Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE – HAMTIC CAMPUS

Guintas, Hamtic, Antique

College of Agriculture Forestry and Food Science

Bachelor of Science in Forestry

Land Use, Land Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) and CO2 Emissions and Sequestration

ANTHROPOGENIC PERTURBATION OF THE GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE

The carbon cycle undergoes perturbations caused by a variety of natural processes such as
wildfires, droughts, insect
infestations, and disease. These
processes can themselves be
affected by human activities, for
example through GHG emissions
that change climate, wildfire
suppression, and land-use change.
During longer periods, variations in
the Earth’s orbit also drive
significant perturbations to the
global carbon cycle. Over the
recent several centuries, human
activity has resulted in
perturbations to the carbon cycle
that have no precedent in
geological records. Anthropogenic
emissions also can directly alter the
chemistry of the atmosphere,
possibly affecting its ability to
remove pollutants.
Perturbation of the global
carbon cycle by anthropogenic
activities, averaged globally for the decade 2007-2016 (GtCO 2/yr). The IPCC distinguishes between two
domains in the global carbon cycle. (1) The fast domain consists of carbon in the atmosphere, the ocean,
and surface ocean sediments and on land in vegetation, soils, and freshwaters. This domain undergoes large
exchange fluxes and relatively "rapid" reservoir turnovers. (2) The slow domain consists of the carbon stored
in rocks and sediments, which exchange carbon with the fast domain through volcanic emissions of CO2,
chemical weathering, erosion, and sediment formation on the sea floor. In these cases, turnover times are
10,000 years or longer.
Human activities have an unprecedented impact on the global carbon cycle. Atmospheric CO 2
concentrations have been continuously monitored since 1958, and show a 30% increase, from 315 ppm in
1958 to 412 ppm in 2020. Anthropogenic emissions, primarily from fossil fuel combustion, but also from land-
use changes, are the drivers of these changes, with global emissions almost tripling over that period, from 4
gigatonnes of carbon dioxide (GtC) per year in 1958 to almost 12 GtC per year at present. Although fossil
fuel emission declined by about 7% in 2020 due to response to the COVID-19 pandemic, there are no sign
of long-term global emissions decrease yet. The atmospheric CO2 increase induces land and ocean carbon
uptake, respectively driven by enhanced photosynthesis, leading to larger land biomass and soil carbon; and
by enhanced air-sea CO2 exchange, leading to larger carbon content in the surface ocean and export to the
deep ocean. These mechanisms act as negative feedbacks in the Earth system and are removing about 50%
of the CO2 emitted in the atmosphere by human activities. Modelling studies show a broad agreement on the
magnitude of the land carbon sink, and on atmospheric CO2 increase being the major driver of this sink.

MARISTELLE C. GORERO, L. Agric.

UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE-HAMTIC CAMPUS
 Although there are clear indications that future climate change will reduce the land carbon sink, potentially
turning into a carbon source, there are no evidence of a reduction of the global land carbon sink yet (AGU
Fall Meeting Abstracts, December 2021).

CHANGE IN FOREST AREA CAUSED BY LAND USE CHANGE (LUC)

As a fundamental asset, land is a source of revenue, livelihood, food security, cultural identity and
shelter of local individuals, and it indicates the power relations between individuals and social groups, which
is destroyed considerably at present by climate change, land use/ cover change (LUCC). LUCC has been
identified as one of the main drivers responsible for eliminating the capacity of ecosystems to support human
well-being (HWB). Land use change (LUC) is the strongest link between human society and nature, which
causes a change in the cycle structure and function of elements in ecosystems and affects the HWB of local
communities. One of the most important types of LUC is forest land use change (FLUC) that considerably
impacts HWB and Biodiversity Ecosystem Services (BECS) and is affected by local forest-dwelling
communities’ livelihoods. Our ability to predict future LUCC is extremely limited due to a lack of understanding
of how rapid and drastic changes such as socio-economic shocks and disturbances (e.g., policy changes
and economic crises) affect land use/cover.
The impacts of LUCC on ecosystem services mainly occur via changes in biodiversity, ecosystem
processes, and habitats. The degree of change in ecosystem services (ECSs) depends on specific land use
methods. Thus, perceiving the relationship between LUC and ECS requires understanding the dynamic and
complex relationship between social and environmental systems. According to the World Resources Institute
(WRI) statistics, tropical countries experienced a loss of 11.1 million hectares of forest cover in 2021. Among
these losses, 3.75 million hectares occurred within the world’s most biologically diverse ecosystem in the
tropical forests. In 2020, Brazil and the Amazon rainforest accounted for 1.5 million hectares of deforestation
and the reason for this was the increase in forest fire and FLUC to agricultural fields (World Resources
Institute, 2021).
The severity of global changes indicates
that countries have not fulfilled their obligations in
accordance with the COP26 Glasgow climate
change summit to mitigate and halt deforestation by
2030. In Iran, the most rapid deforestation occurred
from 2002 to 2012 due to population growth.
Predictions show that the per capita forest area will
keep decreasing, while other land uses will intensify
around agricultural and built-up areas until 2024.
One major cause of this destruction is the
breakdown of regulatory and control infrastructure for forests and natural resources due to the demand for
food and agricultural development, additionally the natural expansion happening.

Land use change (LUC): Refers to the exploitation and conversion of land (here, conversion of
forest land (FLUC)) to uses other than ecosystem functions (forest ecosystem)
• Pattern (Pattern of forest lands): Refers to the spatial arrangement of different types
of forests and other land covers such as rivers, lakes, and agricultural lands.
• Scale (Scale in forest lands): Refers to the extent and spatial range of a forest
region. It can be measured in hectares, square kilometers, or other units.
• Intensity (Intensity of forest land use): Refers to the level of utilization of forest lands.
It can be measured in terms of the amount of wood harvested, the number of built
infrastructures, including roads constructed, or the intensity of nature tourism in a
forest region.
Ecosystem services (ECS): Ecosystem services in forests include the benefits that people obtain
from forests. These benefits can be direct or indirect, tangible or intangible, and are seen in four
forms:
• Provision: Benefits that people derive from forests in the form of goods and
materials.
• Regulation: Refers to the role of forests in regulating the natural environment.

MARISTELLE C. GORERO, L. Agric.

UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE-HAMTIC CAMPUS
 • Support: Fundamental ecological processes in forests that form the basis for other
ecosystem services.
• Cultural: Benefits that people derive from forests related to their cultural and spiritual
values.
Human well-being (HWB): Human well-being is a broad concept composed of various components
including physical health, mental health, social capital, economic-social security, food security, and
environmental quality that encompass the quality of human life.
• Health: Defined as the physical and mental well-being of individuals in society, not
just the absence of disease or disability.
• Basic materials: Essential goods and services that individuals need for survival and
to have a decent life. These materials include food, water, shelter, clothing, energy,
and health care.
• Security: Encompasses a wide range of factors including being free from violence
and physical or psychological harm, having basic needs met such as primary needs
(like food, water, and shelter), attention to human dignity and respect (including the
right to be treated with respect and dignity), and having the right to participate in
decision-making.
• Relations: Emphasizes social interactions between individuals. Social relationships
are essential for physical and mental health, a sense of belonging, and overall
human well-being.
• Freedom: Freedom in choice and action in human well-being means having
independence in decision-making and taking actions that impact human life and
well-being. This includes the freedom to choose values, goals, and lifestyle, as well
as the freedom to act based on those choices.
Over the past 25 years (1990–2015), the largest forest area converted to other land uses was in the
tropics (FAO, 2015). According to Masum et al. (2017), the highest deforestation rate amongst all tropical
regions of the world has taken place in Southeast Asia since 1990. Malaysia in particular, is experiencing
higher deforestation rate than other tropical countries in the world. A total of 8.6% of its forest cover has been
removed between 1990 and 2010 with an annual deforestation rate of 96,000 ha. According to UN-REDD,
this reduction was mainly driven by the rapid industrial and economic growth in Malaysia. Clearing of lands
in the name of development is occurring in most of Malaysia's densest hill forests.
Forest ownership and its associated management activities are considered as vital for sustainable
management of forest and its associated biodiversity (FAO, 2015). The Global Forest Resources Assessment
2015 reported an increasing rate of privately owned forests on a global scale with less certainty that these
private forestlands will remain as forests. The number of private forestlands in Malaysia is still smaller than
the government's forest reserves (FAO, 2015). Nonetheless, deforestation was found very active in these
privately owned hill forest areas (Wyn, 2013) Shown was the Penang Island in Malaysia, as its 70% hill forest
area is under private management. This state has been experiencing rapid and radical changes in urban
extension over the last three decades. Conversions of privately owned hill forests into agriculture and
settlement by cutting and burning became more noticeable on the island. Eventually, this island was identified
as one of the deforestation hotspot in Peninsular Malaysia by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA).

MARISTELLE C. GORERO, L. Agric.

UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE-HAMTIC CAMPUS
 LAND USE CHANGE (LUC) AND FOREST CARBON STOCK

The rate of build-up of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere can be reduced by taking advantage
of the fact that atmospheric CO2 can accumulate as carbon in vegetation and soils in terrestrial ecosystems.
Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change any process, activity or mechanism
which removes a greenhouse gas (GHG) from the atmosphere is referred to as a "sink". Human activities
impact terrestrial sinks, through land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF), consequently, the
exchange of CO2 (carbon cycle) between the terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere is altered.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 6th assessment report finds that the
“Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)” sector on average, accounted for 13-21% of global total
anthropogenic GHG emissions in the period 2010-2019. Estimated anthropogenic net CO2 emissions from
AFOLU (based on bookkeeping models) result in a net source of +5.9±4.1 GtCO2eq/yr between 2010 and
2019 with an unclear trend. Land use change drivers net AFOLU CO 2 emission fluxes, with deforestation
being responsible for 45% of total AFOLU emissions. In addition to being a net carbon sink and source of
GHG emissions, land plays an important role in climate through albedo effects, evapotranspiration, and
aerosol loading through emissions of volatile organic compounds.
The IPCC report finds that the LULUCF sector offers significant near-term mitigation potential while
providing food, wood and other renewable resources as well as biodiversity conservation. Mitigation
measures in forests and other natural ecosystems provide the largest share of the LULUCF mitigation
potential between 2020 and 2050. Among various LULUCF activities, reducing deforestation has the largest
potential to reduce anthropogenic GHG emissions, followed by carbon sequestration in agriculture and
ecosystem restoration including afforestation and reforestation.
Mitigation activities in the LULUCF sector can have multiple synergies with the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), such as enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem functions, employment and local
livelihood. In another light, the IPCC report recognizes that some activities, such as deployment of
afforestation of naturally unforested land, can compound climate-related risks to biodiversity, water and food
security, and livelihoods, especially if not implemented with due consideration to the local conditions including
current use of the land. Such risks can best be managed if LULUCF mitigation is pursued in response to the
needs and perspectives of multiple stakeholders to achieve outcomes that maximize synergies while limiting
trade-offs.
However, the main challenges of LULUCF activities are their potential reversibility and non-
permanence of carbon stocks. The storage of CO2 through vegetation and soil management can be reversed
by human activities, natural disturbances or a combination of the two, and it is prone to climate change
impacts. Such severe impacts including wildfires, mass mortality of trees and weakening natural land carbon
sinks, are already observed and are projected to increase with every additional increment of global warming.
Concerted, rapid and sustained actions that limit global warming to close to 1.5°C would substantially reduce
projected losses and damages related to climate change in ecosystems, according to the IPCC.

LAND USE VS. LAND COVER

Land is a unique resource and asset that delineates the space in which economic activities,
environmental processes take place, and within which environmental resources and economic assets are
located. Land is finite, and is under pressure to serve the growing demands for human needs The two primary
aspects of land, land cover and land use, are separate but related concepts.
Land use is commonly defined as a series of operations on land, carried out by humans, with the
intention to obtain products and/or benefits through using land resources. This could include residential
areas, commercial zones, farming, and conservation efforts. Essentially, land use focuses on the purpose
assigned to a particular area. Included examples are:
• Residential Areas: Areas designated for homes and housing developments.
• Agricultural Practices: Land used for growing crops and raising livestock.
• Conservation Zones: Areas set aside to protect wildlife and natural resources.
• Industrial Sites: Spaces for factories and other industrial activities.
Land cover is commonly defined as the vegetation (natural or planted) or man-made constructions
(buildings, etc.) which occur on the earth surface. Water, ice, bare rock, sand and similar surfaces also count
as land cover. This could also be forests, lakes, grasslands, or even man-made structures like roads and

MARISTELLE C. GORERO, L. Agric.

UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE-HAMTIC CAMPUS
 buildings. While land use focuses on purpose, land cover focuses on what physically exists in an area. Land
cover simply describes the physical features on the earth’s surface.
The concept of land cover helps scientists, planners, and conservationists understand the natural
state of a region. Land cover mapping involves determining the distribution of forests, wetlands, water bodies,
and more. This is important for assessing natural landscapes, monitoring environmental changes, and
predicting potential hazards. Land cover examples include:
• Vegetation Analysis: Trees, shrubs, and other plant life that exist in an area.
• Water Bodies: Lakes, rivers, and ponds covering the landscape.
• Built-up Areas: Urban structures, buildings, and paved surfaces.
• Soil and Bare Ground: Areas not covered by vegetation or other natural features.
Simplified definition:
Land Use = Human Purpose: It deals with the activities, like
farming, construction, and recreation, that people carry out.
Land Cover = Physical Features: It refers to what’s actually
covering the ground, such as trees, water, or pavement.

Understanding this difference helps planners, scientists, and

policymakers manage natural resources, reduce
environmental impacts, and foster sustainable development.
For instance, changes in land cover due to deforestation
directly impact land use by affecting agricultural possibilities
and conservation efforts.
Applications Include:
• Urban Development: Deciding where to
place roads, parks, and residential areas.
• Agricultural Practices: Determining the best areas for crops based on soil quality and water
availability.
• Forest Management: Balancing timber production with conservation of ecosystems.
• Wetland Identification: Recognizing and preserving crucial wetland areas that support
biodiversity.
• Remote sensing analysis plays a key role in identifying both . By using satellites and aerial
imagery, experts can gather spatial data about an area to understand its features and track
changes over time.

Understanding both the land use and land cover of a track of land provides a comprehensive picture of a
particular area. This data is a fundamental component of the planning and decision-making processes for
many communities because it helps them to understand better where to plan for different types of growth and
where to preserve; it also helps them to understand the connectivity or fragmentation of various features in
their community.

DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION

Deforestation and forest degradation are the biggest threats to forests worldwide. Over half of the
tropical forests worldwide have been destroyed since the 1960s, and every second, more than one hectare
of tropical forests is destroyed or drastically degraded. The degradation and loss of forests threatens the
survival of many species, and reduces the ability of forests to provide essential services.
Deforestation and forest degradation impact the lives of 1.6 billion people whose livelihoods
depend on forests. One billion of them are among the world’s poorest. Nature-based Solutions such
as forest landscape restoration (FLR) can reverse the effects of deforestation and degradation and regain
the ecological, social, climatic and economic benefits of forests.

• Deforestation occurs when forests are converted to non-forest uses, such as agriculture and road
construction.
• Forest degradation occurs when forest ecosystems lose their capacity to provide important goods
and services to people and nature.

MARISTELLE C. GORERO, L. Agric.

UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE-HAMTIC CAMPUS
 DRIVERS OF DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION
DEFORESTATION FOREST DEGRADATION
• Agriculture (commercial) • Timber Logging
• Agriculture (local/subsistence) • Fuel Wood Charcoal
• Infrastructure • Uncontrolled Fires
• Mining • Livestock Grazing in Forests
• Urban Expansion

MARISTELLE C. GORERO, L. Agric.

UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE-HAMTIC CAMPUS