LOGIC

- science of correct reasoning

PROPOSITION
- declarative sentence (declaring a fact) that is either true or false, but not both.

EXAMPLE 1: ALL THE FOLLING DECLARATIVE SENTENCE ARE PROPOSITIONS.

1. Washington D.C, is the capital of the United States of America

2. Toronto is the capital of Canada
3. 1+1=2
4. 2+2=3

Proposition 1 and 2 are true, whereas 2 and 4 are false.

EXAMPLE 2: ALL THE FOLLOWING DECLARATIVE SENTENCE ARE NOT PROPOSITIONS.

1. What time is it?

2. Read this carefully
3. x+1=2
4. ×+y=z

i. not proposition when they are not declarative

- requesting or suggesting

PROPISITIONAL VARIABLES (statement variables)

- variables that represent proposition

conventional letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s….

● NEGATION ( ‐p, not p)

- p is the opposite of the truth value of q
EX.
● p = Michael’s PC runs Linux
-p= Michael’s PC does not run Linux

● p= Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32GB of memory

-p= Vandana’s smartphone has less than 32GB of memory

● CONJUNCTION ( and)
- p and q is true when both p and q are true, and is false otherwise

● DISJUNCTION ( or )
- p or q is False when both p and q are false, and is True otherwise
 ● CONDITIONAL ( if then )
- False when p is True and q is False, and True otherwise

● BICONDITIONAL ( if and only then )

- True when p and q have the same truth values, and False otherwise
- □ kapag magkatulad = True
- □ kapag magkaiba = False

TAUTOLOGY - all True

CONTRADICTION- all False
CONTINGENCY- True and False
THE EXCLUSIVE OR
- a logical operator whose negatukn is the logical biconditional

EXOR ⊕
- True when exactly one of p and q is true, and is False otherwise
□ kapag tulad = false
□ kapag magkaiba = true

CONVERSE:
- “if q, then p”
- reverse the order of hypothesis and conclusion

q→p

i. hypothesis is the p.
conclusion is the q.

CONTRAPOSITIVE
- “if not q, then not p”
- both swaps the order of hypothesid and conclusion and negates

¬q →¬p
INVERSE
- “if not p, then not q”
- conditional statements retains offer of hypothesis and conclusion while negating both of
them

¬p →¬q

TABLES:

● PROPOSITION (CONDITIONAL STATEMENT)

● CONVERSE

p q q→p

T T T

T F T

F T F

F F T
 ● CONTRAPOSITIVE

p q ¬p ¬q ¬q →¬p

T T F F T

T F F T F

F T T F T

F F T T T

● INVERSE

p q ¬p ¬q ¬p →¬q

T T F F T

T F F T T

F T T F F

F F T T T

◇ Conditional Statement ( Proposition) and its Contrapositive are equivalent.

◇ Converse and Inverse are also equivalent

EQUIVALENT
- two statements are logically equivalent if they have always produce the same truth
value
- when the compoubd proposition always have the same value.
PRECEDENCE OF LOGIC

Procedure:
● Logical Complements (not)
● Logical Conjunctions (and)
● Logical Disjunctions (or)

LOGIC AND BIT OPERATION

● BIT – binary digits

- smallest unit of data
- logical state with one or two possible numbers

TRUE FALSE

1 0
TABLE FOR THE BIT OPERATORS ∧, ∨, and ⊕,

x y x ∨y x∧y x⊕y

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 0

BIT STRING
- sequence of zero and one

QUANTIFIERS
- express the quantity of elements that satisfy a given condition within a specific domain or
set
- tell us that a predicate is true for every element (there is one more element)

PREDICATE: statement about a varjable or set of variable

DOMAIN: could be all integers, all real numbers

TWO TYPES OF QUANTIFIER

● UNIVERSAL QUANTIFJER
- ∀ means “for all”
- proposition holds true for every element within specified domain or set
 - P(x) is true for all values of x in this domain.

EX.

Let’s P(x): x + 1 > x. (domain: positive integers)

P(1)= 1 + 1 > 1
= 2 > 1 TRUE

P(2) = 2 + 2 > 2
= 4 + > 2 TRUE

● EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER
- ∃ means “there exist”
- satisfied if the predicate is true for just one element

EX.

Let’s Q(x): x < 2

Q1= 1 < 2. TRUE

Q2= 2 < 2. FALSE
Q3= 3 < 2. FALSE

1. P (x) = x < 4
= 1 < 4 — TRUE
= 2 < 4 — TRUE
= 3 < 4 — TRUE
= 4 < 4 — TRUE
= 5 < 4 — FALSE
◇ Under universal quantifier this is not True

2. Q (x) = x + 1 > 2x
= 1 + 1 > 2 (1) = 1 + 1 > 2
= 2 > 2 — FALSE
= 2 + 1 > 2 (2) = 2 + 1 > 4
= 3 > 4 — FALSE
 ◇ Under universal quantifier this is NOT TRUE

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

● ∀x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) ≡ ∀xP(x) ∧ ∀Q(x)

∀x – all (x)
P(x)– given (yung nasa statement)
∧ – and
Q(x) – given (yung nasa statemen
≡ – equiavelent

● ∃x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) ≡ ∃xP (P(x) ∨ ∀Q(x).

∃x – there exist (x)

∨ – or