CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY

AND CONTAMINATION

CONTENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
4.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
4.3 FLOW CHART OF SITE INVESTIGATION PROCESS
4.4 PHASE 1 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (DESK STUDY)
4.5 PHASE 2 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (GROUND INVESTIGATION)
4.6 MAIN REFERENCES

APPENDIX A CHECKLIST FOR GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (PHASE 1 AND 2)

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APPENDIX B SOIL AND ROCK CLASSIFICATION

APPENDIX C LABORATORY TESTING
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

4.0 SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

Workmanship Introduction
i. All work to be carried out by a qualified and technically This chapter provides guidance on the appropriate steps to ensure that
competent person in a workmanlike manner. the correct level of site investigation is conducted in relation to the risk
posed by ground conditions and potential contaminants.
Materials
i. All samples to be stored and kept in such a way that Functional Requirement 4 (Site Investigation) applies to the following
will not cause inaccuracy when soils are tested. sections of this chapter:

Design 4.1 Introduction and objectives;

i. Design and specifications shall provide a clear indication 4.2 Roles and responsibilities;
of the design intent and demonstrate a satisfactory 4.3 Flow chart of site investigation process;
level of performance; 4.4 Phase 1 Geoenvironmental assessment (desk study);
ii. The site investigation should be completed at an 4.5 Phase 2 Geoenvironmental assessment (ground investigation).
appropriate level for the risk in accordance with the
relevant British Standard;
iii. Site investigation and remedial measures must meet
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the relevant Building Regulations and other statutory

requirements;

1. The Building Regulations 2010;

2. British Standards and Euro-Codes (see Appendix
2a for a list of standards referred to).
 CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

4.1.1 Introduction
This chapter sets out the requirements for an
acceptable site investigation. It is intended to
be flexible and user-friendly and includes simple
checklists aimed at ensuring compliance. The aim is
to raise standards both in the interests of the warranty
provider and also of the Builder or Developer. This
will lead to a safe and economic design which will
minimise the risk to all those involved in the project.

The majority of construction projects run over time

and over budget as a direct result of problems
within the ground. It is therefore vitally important
to reduce the risk of unforeseen conditions which
can directly affect the overall cost of the project.
It is believed that Builders and Developers will view
this work as an important safeguard, rather than
unnecessary expenditure.
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To ensure a consistently high standard, all stages

of the work should be carried out by a Chartered Figure 1 – The geological environment, cross section of a river valley
Engineer or Chartered Geologist with at least five
years’ experience of this type of work. Specifying
properly qualified personnel will considerably
increase the overall industry standard.
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CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

4.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 4.2.4 Health and Safety Executive

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is responsible
The roles and responsibilities of those parties for Health and Safety at work including the
involved in the development are the Owner, CDM Regulations.
Developer, Builder and Self-Builder. Desk Study

See text for

4.2.1 Owner / Developer / Builder / Self-Builder sources of
Site Description information
The provision of clear development proposals for
Site history
the site and the implementation of a competent Geology and mining
Any Geoenvironmental / Hydrogeology and flooring
site investigation, using appropriately qualified Geotechnical hazards known Environmental setting
or suspected Radon
personnel is now a priority for regulators.
Geoenvironmental risk assessment
Geotechnical assessment

These demonstrate that any geotechnical and

Yes No No further action
contaminated land risks can be safely dealt None - No significant
geotechnical or
with. Specific Health and Safety responsibilities, plausible pollution
in particular the CDM Regulations, also require Phase 2 Geoenvironmental Commence construction
Assessment (intrusive Ground
compliance. Investigation)
or remediation
Refine brief and objectives
No further action
4.2.2 Environmental Health/Contaminated although an intrusive
investigation would Unforeseen hazards
Land Officer always be advisable to
minimise later costs
The provision of advice to the Local Planning The investigation - scope
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and methodology
Department on technical matters and Strata profile - soil descriptions Consider the need for
planning conditions requires a competent and In situ and laboratory testing additional investigation or
Detailed quantitative risk assessment Consider the need for remediation on all or only
comprehensive site investigation and associated (revise in light of investigation additional investigation part of the site
recommendations) or remediation
risk assessment.

4.2.3 Local Authority Building Control Phase 3 Geoenvironmental

Complete build
Have the geotechnical
Building Control is responsible for enforcing Assessment
Yes and geoenvironmental risks Yes
(note that Phase 2 can be
the Building Regulations, which also requires been adequately defined
preliminary investigation)
competent and comprehensive site investigation.
No
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CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

4.3 FLOW CHART OF SITE INVESTIGATION of vegetation can indicate soil and ground water 4.4.3 Site history
PROCEDURES conditions, and note should be made of any The history of the site and the surrounding areas is
invasive plants such as Japanese Knotweed and extremely important when assessing the likelihood of
4.4 PHASE 1 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT Giant Hogweed. Adjacent features and land use contamination or Geotechnical hazards. Historical
(DESK STUDY) should be reported if there is likely to be an impact Ordnance Survey maps date back to the mid-19th
on the development. It is not uncommon for century and often specify the actual industrial use
4.4.1 Introduction and objectives features such as tanks to be known about, but of particular sites or buildings. They may show areas
The aim of the Phase 1 Geoenvironmental be unrecorded. of quarrying or infilling as well as indicating where
Assessment is to identify and assess the buried obstructions such as underground tanks or
potential Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental The walkover should note any potential sources old foundations can be expected.
(contamination) hazards on the site. Since all sites of contamination and Geotechnical hazards
are different, it is important to identify the scope such as slopes, excavations, land slipping, The influence or impact of off-site past industrial
and purpose of the desk study. This will include ground subsidence, soft ground or desiccated/ use will depend upon the type of industry, the
who commissioned the work, the development shrinkable soils. underlying geology and the topography. However,
proposals, the relevant procedures followed and consideration should normally be given to any such
the objectives. Any issues specifically excluded All structures on the site should be inspected features within a 250m radius of the site (or further
should also be noted if these might normally be both internally and externally for any evidence where appropriate), which have the potential to
expected as part of the desk study. of structural damage such as tilting, cracking or affect it.
chemical attack. Any evidence of underground
4.4.2 Site description features should be noted. Where practical, the Historical maps are available from libraries and
The site description should define the exact extent local residents can often give valuable information, also commercial providers such as GroundSure or
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of the site. It should include a site address, grid although caution should be used in respect of their Envirocheck. The latter provide a cost effective
reference and elevation. The boundaries and recollection. Local place names can give useful method of obtaining maps and include the ability to
topography of the site should be defined. indications of former uses, e.g. Gas Works Lane, superimpose current site boundaries on older maps.
A site inspection should always be carried out, not Water Lane, Tannery Road etc. Aerial photographs Issues regarding possible breaches of copyright are
only of the site itself but the immediate surrounding and their interpretation can also prove helpful. also avoided by using licensed products.
area. This should include any information not
apparent from the maps and describe what A photographic record of the site and any specific It should be remembered that historical maps only
currently occupies the site, such as buildings, hard features of the site should be included with the report. provide a snapshot in time and care must be taken
standing, watercourses, vegetation, trees and when interpreting what may have occurred in
any particular features. The type and distribution the intervening years. For example, a quarry may
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CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

be shown on one map and infilled on the next. with reference to any other mapped geological Any ground water or surface water abstraction
However, in the intervening period it could have features, particularly if there are likely to be any points ‘downstream’ of the site, in particular any
expanded prior to infilling, similarly industrial uses natural cavities or solution features. potable (drinking water) abstraction points should
may not always be recorded and many military or be recorded as this may have liability implications
sensitive uses may have been omitted. 4.4.5 Mining areas should the development cause any pollution.
In former coalfields or other areas of mineral
Other sources of information may include the extraction the maps may not always record the 4.4.7 Environmental setting
ubiquitous internet search and historical aerial presence of old or active workings. The likelihood The question as to whether a site poses an actual
photographs. It may be necessary to additionally of shallow coal workings affecting surface stability or potential environmental risk, or is at some
search the libraries of Local Authorities and Local should be established in conjunction with a Coal external risk from pollution will be determined by its
History departments. Authority report. Such reports also record areas that environmental setting. This will in turn depend upon
have been affected by the extraction of brine, the site’s topography, geology, hydrogeology
4.4.4 Geology and mining which is particularly prevalent in the Cheshire area. and hydrology amongst other site specific
The geology of the site should be recorded by Other forms of mineral extraction will require site considerations.
reference to published geological maps. These specific research.
maps most commonly exist at 1:50,000 (1 inch to 1 It is necessary to consider other potential sources
mile) and 1:10,000 (or 6 inches to 1 mile). The British 4.4.6 Hydrogeology and flooding of contamination such as pollution control licenses,
Geological Survey Geo-Index also provides existing The assessment should include flood risk and the discharge consents, hazardous sites (COMAH,
ground investigation records including logs and hydrogeology of the site, in particular whether NIHHIS), pollution incidents, landfills, waste
reports. It should be noted that these records can the site lies on a Principle Aquifer and/or Source treatment sites, and past and current industrial sites.
relate, not only to the surrounding areas but may Protection Zone, which are both susceptible to
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also include previous investigation of the site itself. pollution of ground water. The presence of surface Current industrial operations rarely provide a risk of
The information on the geological maps can also water features and drainage should be described pollution to a site. Pollution is most likely to have
be supplemented with British Geological Survey and the overall risks of flooding to the site should been caused by historical activities and processes
technical reports, flood risk appraisals and memoirs. be determined, primarily with reference to the which were often deemed normal practice in the
Environment Agency flood map data and Local past, but which are considered unacceptable
The bedrock geology, any overlying superficial Authority commissioned Strategic Flood Risk today. In this regard, the past history is invariably
deposits and the effects of weathering should all Assessments. Flood risk data is continually being highly significant in respect of possible ground
be described, together with any geological faults updated by the Environment Agency and pollution.
that may affect the site. An explanation of the Local Authority.
likely ground conditions should be given together
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The site should be considered in relation to any 4.4.8 Radon

designated environmentally sensitive sites such as The need to incorporate Radon Protection
Special Areas of Conservation, Special Protection Measures should be determined by reference
Areas, Nature Reserves and Sites of Special to risk maps produced by the Health Protection
Scientific Interest. It could be questioned whether Agency. Such information is also usually included
contamination on the site could be affecting such within commercially available datasets.
sensitive areas whether these are on or adjacent to
the study site. 4.4.9 Geoenvironmental risk assessment and
conceptual site model
Data relating to current industrial licensing, A quantitative health and environmental risk
consents and the like, together with information assessment should be carried out as part of the
relating to environmentally sensitive sites, is typically process. Details of this process are set out in Part
available through commercial data suppliers. IIA of the Environment Protection Act 1990 and
As with the historical maps, this is usually a cost amended in subsequent legislation.
effective method of obtaining this data.
This Act introduces the concept of a pollution
For both the historical maps and datasets, there is linkage, the linkage consists of a pollution
usually little or no interpretation of the information (contaminative) source or hazard and a receptor,
and it is essential that this interpretation is carried together with an established pathway between
out by an experienced and qualified individual. the two. For land to be contaminated, a pollution
Automated risk assessments do not include appraisal linkage (hazard-pathway-receptor) must exist, this
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by qualified staff. They should therefore be viewed forms a so-called ‘conceptual model’ of the site.
with caution and are not usually acceptable to
regulators. An example of this was a contaminated SOURCE PATHWAY RECEPTOR
former petrol filling station site recorded as having
no past industrial use. The historical maps never
recorded the site as a filling station, nor did the
environmental data. However, the walkover quickly
identified former bases for pumps and filling points
for underground storage tanks (USTs).
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CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

Examples of pathways and the effects of land 4.4.9.1 Human health (pathways 1-5, receptors A-C)
contamination (after PPS 23) are shown on The uptake of contaminants by food plants
Figure 2 – Pathways of potential contaminants. grown in contaminated soil will depend on their
concentration in the soil, their chemical form, soil
pH, plant species and prominence in diet.

Ingestion and inhalation

Substances may be ingested directly by young
children playing on contaminated soil, by eating
plants which have absorbed metals or are
contaminated with soil or dust. Ingestion may
also occur via contaminated water supplies.
Metals, some organic materials and radioactive
substances may be inhaled from dusts and soils.

Skin contact
Soil containing tars, oils and corrosive substances
may cause irritation to the skin through direct
contact. Some substances, e.g. phenols, may be
absorbed into the body through the skin or through
cuts and abrasions.
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Irradiation
As well as being inhaled and absorbed through the
skin, radioactive materials emitting gamma rays
can cause a radiation response.

Fire and explosion

Materials such as coal, coke particles, oil, tar,
Figure 2 – Pathways and potential contaminants pitch, rubber, plastic and domestic waste are
all combustible. Both underground fires and
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CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

biodegradation of organic materials may produce 4.4.9.3 Natural environment (pathway 6, receptors D-E) The following tables may be used to explain the
toxic or flammable gases. Methane and other decision making process.
gases may explode if allowed to accumulate in Phytotoxicity (prevention/inhibition of plant growth)
Severe Damage to human health.
confined spaces. Some metals essential for plant growth at low levels Substantial pollution of controlled waters.
are phytotoxic at higher concentrations. Methane Significant change in ecosystem
population.
4.4.9.2 Buildings (pathways 7 and 8) and other gases may give rise to phytotoxic effects. Irreparable damage to property.
Moderate Non-permanent damage to human health.
Fire and explosion Contamination of water resources Minor pollution of controlled waters.
Change in ecosystem.
Underground fires may cause ground subsidence Soil has a limited capacity to absorb, degrade Damage to property.
and cause structural damage. Accumulations of or attenuate the effects of pollutants. If this is Mild Short term health effects.
flammable gases in confined space leads to a risk of exceeded, polluting substances may enter into Slight pollution of controlled waters.
Slight effect on ecosystem.
explosion. Underground fires may damage services. surface and ground waters. Minor repairable damage to property.
Near zero No noticeable effect on human health.
Chemical attack on building materials and services Ecotoxological effects - Contaminants in soil may No significant pollution to controlled waters.
No measurable effect on ecosystem
Sulphates may attack concrete structures. Acids, affect microbial, animal and plant populations. densities.
oils and tarry substances may accelerate corrosion Ecosystems or individual species on the site, in Non-structural cosmetic damage
to property.
of metals or attack plastics, rubber and other surface waters or areas affected by migration from
polymeric materials used in pipework and service the site may be affected. Table 1 – Consequences of pollution linkage

conduits or as jointing seals and protective Probability Consequences of a pollution linkage

coatings to concrete and metals. For any contaminant source identified, judgement of a (hazard-pathway-target)
hazard
is required to assess the probability of a pollution
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and an Severe Moderate Mild Near zero

Physical linkage occurring and the potential consequences associated
Blast-furnace and steel-making slag (and some of that linkage. Based on the probability and likely linkage
High Very High Medium Low /
natural materials) may expand. Degradation of fills consequences, the overall risk (significance) can
High / Low Negligible
may cause settlement and voids in buried tanks be established. The definitions that are used for this
Medium High Medium Low Low /
and drums may collapse as corrosion occurs or purpose should be clearly stated. The probability Negligible
under loading. of a hazard, combined with its consequences, can Low High / Medium / Low Negligible
Medium Low
be used to assess risk and this forms the so-called
Unlikely High / Medium / Low Negligible
conceptual site model. This is in accordance with
Medium Low
the Statutory Guidance for Contaminated Land / Low
(Defra 2006). Table 2 – Decision making
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Final overall risk is based on an assessment of 4.4.10 Geotechnical assessment

probability of a hazard and its consequences. Although no intrusive investigation may have been
Risk categories are shown shaded in Table 2 and carried out on the site at the desk study stage, it
defined in Table 3. should be possible to give preliminary indications in
respect of the geotechnical matters set out below.
Overall Risk
Foundations Are normal to deep strip footings likely
to be suitable or may piling or ground
Risk Description of risk levels improvement be necessary? Will made
High Site probably or certainly unsuitable for ground, old foundations, cellars or
present use or environmental setting. services be encountered?
Contamination probably or certainly Mining and Will the possibility of shallow mine
present and likely to have an quarrying workings or quarrying on the site
unacceptable impact on key targets. need to be addressed?
Urgent action needed.
Soakaways Are soakaways likely to be suitable based
Medium / Site may not be suitable for present use on the mapped geology? (Actual on-site
Moderate or environmental setting. Contamination permeability tests would need to be
may be present, and likely to have carried out to determine suitability or not).
unacceptable impact on key targets.
Action may be needed in the Roads What is the sub-grade strength (CBR)
medium term. likely to be? (The actual design will be
dependent on the CBR measured on site).
Low Site considered suitable for present
use and environmental setting. Excavations Will soft ground plant be suitable or
Contamination may be present but will rock breakers be needed for
unlikely to have unacceptable impact on deeper excavation?
key targets. Action unlikely to be needed Ground water Is shallow ground water expected?
in present use.
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Earthworks Are any significant earthworks

Negligible Site considered suitable for present anticipated?
use and environmental setting. Gas Will gas protection measures be
Contamination may be present but protection required or would they be prudent in
unlikely to have unacceptable impact on accordance with good practice?
key targets. No action needed while site
remains in present use. Table 4 – Geotechnical assessment – preliminary indicators

Table 3 – Overall risk

The above can only be given on the basis of limited
site data and it is recommended that the scope
of any intrusive ground investigation is set out
here if the desk study is to be presented as a
standalone document.
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4.5 PHASE 2 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT • BS EN 1997-1: 2004 “Euro-Code 7 - Geotechnical tube is withdrawn. The next tube is then inserted
(GROUND INVESTIGATION) Design - Part 1: General Rules”; and the process repeated to provide a continuous
• BS EN 1997-2: 2007 “Euro-Code 7 - Geotechnical profile of the ground. On each run the tube
4.5.1 Pre ground investigation Design - Part 2: Ground Investigation and Testing”; diameter is reduced in order to assist in its recovery.
The initial investigation should comprise a desk • BS 5930: 1999 and BS 10175: 2001; When complete the borehole is normally backfilled
study as described in Chapter 4.3 of this Manual. with arisings. It is also possible to carry out Standard
and under the full-time supervision of a Chartered Penetration Tests (SPT) using the window sampling
4.5.2 The investigation Geologist or Chartered Engineer. equipment.
After the desk study has been carried out the
objective of the intrusive investigation is to provide Dates of the investigation and the methods 4.5.2.3 Shell and auger boring
detailed information for the safe and economic used should be stated with the exploratory hole This technique uses a tripod winch and a
development of the site at minimum cost. Clearly positions being shown on a drawing. An intrusive percussive effect with a variety of boring tools,
no guarantee can be given that all relevant investigation may comprise the following; where disturbed and undisturbed samples can
conditions will necessarily be identified, but the be taken. This is the most suitable method for soft
work carried out should be aimed at reducing risk 4.5.2.1 Trial pitting ground investigation, enabling the maximum
to acceptable levels. Normally these should be at least three times the amount of information to be obtained. However,
foundation depth where possible or sufficient minor changes in lithology may be overlooked
Increasing expenditure on site investigation will to prove competent bedrock. They should be unless continuous undisturbed sampling is used.
reduce the risk of unforeseen conditions but excavated outside proposed foundation positions
professional judgement and experience is also where possible. On completion, the excavations Disturbed samples of soils can be taken for
required. Not all forms of investigation will be are normally backfilled with the arisings. This identification and classification purposes. In
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needed and that which is necessary in the best method enables soil conditions to be closely cohesive soils, ‘undisturbed’ samples 100mm in
interests of the client should be carefully assessed examined at any specific point and samples to be diameter can be taken by an open drive sampler
for each individual project. taken. It also gives useful information on the stability for laboratory testing of strength, permeability and
of excavations and water ingress. In-situ gas, consolidation characteristics.
The investigation must be designed to provide the strength and CBR tests can also be carried out.
appropriate level of information on ground and SPTs are used in granular and cohesive materials
ground water conditions on the site, together with 4.5.2.2 Window sampling and in soft or weathered rocks. The resulting
identifying potential areas of contamination. The Window sampling consists of driving a series of ‘N’ value can be compared to empirical data
investigation should be undertaken in accordance 1m and 2m long tubes into the ground using a on strength and relative density. Difficulties in
with the principles of: dropping weight. On completion of each run, the obtaining true ‘N’ values mean they should only be
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used as a guide and not as an absolute value in The results from geophysics can be variable, and 4.5.5 In-situ and laboratory testing
foundation design. combined with the relative high cost, should be
used advisedly. 4.5.5.1 In-situ gas monitoring
4.5.2.4 Rotary drilling Methane is the dominant constituent of landfill
Two main types of rotary drilling can be carried 4.5.3 Strata profile gas, and can form an explosive mixture in air at
out in rock. Rock coring using diamond or tungsten Full strata descriptions should be given based on concentrations of between 5% and 15%. Thus 5%
carbide tipped core bits provides samples and visual identification and in accordance with the methane in air is known as the Lower Explosive
information on rock types, fissuring and weathering. requirements of: Limit (LEL). Concentrations less than this do not
Open-hole drilling only produces small particles normally ignite. Carbon dioxide can also be a
for identification purposes and the information • BS EN ISO 14688-1:2002 “Geotechnical potential problem, especially where it occurs in
gained is therefore limited. The latter is, however, Investigation and Testing - Identification and concentrations greater than 1.5%.
useful as a quick method for detecting major strata Classification of Soil - Part 1”;
changes and for the location of coal seams and • BS EN ISO 14688-2:2004 “Geotechnical In-situ gas tests should be carried out in the
old workings. Water, air, foam or drilling muds may Investigation and Testing - Identification and boreholes on completion and in probe holes made
be used as the flushing medium in either case. Classification of Soil - Part 2”; in the sides of the trial pits. Testing is with a portable
• BS EN ISO 14689-1:2003 “Geotechnical meter which measures the methane content as
Rotary open-hole drilling is carried out to determine Investigation and Testing - Identification and its percentage volume in air. The corresponding
if any voids or broken ground exists which Classification of Rock - Part 1”. oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations are
could affect surface stability. Due to the risk of also measured. Care is needed with this since
combustion, the drilling is normally done using a 4.5.4 Soil description rapid mixing and dilution of any gases with the
water flush. On completion, the boreholes are Samples from boreholes or trial pits should be fully atmosphere can occur very quickly.
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backfilled with bentonite cement. A Coal Authority described in accordance with the latest guidance
Licence is required in advance of any exploratory from the British Standard and Euro-Codes. They A more accurate method used to monitor over the
work intended to investigate possible coal workings. should include colour, consistency, structure, longer term consists of gas monitoring standpipes
weathering, lithological type, inclusions and origin. installed in boreholes. These typically comprise
4.5.2.5 Geophysics All descriptions should be based on visual and slotted UPVC pipework surrounded by single sized
Geophysics can be used in certain situations and manual identification as per recognised descriptive gravel. The top 0.5m to 1m of pipework is usually
is useful where significant anomalies exist in the methods. The methodology of soil and rock not slotted and is surrounded by bentonite pellets
ground. Ground Penetrating Radar is probably the description is given in more detail in Appendix B. to seal the borehole. Valves are fitted and the
most common for defining near surface features. installations protected by lockable stopcock covers
normally fitted flush with the ground. Monitoring is
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again with a portable meter and is usually done on Soakaway testing involves filling the trial pits with those which are most likely to be contaminated
a fortnightly or monthly basis and with at least six water from a bowser or equivalent, and measuring and those which will give the most appropriate
visits being appropriate for most sites. the fall in water over time. Where possible, two tests indication of the spread of any contaminants. The
should be carried out to allow the immediately samples should be stored in either glass or plastic
The risks associated with the gases should be surrounding ground to become saturated. By containers and where necessary kept in cooled
considered in accordance with documents such as: knowing the dimensions of the trial pit, the conditions. Testing should be carried out by a UKAS
permeability and/or rate of dissipation can be accredited laboratory, in accordance with MCERTS
• The British Standard BS 8485:2007 “Code of calculated. performance standards.
Practice for the Characterisation and
Remediation from Ground Gas in Affected Soakaway test results obtained from small hand- The aim of this, is to make a preliminarily assessment
Developments”; dug pits or shallow boreholes should be treated of the level of any contamination on the site in order
• CIRIA report C665, “Assessing Risks Posed by with caution. to determine if there are any significant risks
Hazardous Ground Gases to Buildings”; associated with contaminants in respect of both
• NHBC Report No. 4 “Guidance on Evaluation of 4.5.5.4 Geotechnical laboratory testing human health and the environment, including
Development Proposals on sites where Soil testing should be carried out to BS 1377:1990 controlled waters. In addition to the soil, ground
Methane and Carbon Dioxide are present”. Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering water samples should be tested where appropriate.
Purposes and the laboratory used should be
4.5.5.2 In-situ strength testing recorded and conducted by an approved UKAS 4.5.6 Geoenvironmental risk assessment
Hand vane and MEXE Cone Penetrometer tests laboratory. Normally, the results are summarised (conceptual site model)
can be carried out in trial pits in order to assess the and the full results appended, a summary of the The qualitative Health and Environmental Risk
strengths and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values main types of test are presented in Appendix C. Assessment carried out as part of the desk study
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of made ground, soils, and heavily weathered should be revised based on the findings of the
bedrock materials. 4.5.5.5 Contamination laboratory testing ground investigation, and the results of the
As with the investigation, the sampling should be contamination testing, to produce a Detailed
4.5.5.3 Soakaway testing under the full time direction of either a Chartered Quantitative Risk Assessment (DQRA).
If sustainable drainage is being considered, Engineer or Chartered Geologist. All the recovered
soakaway testing should be carried out. This soil samples should be screened on-site for any The DQRA is again based on the conceptual
is preferably done in trial pits with the aim of visual or olfactory evidence of contamination site model and might look similar to the following
intersecting permeable soils or naturally occurring including the presence of Volatile Organic example summary of hazards, pathways and
fissures within bedrock. Compounds (VOCs). Samples should be selected receptors. On sites with known contamination,
from the trial pits and boreholes on the basis of further investigation and testing may be necessary
 CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

together with recommendations for remediation will be no interpretation of the data and no
and its validation. recommendations).

Source Potential Pathways Receptor Risk The interpretative report should make
pollutant
recommendations in respect of the main points or
Potentially Oils, fuels, 1-5 A. Present occupants Site unoccupied.
contaminated grease, issues related to design and construction:
B. Groundworkers Low Risk involved with excavation work, providing
made ground hydraulic personnel adopt suitable precautions, together
fluid, metals, with washing facilities.
Possible past asbestos • Normal strip or deep trench footings;
minor spillages C. Future residents / Low Risk for residential use, providing made ground • Piling;
and metals occupants is capped by clean sub soil and topsoil.
• Vibro-replacement;
6 D. Controlled waters Low to Moderate Risk at present. Provided on-site
monitoring undertaken throughout the piling and • Raft foundation;
ground work phases of development shows no • Building near trees;
adverse effects, the risk will be low.
• Landfill and radon gas;
E. Ecosystems. Low Risk as leaching is not a problem
• Existing drains and services;
7 F. Building materials Low to Moderate. Install pipes in clean bedding
and services materials. Adequate precautions to be taken in • Road construction;
respect of buried concrete. • Sustainable surface water drainage
Organic Landfill gases, 8 A-F Low to Moderate. Low values of ground gases (Soakaways);
material Radon, VOCs, present during the investigation, although basic gas
SVOCs protection measures are recommended. • Excavations and ground water;
Waste Fly-tipping All waste materials to be removed from site. • Re-use of materials;
materials • Contamination;
Table 5 – Example detailed Quantitative Risk Assessment • Capping mine shafts;
Technical Manual 2012 – TS-11a-5.00-010412

• Site soil re-use;

4.5.7 Construction 4.5.8 Recommendations • Slope stability and retaining walls;
During construction, if unforeseen conditions are The report must include a site location plan • Further geotechnical considerations;
encountered, then the builder/developer should and a plan showing any special features plus • Change of use.
seek additional advice from the consultant as borehole and trial pit locations. (Factual reports
to whether the new conditions will affect the will only describe the work carried out and will Advice in respect of specific recommendations is
continued development of the site, and whether include borehole/trial pit logs and the results given in Appendix A.
any additional investigation or testing is necessary. of all in-situ and laboratory testing, but there
 CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

British BS 1377: Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes 1990 DEFRA Contaminated Land Report CLR 11, 2002 (7-10 withdrawn)
Standards (Parts 1 to 8) R & D Publications TOX 1 – 12, 14, 16 – 25
Institution BS 3882: British Standard Specification for Topsoil R & D Publications SGV 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15 and 16 (withdrawn)
BS 5930: British Standard Code of Practice for Site Investigations, 1999 Improvements to Contaminated Land Guidance – “Outcome of
BS 8485: British Standard Code of Practice for the characterization the “Way Forward”, 2008
and remediation from ground gas in affected developments, 2007 Exercise on Soil Guideline Values. July 2008
BS 10175: British Standard Code of Practice for the Investigation of Guidance on the Legal Definition of Contaminated Land. July 2008
Potentially Contaminated Sites, 2001
BS EN 1997-1: 2004 “Euro-Code 7 – Geotechnical Design – Part 1: DETR Circular 02/2000. Contaminated Land, 2000
General Rules” Guidelines for Environmental Risk Assessment and Management, 2000
BS EN 1997-2: 2007 “Euro-Code 7 – Geotechnical Design – Part 2:
Ground Investigation and Testing” Environment Guidance for the Safe Development of Housing on Land Affected
BS ISO 14688-1: 2002 “Geotechnical Investigation and Testing – Agency by Contamination, 2000
Identification and Classification of Soil – Part 1” Guidance for waste destined for disposal in landfills, Version 2,
BS ISO 14688-2: 2004 “Geotechnical Investigation and Testing – June 2006
Identification and Classification of Soil – Part 2” Protective measures for housing on gas-contaminated land
BS ISO 14689-1: 2003 “Geotechnical Investigation and Testing Remediation Position Statements, May 2006
– Identification and Classification of Rock – Part 1” Guidance and monitoring of landfill leachate, ground water and
surface water
BRE Radon: Guidance on protective measures for new dwellings, BR 211 Human health toxicological assessment of contaminants in soil
Protective measures for housing on gas-contaminated land, (Science Report SC050021/SR2) 2008
BR 414, 2001 Updated technical background in the CLEA model
Cover systems for land regeneration, 2004 (Science Report SC0520021/SR3)

Concrete in aggressive ground. Special Digest SD1, 3rd Edition, 2005 Using Soil Guideline Values, 2009
Technical Manual 2012 – TS-11a-5.00-010412

HMSO Environmental Protection Act 1990

CIEH The LQM/CIEH Generic Assessment Criteria for Human Health Risk
Assessment (2nd Edition) Environment Act 1995
UK Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000
CIRIA Assessing risks posed by hazardous ground gases to buildings, CIRIA The Water Act 2003
C665
Institution of Contaminated Land: Investigation, Assessment and Remediation,
Civil Engineers 2nd Edition
DoE CLR reports 1-4
Waste Management Paper No. 26A “Landfill completion: Joyce M D Site Investigation Practice, 1982
A technical memorandum…”
Waste Management Paper No. 27 “Landfill Gas: A technical OPDM Planning Policy Statement 23: Planning and Pollution Control Annex
memorandum…” 2: Development on Land Affected by Contamination
 CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

APPENDIX A Mining Archival research

• Past, present and future mining; • Past O.S. mapping and previous on-site
Checklist for Phase 1 Geoenvironmental • Reference to geological sources; and off-site usage;
Assessment (Desk Studies) • Coal Authority Mining report; • Possible contaminants associated with
• Register of abandoned mine plans and former use(s);
Site description (and surrounding area of relevance) opencasts; • Town plans;
• Location, O.S. grid reference and plans; • Shaft register; • Local history records, books and photographs
• Topography levels; • Other mining e.g. sand, sandstone, limestone, (where relevant and practicable);
• Site layout and main features; brine, etc. • Aerial photographs (where relevant);
• Site infrastructure; • Archaeological register (where relevant).
• Site description and topography; Geology
• Made ground, erosion, cuttings or quarries; • Geological maps (1:50,000 and 1:10,000 scale); Contamination
• Slope stability; • Memoirs; • Likely contaminants based on past history;
• Evidence of faulting or mining; • Technical reports; • Hazard - Pathway - Receptor Scenario;
• Watercourses, seepages or sinks; • Engineering geological maps; • Preliminary conceptual site model.
• Marshy or waterlogged ground; • Existing trial pit or borehole logs and reports;
• Type and health of vegetation; • Subsidence features. Environmental database
• Existing structures and condition; • Operational and former landfill sites, scrapyards
• Existing on-site processes; Hydrogeology and hydrology and waste processing sites;
• Demolished structures/old foundations; • Ground water vulnerability; • Radon protection measures.
• Visual evidence of contamination; • Aquifer status;
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• Existing site operations; • Abstraction licences (within 1km);

• Underground and overhead services; • Flood risk, drainage and watercourses (within 1km).
• Trees.
Local Authority consultation
• Building Control, Planning and Environmental
Health/Contaminated Land Officer;
• Petroleum Officer.
 CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

Checklist for Phase 2 Geoenvironmental Recommendations for reports Drainage and excavations
Assessment Ground Investigations • Ground water regime including dewatering;
Foundations and retaining walls • Use of soakaways;
Trial pits • Foundation type, depth, bearing capacity • Support and ease of excavation;
• Strata profile and description; and settlement; • Rock levels;
• In-situ gas testing for methane, carbon dioxide • Ease of excavation; • Use of sheet piling, diaphragm, bored piles and
and oxygen; • Sulphate/acidity/concrete class; ground anchors.
• Landfill gas, marsh gas and mine gas; • Shrinkage/heave;
• In-situ shear strength testing; • Effect of vegetation including building near trees; Earthworks
• In-situ MEXE Cone Penetrometer for California • Buoyancy or flotation effects; • Compaction characteristics;
Bearing Ratio/In-Situ Shear Strength; • Ground improvement options e.g. piling, vibro, • Surcharging and self-settlement;
• Full description of ground and ground water compaction etc. • CBR at formation level;
conditions; • Slope stability and slope stabilisation;
• Soakaway testing; Mining • Suitability of excavated material for re-use.
• Geotechnical contamination laboratory testing. • Precautions for foundations in respect of past
or future mining; Contamination
Boreholes • Treatment of shallow mineworkings; • Full assessment of contamination testing;
• Cable percussive, window sampling, dynamic • Capping of shafts and adits. • Hazard – Pathway – Target scenarios/
probing or rotary drilling to BS 5930; conceptual model;
• Use of British Drilling Association accredited drillers; Landfill/mine gas/Radon • Risk assessment and liability;
• Full description of ground and ground water • Requirements for long term monitoring; • Precautions or remediation of contamination.
Technical Manual 2012 – TS-11a-5.00-010412

to BS 5930; • Protection measures for structure;

• Installations for long term gas and water • Venting measures. Further investigation
monitoring (if required); • Is further investigation needed?;
• Geotechnical laboratory testing (BS 1377) and Road construction • Nature of further investigation.
contamination testing if suspected by • CBR of subgrade and its preparation;
accredited laboratories. • Sub-base type and thickness;
• Excavation of unsuitable material;
Other methods of investigation • Soil stabilisation;
• Geophysics; • Frost susceptibility.
• Cone Penetrometer.
 CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

APPENDIX B The following terms may be used in accordance iii. Matrix;

with the results of laboratory and field tests: iv. Weathering;
Soil and rock descriptions
Sensitivity Ratio Term Description

Fine soils (Cohesive Soils) Low 8 Fresh No visible sign of weathering/alteration

of the rock material.
The following field terms are used: Medium 8 - 30
Discoloured The colour of the original fresh rock
High > 30
material is changed and is evidence of
Soil Type Description Quick > 50 weathering/alteration. The degree of
change from the original colour should
Very soft Exudes between fingers.
be indicated. If the colour change
Soft Moulded by light finger pressure. Granular soils (Non-Cohesive) is confined to particular mineral
Firm Cannot be moulded by the fingers but constituents, this should be mentioned.
The following descriptions are used for granular soils:
can be rolled in hand to 3mm threads. Disintegrated The rock material is broken up by
Stiff Crumbles and breaks when rolled to 3mm physical weathering, so that bonding
threads but can be remoulded to a lump. Description Normalised blow count (N1) 60 between grains is lost and the rock
is weathered/altered towards the
Very stiff No longer moulded but crumbles under Very Loose 0-3
condition of a soil in which the original
pressure. Can be indented with thumbs. Loose 4-8 material fabric is still intact. The rock
Medium 9 - 25 material is friable but the grains are not
decomposed.
The following terms may be used in accordance Dense 26 - 42
Decomposed The rock material is weathered by the
Very Dense 43 - 58 chemical alteration of the mineral grains
with the results of laboratory and field tests:
to the condition of a soil in which the
original material fabric is still intact; some
Description Undrained shear strength Cu (kPa) Rock description or all of the grains are decomposed.
Extremely Low < 10 This is based on:
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Very Low 10 - 20
v. Carbonate content;
Low 20 - 40
i. Colour (minor then principal colour); vi. Stability of rock material;
Medium 40 - 75
ii. Grain size; Stable indicates no changes when sample left
High 75 - 150
in water for 24 hours. Fairly stable indicates
Very High 150 - 300 Description Predominant grain size
(mm) fissuring and crumbling of surfaces. Unstable
Extremely High > 300
Very Coarse - grained > 63 indicates complete disintegration of the
Coarse - grained 63 - 2 sample;
Medium - grained 2 - 0.063 vii. Unconfined compressive strength;
Fine - grained 0.063 - 0.002
Very Fine - grained < 0.002
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CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

Term Field identification Unconfined viii. Structure; In addition to the description of the soils and rocks
compressive and their associated depth, ground water should
strength Sedimentary Metamorphic Igneous
(MPa) be noted both in terms of where it was struck and
Bedded Cleaved Massive
Extremely Indented by thumbnail. Less than 1 changes over time. Any unusual colouration or
Interbedded Foliated Flowbanded
Weak* odours to any of the soils encountered during the
Laminated Schistose Folded
Very Crumbles under firm blows 2 to 5 investigation should be recorded.
Weak with point of geological Folded Banded Lineated
hammer, can be peeled by Massive Lineated
a pocket knife. It should be noted that lateral and vertical
Graded Gneissose
Weak Can be peeled by a 6 to 25 changes can occur between exploratory points
Folded
pocket knife with difficulty,
shallow indentations made and care is needed when extrapolation is used.
by firm blow with point of ix. Discontinuities; This is particularly true of the made ground which,
geological hammer.
x. Discontinuity spacing, persistence and by its nature, can be variable in its physical and
Medium Cannot be scraped or 26 to 50
Strong peeled with a pocket knife, roughness, infilling and seepage; chemical composition.
specimen can be fractured xi. Weathering of the rock mass;
with single firm blow of
geological hammer.
Strong Specimen requires more 51 to 100 Term Description Grades
than one blow of geological Fresh No visible sign of rock material weathering; perhaps slight discolouration on major 0
hammer to fracture it. discontinuity surfaces.
Very Specimen requires many 101 to 250 Slightly weathered Discolouration indicates weathering of rock material and discontinuity surfaces. 1
Strong blows of geological hammer
to fracture it. Moderately weathered Less than half of the rock material is decomposed or disintegrated. Fresh or 2
discoloured rock is present either as a continuous framework or as core stones.
Extremely Specimen can only be Greater than
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Strong chipped with geological 250 Highly weathered More than half of the rock material is decomposed or disintegrated. Fresh or 3
hammer. discoloured rock is present either as a continuous framework or as core stones.

*Some extremely weak rocks will behave as soils and Completely weathered All rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated to soil. The original mass 4
should be described as soils. structure is still largely intact.
Residual soil All rock material is converted to soil. The mass structure and material fabric are 5
destroyed. There is a large change in volume, but the soils have not been
significantly transported.

xii. Rock mass permeability.

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CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

APPENDIX C content of the soil at this point is known as the Bulk density
‘plastic limit’ of the soil. The bulk density of a material is the weight of that
Laboratory testing material per unit volume and includes the effects
The range of water content over which a cohesive of voids whether filled with air or water. The ‘dry
Natural or in-situ moisture content soil behaves plastically, i.e. the range lying density’ of a soil is defined as the weight of solids
The natural or in-situ moisture content of a soil is between the liquid and plastic limits, is defined as contained in a unit volume of the soil.
defined as the weight of water contained in the the plasticity index.
pore space, expressed as a percentage of the Permeability
dry weight of solid matter present in the soil. Soil A cohesive soil with natural water content towards The permeability of a material is defined as the rate
properties are greatly affected by the moisture its liquid limit will, in general, be an extremely soft at which water flows through it per unit area of soil
content and the test can help to give an indication material, whereas a cohesive soil with natural water under unit hydraulic gradient.
of likely engineering behaviour. content below its plastic limit will tend to be a firm
or stiff material. Consolidation characteristics
Liquid and plastic limits When subjected to pressure, a soil tends to
Two simple classification tests are known as the liquid Particle size distribution consolidate as the air or water in the pore space
and plastic limits. If a cohesive soil is remoulded with Knowledge of particle-size distribution is used to is forced out and the grains assume a denser
increasing amounts of water, a point will be reached classify soils and to indicate likely engineering state of packing. The decrease in volume per
at which it ceases to behave as a plastic material behaviour. unit of pressure is defined as the ‘compressibility’
and becomes essentially a viscous fluid. The moisture of the soil, and a measure of the rate at
content corresponding to this change is arbitrarily British Standards define soils in relation to their which consolidation proceeds is given by the
determined by the liquid limit test. ‘Fat’ clays, which particle-size as shown below: ‘coefficient of consolidation’ of the soil. These
Technical Manual 2012 – TS-11a-5.00-010412

have high contents of colloidal particles, have high Boulders >200mm Coarse Sand two characteristics Mv and Cv are determined in
liquid limits; ‘lean’ clays, having low colloidal particle 2.0 to 0.63mm the consolidation test and the results are used to
contents have correspondingly low liquid limits. An Cobbles 200 to 63mm Medium Sand calculate settlement of structures or earthworks by
0.63 to 0.2mm
increase in the organic content of clay is reflected a qualified person.
Fine Sand
by an increase in the liquid and plastic limits. 0.2 to 0.063mm
Coarse Gravel Coarse Silt
63 to 20mm 0.063 to 0.02mm
If a cohesive soil is allowed to dry progressively, Medium Gravel Medium Silt
a point is reached at which it ceases to behave 20 to 6.3mm 0.02 to 0.0063mm
as a plastic material, which can be moulded in Fine Gravel Fine Silt
6.3 to 2mm 0.0063 to 0.002mm
the fingers, and it becomes friable. The moisture Clay <0.002mm
 CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION

Strength characteristics The undrained triaxial test gives the apparent California bearing ratio test
The strength of geological materials is generally (cohesion) Cu and the angle of shearing (resistance) In flexible pavement design, knowledge of the
expressed as the maximum resistance that they Øu. In dry sands, Cu = 0 and Øu is equal to the bearing capacity of the subgrade is necessary
offer to deformation or fracture by applied shear angle of internal friction whereas with saturated to enable the thickness of pavement for any
or compressive stress. The strength characteristics non-fissured clays Øu tends to 0 and the apparent particular combination of traffic and site conditions
of geological materials depend to an important cohesion Cu is equal to one-half the unconfined to be determined. The quality of the subgrade can
degree on their previous history and on the compression strength qu. On site the vane test be assessed by means of the California Bearing
conditions under which they will be stressed in gives an approximate measure of shear strength. Ratio Test or approximately by the MEXE cone
practice. Consequently, it is necessary to simulate penetrometer.
in the laboratory tests the conditions under which For some stability problems, use is made of a
the material will be stressed in the field. variant of the undrained triaxial test in which the Chemical tests
specimen is allowed to consolidate fully under the Knowledge of total soluble sulphate content
In general, the only test carried out on hard rocks hydrostatic pressure, and is then tested to failure and pH of soils and ground water is important in
is the determination of their compressive strength under conditions of no moisture content change. determining the protection required for concrete
but consideration must also be given to fissuring, This is known as the consolidated undrained triaxial or steel in contact with the ground. Other specialist
jointing and bedding planes. test. Pore water pressures may be measured during tests may be carried out on sites suspected of
this test or a fully drained test may be carried being contaminated by toxic materials (see
The tests at present in use for soils and soft rocks fall out. In either case, the effective shear strength standard Appendix B).
into two main categories. Firstly, those in which the parameters C’ and Ø’ can be obtained which can
material is stressed under conditions of no moisture be used to calculate shear strength at any given
content change, and secondly, those in which pore water pressure.
Technical Manual 2012 – TS-11a-5.00-010412

full opportunity is permitted for moisture content

changes under the applied stresses. Compaction
The density at which any soil can be placed in an
Tests in the first category are known as undrained earth dam, embankment or road depends on its
(immediate or quick) tests, while those in the second moisture content and on the amount of work
category are known as drained (slow or equilibrium) which is used in compaction. The influence of
tests. The tests are normally carried out in the triaxial these two factors can be studied in compaction
compression apparatus but granular materials may tests, which can determine the maximum dry
be tested in the shear box apparatus. density (MDD) achievable at a certain optimum
moisture content (OMC).