Q5 What is synchronisation in computer network

Types of Synchronization in Computer Networks

1Clock Synchronization: Involves ensuring that the clocks of different devices or nodes in a network
are synchronized or match. This is crucial for applications that rely on precise timing, such as video
streaming, voice calls, or distributed systems.

Example: The Network Time Protocol (NTP) is commonly used to synchronize clocks across
computers in a network.

2Data Synchronization: Ensures that the data being transferred between devices is consistent and
complete. Data synchronization occurs when different devices or systems exchange data and update
their records or files to match each other.

Example: When you use cloud storage services, such as Google Drive or Dropbox, data
synchronization ensures that files are updated and accessible across all your devices.

1. Transmission Synchronization

o Deals with ensuring that the sender and receiver are aligned in terms of when to
send and receive data. This helps avoid data collisions or loss during transmission.

o Example: In synchronous transmission, the sender and receiver agree on a common

clock signal to transmit data in a steady stream.

Importance of Synchronization

 Prevents Data Loss: Synchronization ensures that data is transferred in an orderly manner,
preventing data loss or miscommunication.

 Improves Efficiency: Proper synchronization enables more efficient communication,

especially in real-time applications like video conferencing or online gaming.

 Supports Timing Critical Applications: Certain applications, such as financial transactions,

require precise timing to ensure accurate data delivery and prevent errors.

 Reduces Collisions: In networks where multiple devices send data simultaneously (like in
Ethernet), synchronization helps manage the timing of data transmissions, preventing packet
collisions.
Q6 Explain the impact of different file format?

1. 1Efficiency: Compression: Some file formats support compression (e.g., ZIP, MP3, JPEG) to
reduce file size, saving storage space. This is particularly important for large media files like
images, audio, and video.
Impact: Smaller file sizes mean less storage space is required, but compression can sometimes
lead to a loss of data quality (lossy compression).
Uncompressed Formats: Formats like RAW image files or WAV audio tend to be large because
they don’t use compression, preserving the original quality.
Impact: These files consume more storage but retain all the data without losing any quality
(lossless).
2. Data Quality: Lossy Compression: Formats like MP3 (audio) and JPEG (image) use lossy
compression to reduce file size by removing data that is deemed less important, which can affect
quality.
Impact: While the file size is reduced, the quality of the file may be compromised, and repeated
compression can result in further quality degradation.
Lossless Compression: Formats like PNG (image), FLAC (audio), and ZIP (general files) preserve
data integrity.
Impact: Higher file sizes, but no loss of quality, making them ideal for tasks that require high
fidelity.
3. Compatibility and Accessibility
Universal Formats: Some formats, like PDF for documents or MP4 for video, are widely
supported across different devices and operating systems.
Impact: These formats ensure compatibility and ease of sharing across platforms (e.g., opening a
PDF document on any computer or mobile device).
Proprietary Formats: Formats such as .docx (Microsoft Word) or .psd (Photoshop) may require
specific software to open or edit them.
Impact: Limited compatibility can be an issue if the necessary software is not available, making it
harder to share or access the file across different systems.
4. Performance and Speed :Efficient Formats for Quick Loading: Some formats, like JPEG for
images or MP4 for videos, are designed for quick loading and minimal processing.
Impact: They are ideal for applications where speed and performance matter, such as web
browsing or streaming, where quick access to data is crucial.
Large or Complex Formats: Formats like RAW images or Uncompressed video (e.g., AVI) can
take longer to load and require more resources to process.
Impact: These formats may cause slower performance, especially on systems with limited
resources or when working with large files.
5. Security and Privacy: Encrypted Formats: Certain file formats (e.g., PDF or ZIP) can support
encryption to protect data.
Impact: These formats offer better security for confidential files, protecting the contents from
unauthorized access.
Unprotected Formats: Plain text or unencrypted files (e.g., .txt) can be easily accessed or
modified without additional layers of security.
Impact: These files are more vulnerable to tampering or unauthorized access.
Q7 Explain the Dialog control mechanism.

The Dialog Control Mechanism is a system that manages and regulates the flow of communication
between two or more entities in a network. Its primary goal is to ensure that messages are
transmitted correctly, in order, and without error. This mechanism plays a crucial role in various types
of communication, such as client-server interactions or peer-to-peer communication, by controlling
how data is exchanged during a session.

Key Functions of Dialog Control

1. Flow Control: This function regulates the rate at which data is transmitted, preventing the sender
from overwhelming the receiver. It ensures that data is sent at a pace that the receiving party
can handle without causing congestion or loss.
2. Synchronization: Synchronization ensures that both parties are aware of each other’s actions. It
guarantees that messages are exchanged in the correct order, with both sender and receiver
being synchronized in terms of communication steps.
3. Error Control: Dialog control mechanisms also detect and manage errors that may occur during
transmission, such as corrupted data or lost packets. They enable retransmission of lost data to
ensure that the communication remains reliable.
4. Session Management: This aspect involves the creation, maintenance, and termination of
communication sessions. It ensures that the session runs smoothly and that the process is
properly completed, without unintended interruptions.
5. Multiplexing: Dialog control handles multiple communication sessions simultaneously, ensuring
that data streams from different conversations do not interfere with one another. This is
especially useful in systems where many users need to communicate at the same time.

Types of Dialog Control

1. Half-Duplex Communication: In half-duplex systems, data can only flow in one direction at a
time. Only one party can transmit data while the other listens, with the roles switching
periodically.

Example: Walkie-talkies, where one person speaks and the other listens, and vice versa.

2. Full-Duplex Communication: Full-duplex systems allow simultaneous two-way

communication, meaning both parties can send and receive data at the same time.

Example: Telephone calls, where both participants can talk and listen simultaneously.

3. Turn-Taking: This type of dialog control involves alternating between sending and receiving
data. Each party waits for the other to respond before transmitting its own data.

Example: Email or messaging apps, where participants take turns writing and replying to
messages.
 Q8 Working of data compression in presentation. layer

Working of Data Compression in the Presentation Layer

In the presentation layer (Layer 6) of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, data
compression is an essential process used to reduce the size of data being transmitted across the
network. The main goal of data compression is to optimize bandwidth usage and improve the
efficiency of data transfer by reducing the amount of data that needs to be sent.

How Data Compression Works in the Presentation Layer

1. Compression Before Transmission:

Sender Side: Before data is transmitted, the presentation layer uses a compression algorithm to
reduce the size of the data. This is done by identifying patterns, redundancies, or repetitive
elements in the data and encoding them in a more compact form.
Example: If a file contains a sequence of repeating characters (e.g., "aaaa"), the algorithm might
compress it into a smaller representation like "a4" (meaning four consecutive "a"s).
2. Compression Techniques: Common compression techniques used in the presentation layer
include lossless compression (where no data is lost, and the original data can be perfectly
restored) and lossy compression (where some data is sacrificed for a smaller file size, often used
in multimedia data like images or videos).

 Lossless compression: ZIP, GIF, PNG, FLAC.

 Lossy compression: JPEG, MP3, MPEG.

3. Encoding the Compressed Data: After compression, the data is encoded in a specific format that
makes it easier for the receiving system to decode. The compressed data might be wrapped in a
specific protocol format depending on the application (e.g., HTTP, FTP).
4. Transmission: The compressed data is transmitted over the network. Since the data is smaller in
size, it uses less bandwidth, reducing transmission time and improving network efficiency.
5. Decompression at the Receiver: Receiver Side: When the data reaches the receiver, the
presentation layer decompresses it using the appropriate algorithm (usually the inverse of the
one used for compression).
For example, if data was compressed using ZIP, the receiver will use a decompression tool to
restore the original data.
6. Restoring the Data: After decompression, the data is returned to its original format or close to its
original form (if lossy compression is used, it may not be identical but still sufficiently close).

Importance of Data Compression in the Presentation Layer

Bandwidth Efficiency: Reduces the amount of data sent over the network, helping to optimize
bandwidth usage, especially for large files, images, audio, or video.

Faster Data Transfer: Compressed data requires less time to be transmitted, leading to faster
communication, especially in environments with limited bandwidth (e.g., mobile networks or
satellite communication).

Cost Savings: Reducing the amount of transmitted data can lower network costs, particularly in
environments where bandwidth is metered or costly (e.g., cloud storage, mobile data plans).