and then leave, or does it eat
bamboo shoots and leaves?)
6. "Wanted: Man to take care of cow that does not smoke or drink." (Does the
man, the cow, or both not smoke or drink?)
7. "The child said the teacher was annoying loudly." (Who was loud—the teacher
or the child?)
8. "Slow children crossing." (Are the children slow, or should drivers slow down?)
9. "We will sell gasoline to anyone in a glass bottle." (Is the gasoline in a glass
bottle, or must the buyer bring one?)
10. "Grandpa saw a man on a hill with a telescope." (Did Grandpa see the man
through a telescope, or did the man have a telescope?)
 Fallacies of grammatical analogy
1. Fallacy of Composition
Definition: Assumes that what is true for the parts must also be true for
the whole.
1. "Each player on the basketball team is talented, so the team must be the best."
2. "Every brick in this building is small, so the building must be small."
3. "Since all the ingredients in this cake taste good separately, the cake must taste
good too."
4. "Every member of the committee is smart, so the committee will make smart
decisions."
5. "Atoms are invisible, so everything made of atoms must be invisible."
6. "Each musician in the orchestra is excellent, so the orchestra must be excellent."
7. "If every part of a car is lightweight, then the car must be lightweight."
8. "Each chapter of this book is short, so the book must be short."
9. "Every cell in your body is microscopic, so you must be microscopic too."
10. "Since every letter in this word is easy to spell, the whole word must be easy to
spell."
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2. Fallacy of Division
Definition: Assumes that what is true for the whole must also be true for
its parts.
1. "This school is prestigious, so every student here must be a genius."
2. "The United States is a wealthy country, so every American must be rich."
3. "This cake is delicious, so each individual ingredient must be delicious too."
4. "This machine is heavy, so every part of it must be heavy."
5. "The team won the championship, so every player must be a champion-level
athlete."
6. "The university has a great reputation, so every professor there must be world-
class."
7. "A car is expensive, so each component of the car must be expensive."
8. "The government is powerful, so every government worker must be powerful."
9. "Water is wet, so every molecule of water must be wet."
10. "This novel is long, so each chapter must be long too."