G-HUMA002 | Module 3

MORAL EXPERIENCES AND MORAL DILEMMAS

Ethics

Moral Experiences and Moral Dilemmas Moral dilemmas, therefore, are situations where persons, who are
called “moral agents” in ethics, are forced to choose between two or more
As we go through our everyday tasks we are often faced with choices conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable
on what and how to do things, knowing that our actions have consequences to manner.
others and ourselves. Oftentimes our actions call our morals into question. These
are moral experiences. A moral dilemma, also known as an ethical dilemma, is a decision-
making problem where you must choose between two options, neither of which
Moral experiences are everyday encounters that challenge us to actively is entirely acceptable from an ethical standpoint. According to the Oxford
engage with our values. These can range from simple decisions about how to treat Dictionary, it's a "decision-making problem between two possible moral
others to complex ethical dilemmas where there is no easy right or wrong answer. imperatives, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable."
Every time we face a choice that requires us to consider what is right and just, we
are engaging in a moral experience. Moral dilemmas share these common traits:

A moral dilemma arises when we are faced with two or more equally 1. The person must choose between two (or more) morally unacceptable
valid but conflicting moral courses of action. These situations often involve actions.
difficult choices with no clear-cut solution. For example, the scenario with Emilio
and Jun presents a classic conflict between loyalty and truth. This internal conflict 2. The person can perform each action.
forces Emilio to choose between protecting his brother (emotional ties) and 3. The person cannot perform both (or all) actions simultaneously.
upholding his own moral principles (telling the truth). These dilemmas force us
to carefully weigh our values, consider the potential consequences of our actions, This means that in a moral dilemma, no matter what choice is made,
and ultimately make the most ethical decision possible. something morally important will be compromised. The decision-maker faces a
situation where they must choose between two wrongs, leading to a moral
deadlock.
What are Moral Dilemmas?

A dilemma is a situation where a person is forced to choose between Application: Consider the following example: Lindsay is a deeply religious
two or more conflicting options, neither of which is acceptable. person; hence, she considers killing humans absolutely wrong. Unfortunately, it
The person has choices to make that will all have results she does not is found out that Lindsay is having an ectopic pregnancy. As is well known, an
want. For example, a town mayor faces a dilemma about how to protect and ectopic pregnancy is a type of pregnancy that occurs outside the uterus, most
preserve a virgin forest and at the same time allow miners and loggers for commonly in the fallopian tubes. In other words, in ectopic pregnancy, the fetus
economic development in the town. It must be noted, however, that if a person is does not develop in the uterus. Now, if this happens, the development of the fetus
in a difficult situation but is not forced to choose between two or more options, will definitely endanger the mother. Thus, if Lindsay continues with her
then that person is not in a dilemma. pregnancy, then there is a big possibility that she will die.

When dilemmas involve human actions which have moral According to experts, the best way to save Lindsay’s life is to abort the fetus,
implications, they are called ethical or moral dilemmas. which necessarily implies killing the fetus. If we do not abort the fetus, then
Lindsay, as well as the fetus, will die.

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In the above example of a moral dilemma, Lindsay is faced with two conflicting necessity demands no moral law. You have to decide based on your best judgment
options, namely, either she resorts to abortion, which will save her life but at the or choose based on the principle of lesser evil or greater good or urgency.
same time jeopardizes her moral integrity or does not resort to abortion but
endangers her life as well as the fetus. Indeed, Lindsay is faced with a huge moral Types of Moral Dilemmas
dilemma. 1. Epistemic and Ontological Dilemmas
According to Karen Allen, there are three conditions that must be present for a. Epistemic moral dilemmas involve situations wherein two or more
situations to be considered moral dilemmas. moral requirements conflict with each other and that the moral agent
hardly knows which of the conflicting moral requirements takes
First, the person or the agent of a moral action is obliged to make a decision precedence over the other. In other words, the moral agent here does not
about which course of action is best. Here, the moral agent must choose the know which option is morally right or wrong.
best option and act accordingly. In the case of the example of above, Lindsay may b. Ontological moral dilemmas, on the other hand, involve situations
opt to abort the fetus as the best course of action. wherein two or more moral requirements conflict with each other, yet
neither of these conflicting moral requirements overrides each other.
Second, there must be different courses of action to choose from. Hence, as This is not to say that the moral agent does not know which moral
already pointed out above, there must be two or more conflicting options to requirement is stronger than the other. The point is that neither of the
choose from for moral dilemmas to occur. moral requirements is stronger than the other; hence, the moral agent
And third, no matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are can hardly choose between the conflicting moral requirements.
always compromised. This means that, according to Allen, there is no perfect
solution to the problem. And for this reason, according to Benjiemen Labastin, in 2. Self-Imposed and World-Imposed Dilemmas
moral dilemmas, the moral agent “seems fated to commit something wrong which a. A self-imposed dilemma arises from the individual's own actions or
implies that she is bound to morally fail because in one way or another she will choices. For example, a politician might make a campaign promise that
fail to do something which she ought to do. In other words, by choosing one of proves difficult or impossible to fulfill. This creates a dilemma: breaking
the possible moral requirements, the person also fails on others.” the promise would undermine their credibility and disappoint their
constituents, while fulfilling it might have unintended negative
consequences. Self-imposed dilemmas often stem from past actions,
commitments, or personal choices that now present conflicting moral
Meaning of a False Dilemma
obligations.
On the other hand, a false dilemma is a situation where the decision Example: Duterte's promise - Duterte in the lead-up to the 2016 polls
maker has a moral duty to do one thing but is tempted or under pressure to do said he would ride a jet ski to the Spratlys in the West Philippine Sea,
something else. A false dilemma is a choice between a right and a wrong. For plant the Philippine flag in a Chinese airport on reclaimed land there,
example, a lawyer or an accountant can face an opportunity to prioritize self- and tell Beijing, "This is ours."
interest over the client's interest. b. A world-imposed dilemma arises when external forces thrust an
individual into a morally challenging situation. Unlike self-created
dilemmas, these situations are often beyond the individual's control. For
example, during World War II, many individuals faced impossible
What to Do When Faces with a Moral Dilemma?
choices: should they resist the Nazi regime, risking their lives and the
Ultimately, dilemmas are conflicts in the application of moral standards. lives of their families, or comply to survive? These situations forced
The question is which moral standards must be followed? In a state of emergency, individuals to make agonizing moral decisions in the face of
overwhelming external pressures and systemic injustice.

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3. Obligation Dilemmas and Prohibition Dilemmas Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

a. Obligation dilemmas arise when you face two or more equally
important moral duties that conflict with each other. For example, a A. Individual Dilemmas
doctor might have an obligation to save a patient's life and an obligation
to protect patient confidentiality. If a patient confesses to a crime while These are personal dilemmas where an individual faces a "damned if you do,
seeking treatment, the doctor faces a difficult choice. damned if you don't" situation. A classic example is the Heinz dilemma from
b. Prohibition dilemmas occur when all available options are morally Kohlberg's (1958) study. Heinz had to decide whether to steal a drug to save his
wrong. Imagine a soldier ordered to execute innocent civilians. wife's life, knowing that not stealing it would result in her death. This dilemma
Refusing the order could endanger their own life and potentially the highlights the conflict between two obligations: saving a loved one and obeying
lives of others, while carrying out the order would be a grave violation the law.
of their moral code. These dilemmas highlight the complexities of B. Organizational Dilemmas
ethical decision-making in real-world situations.
Organizational dilemmas arise from the conflict between the needs of a social
organization and the self-interests of its members. For example, a Catholic school
4. Single Agent and Multi-Person Dilemmas aims to provide quality education to the poor by keeping tuition fees low, but it
a. A single-agent dilemma occurs when you must choose between two also needs to raise salaries to retain quality faculty, which would require
equally valid but conflicting moral courses of action. For example, increasing tuition fees. These dilemmas can occur in various sectors, including
witnessing a friend cheat on an exam presents a dilemma: upholding business, healthcare, and public services.
academic integrity versus protecting your friend. You must choose Consider the case of Mr. Brown, a 74-year-old man with metastatic lung cancer.
between two morally sound options, knowing that choosing one will Despite completing treatment, he is now hospitalized with severe symptoms. His
inevitably preclude the other. physician believes no further aggressive treatment is possible, but Mr. Brown and
b. Multi-person dilemmas arise when multiple individuals face his wife insist on "everything being done." The dilemma involves conflicting
conflicting moral obligations. Imagine a situation where everyone concerns: the financial burden on Mr. Brown's family, the hospital's focus on
agrees on what the right course of action should be, but achieving that treatable patients, the needs of other patients, and the medical staff's ethical
outcome requires collective action. considerations.
Example: Consider a community facing an environmental
crisis. Each individual might recognize the need to reduce their C. Structural Dilemmas
carbon footprint, but if everyone acts selfishly, prioritizing
Structural dilemmas involve conflicts within the organizational structure. For
individual convenience over collective action, the crisis will
instance, a school principal faces a dilemma between being participatory in
worsen. This creates a dilemma: individuals must choose
school affairs or adopting a one-woman rule due to past unfavorable experiences
between acting in their own self-interest or cooperating for the
with participatory approaches. This type of dilemma highlights the challenges in
greater good.
balancing different leadership styles and organizational needs.
Resolving multi-person dilemmas requires more than simply identifying
the morally right course of action. It demands effective communication,
negotiation, and consensus-building among individuals or groups.
Finding common ground, overcoming individual self-interest, and More Examples of Structural Dilemmas
fostering a sense of collective responsibility are crucial for navigating
1. Differentiation vs. Integration
these complex ethical challenges.

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Different divisions within an organization often have their own unique cultures, rules altogether. Clearly defined jobs can lead to sticking to job descriptions even
making coordination and integration challenging. Decentralization has when circumstances require flexibility.
empowered local governments and schools to address their own issues and
localize curricula, but this has also led to greater differentiation, complicating 5. Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive Interdependence
efforts to create a unified structure. This complexity requires more costly Too much autonomy can make individuals or groups feel isolated, while
coordination strategies. excessive interdependence can lead to wasted time on unnecessary coordination.
Reforms in society or government can create structural dilemmas. For example, For example, schoolteachers working in isolation may feel unsupported, while
introducing universal healthcare can lead to conflicts between different sectors excessive approvals in companies like IBM and Hewlett-Packard have hindered
and groups. Those who contribute less to the social fund might receive the same innovation.
benefits as those who contribute more, leading to disagreements. In the 6. Centralized vs. Decentralized Decision Making
Philippines, high medicine prices pose a dilemma: government intervention
through price controls could harm drug stores, while inaction leaves patients Decentralized decision-making allows organizations to respond quickly to
struggling to afford necessary medications. changes, but top managers may lose some control. This creates a dilemma
between tight centralization and diffused authority.
2. Gap vs. Overlap
7. Structural Dilemmas in World Organizations
Roles and responsibilities within organizations can suffer from gaps or overlaps.
Gaps occur when key responsibilities are not clearly assigned, leading to tasks In world organizations like the UN, structural dilemmas arise from balancing
being neglected. Overlaps happen when multiple people perform the same task, world order and national sovereignty. This involves finding a balance between
causing confusion and wasted effort. international authority and the freedom of action of individual member states.

For example, a patient in a teaching hospital was disturbed by repeated checks

from staff, indicating an overlap in nurse duties. Conversely, her call button often
Techniques for Resolving Moral Dilemmas
went unanswered, showing a gap in responsibility. Similarly, a boy's request to
shorten his pants was passed around his family, resulting in multiple unnecessary 1. Explore Alternative Options: Sometimes, a dilemma can be resolved
alterations and ultimately ruining the pants. by identifying alternative solutions. For example, if someone faces a
dilemma between stealing to feed their family or letting them starve,
3. Lack of Clarity vs. Lack of Creativity
they might consider other options like seeking social support, charity, or
When employees are unclear about their roles, they may prioritize personal finding alternative means of income.
preferences over organizational goals, leading to trouble. Over-defined roles can
2. Choose the Greater Good and Lesser Evil: This approach involves
also stifle creativity, as employees rigidly follow job descriptions without
selecting the option that results in the greatest overall good or the least
considering the overall impact on service or product quality.
harm.
For instance, an airline manager's over-defined role led to an unhelpful response
3. Situation Ethics Approach: Follow the principle of doing what you
to a passenger's lost bag, resulting in customer dissatisfaction.
can within your current circumstances without resorting to extraordinary
4. Flexibility vs. Strict Adherence to Rules or supernatural means.

Balancing flexibility and strict adherence to rules is crucial. Being too rigid can Joseph Fletcher offers additional principles for resolving moral dilemmas. He
prevent helping someone in need, while excessive flexibility can lead to a lack of uses Kant's rule "ought implies can," meaning if you ought to do something, then
you can do it. Conversely, if you cannot do something, you are not obliged to do
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it. Fletcher advises, "do what you can where you are," and echoes St. Augustine's
sentiment, "Love and do what you will." The extent of one's obligation is
determined by one's ability and capacity for love.

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