NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY

JIM STARK

Date: 14 December, 2010.

1
2 JIM STARK

Contents
0. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1. The Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1. Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2. Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3. Natural Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Additional Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1. Types of Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2. Subcategories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3. Natural Isomorphisms and Types of Functors . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3. Universal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1. Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2. Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3. Inverse Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4. Direct Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5. Pullbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.6. Pushouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.7. Final Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.8. Initial Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.9. Zero Objects and Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.10. Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.11. Cokernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.12. Biproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.13. Equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4. Enriched Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.1. Ab-categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2. Additive Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3. Abelian Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5. Common Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.1. Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2. Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3. Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4. Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.5. Commutative Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.6. Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.7. Topological Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.8. Pointed Topological Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 3

0. Introduction
The aim of these notes is to provide an introduction to the language of Category
Theory and a reference for the definitions of various “universal objects”. The main
content of the notes is contained in Sections 3 and 5 and indeed the first version
of these notes consisted only of Section 3. The intent was simply to collect these
definitions in one place in diagrammatic form. Soon after I added Section 5 to
collect various concrete definitions. Section 1 and the introduction to Section 3
were added so that the notes would be self contained were I ever to share them.
Finally Section 2 was added so that those who needed the material in Section 1
would be aware of a few more common terms from the language of Category Theory.

1. The Basics
There are three definitions in Category Theory that are of fundamental impor-
tance: Categories, Functors, and Natural Transformations. This section defines
these and gives a few examples of each.
1.1. Categories.
Definition 1. A category C consists of three pieces of data that satisfy two addi-
tional conditions. The data is:
• A class of objects denoted Ob(C).
• For every X, Y ∈ Ob(C), a class of morphisms or arrows denoted MorC (X, Y ).
• For every X, Y, Z ∈ Ob(C) a binary operation called composition denoted
◦ : MorC (Y, Z) × MorC (X, Y ) → MorC (X, Z).
This data should satisfy:
• Composition is associative; that is, (f ◦ g) ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h) for all morphisms
f , g, and h such that the composition above is well defined.
• For every object X there is a distinguished morphism idX ∈ MorC (X, X)
such that f ◦ idX = f and idX ◦ g = g for all morphisms f and g such that
the composition above is well defined.
There is some common notational sloppiness which would take undue effort to
avoid so we mention it now and then take full advantage. While the notation Ob(C)
is useful when we wish to be explicit it is more common to denote that X is an
object of C by simply writing X ∈ C. When we wish to say that f is a morphism in
our category we will use the same notation f ∈ C; it should be clear from context
whether the item in question is an object or a morphism. Finally when the category
is understood we will drop the subscript and simply write Mor(X, Y ).
The notion of a category is highly abstract but as you can see from the following
examples they are very familiar objects.
Example 1. The category of sets is denoted Set. We let Ob(Set) be the class of all
sets. For any two sets X and Y we take Mor(X, Y ) to be the set of all maps from X
to Y . Composition is given by standard composition of maps and idX ∈ Mor(X, X)
is the standard identity map.
Example 2. The category of groups is denoted Grp. We let Ob(Grp) be the class
of all groups. For any two groups G and H we take Mor(G, H) to be the set of all
homomorphisms from G to H. Composition is given by standard composition of
maps and idX ∈ Mor(X, X) is the standard identity map.
4 JIM STARK

Example 3. The category of topological spaces is denoted Top. We let Ob(Top) be

the class of all topological spaces. For any two spaces X and Y we take Mor(X, Y )
to be the set of all continuous maps from X to Y . Composition is given by standard
composition of maps and idX ∈ Mor(X, X) is the standard identity map.
Example 4. The category of vector spaces over a field k is denoted Vectk . We
let Ob(Vectk ) be the class of all vector spaces over the field k. For any two vector
spaces V and W we take Mor(V, W ) to be the set of all k-linear maps from V to
W . Composition is given by standard composition of maps and idV ∈ Mor(V, V )
is the standard identity map. Similarly we can define fVectk to be the category of
finite dimensional vector spaces over a field k.
In each of the examples above the objects of the category are sets with (possibly)
some additional structure and the morphisms are the set maps that preserve this
structure. Informally categories of this type are called “concrete” (the precise
definition of concrete follows Definition 7, we will use quotes till then). Most of the
terminology and notation of category theory derives from “concrete” categories. A
morphism f ∈ Mor(X, Y ) has domain X and codomain Y , and we write f : X → Y
f
or X → Y to indicate this. If the domain of f is equal to the codomain of g then
we can form f ◦ g so f and g are composable. Finally the distinguished morphism
idX ∈ Mor(X, X) is called the identity morphism and is easily proven unique.

1.2. Functors. Now that we know what a category is we can talk about maps
between categories, these are called functors.
Definition 2. Let C and D be categories. A functor F from C to D assigns to
every object X ∈ C an object F (X) ∈ D and to every morphism f ∈ Mor(X, Y ) a
morphism F (f ) ∈ Mor(F (X), F (Y )) such that
• F (idX ) = idF (X) for all X ∈ C and
• F (f ◦ g) = F (f ) ◦ F (g) for any composable morphisms f, g ∈ C.
The most important fact about functors is that they take commutative diagrams
in the category C to commutative diagrams in the category D. As is the case with
morphisms we say that C is the domain, D is the codomain, and write F : C → D
F
or C → D.
Functors come in two types, covariant and contravariant. What we have defined
above is a covariant functor. In a contravariant functor the direction of the mor-
phisms is reversed, so to f ∈ Mor(X, Y ) we assign F (f ) ∈ Mor(F (Y ), F (X)) and
if f and g are composable then F (f ◦ g) = F (g) ◦ F (f ).
Often one thinks of morphisms in a category as the arrows in diagrams. A
contravariant functor simply reverses the direction of each arrow it is applied to.
It is standard to assume that functors are covariant unless otherwise specified and
we will follow this convention. In addition to this, when a definition depends on a
functor we will only state the covariant case. We leave it to the reader to “reverse
the arrows” for the contravariant case.
Example 5. If C is any category then there is an identity functor idC : C → C that
assigns to each object that same object and to each map that same map.
Example 6. Define F : Vectk → Set as follows: For any vector space V we let
F (V ) ∈ Set be the underlying set of elements and for any linear map f : V → W
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 5

we let F (f ) ∈ Mor(F (V ), F (W )) be f considered as a map of sets. This is an

example of a forgetful functor. We will give a precise definition of forgetful functors
in Section 2.3; for now simply note that in place of Vectk we could easily have used
Top or any other “concrete” category.
Example 7. Fix a field k and define F : Set → Vectk as follows: For every set X
we let F (X) be the free vector Pspace on X. Specifically the vectors in F (X) are
formal k-linear combinations x∈X cx x where each cx is an element of k and for
only finitely many x is cx 6= 0. Vector addition is done by combining like terms
and scalar multiplication by distributing over the formal sum. Given any set map
f : X → Y we let F (f ) : F (X) → F (Y ) be the linear map induced by extending f
k-linearly to all of F (X); i.e.
!
X X
F (f ) cx x = cx f (x).
x∈X x∈X

This is an example of a free functor (defined in Section 2.3).

Example 8. Fix a field k and define −∗ : fVectk → fVectk as follows: For any
k-vector space V we let V ∗ = Homk (V, k) be the dual of V . Given any linear map
f : V → W define f ∗ : W ∗ → V ∗ by f ∗ (T ) = T ◦ f . This defines a contravariant
functor from fVectk to itself.
Given any two functors F : D → E and G : C → D we can define the functor
F ◦ G : C → E that assigns to every object X ∈ C the object F (G(X)) ∈ E and to
every morphism f ∈ C the morphism F (G(f )) ∈ E. This new functor is called the
composition of the functors F and G.
Example 9. The composition of the functor −∗ from Example 8 with itself gives
the functor −∗∗ : fVectk → fVectk which sends every vector space V to its double
dual V ∗∗ .
1.3. Natural Transformations. Continuing our descent into abstraction we con-
sider maps between functors.
Definition 3. Let F and G be functors from C to D. A collection T of morphisms
in D, one morphism TX ∈ MorD (F (X), G(X)) for each object X ∈ C, is called a
natural transformation if for any morphism f ∈ MorC (X, Y ) the diagram
F (f )
F (X) / F (Y )

TX TY
 
G(X) / G(Y )
G(f )

commutes.
Again the notation T : F → G is standard. The morphism TX ∈ D is called the
component of T along X.
Example 10. Let id : fVectk → fVectk be the identity functor from Example 5
and −∗∗ : fVectk → fVectk the double dual from Example 9. Recall from linear
algebra that for every vector v in a vector space V we can define a linear map
6 JIM STARK

v̂ : V ∗ → k by v̂(f ) = f (v). The maps TV : V → V ∗∗ given by v 7→ v̂ are also linear

and for any f ∈ Mor(V, W ) the diagram

V
f
/W

TV TW
 
V ∗∗ / W ∗∗
f ∗∗

commutes. Thus the collection T of these maps is a natural transformation from

id to −∗∗ .

2. Additional Definitions
The following are some additional terms that one may encounter. These defini-
tions can be slightly different than what you are used to. For example if you ask
someone who has studied algebra what an epimorphism is they will likely tell you
it is a surjective homomorphism. In general a category need not be concrete so this
definition is not “categorical”. The appropriate generalization is found below.

2.1. Types of Morphisms.

Definition 4. Let C be a category and f : X → Y a morphism in C.
• We say f is epic, or an epimorphism, if it is right-cancellative; that is, if
u ◦ f = v ◦ f implies u = v for all u, v ∈ C.
• We say f is monic, or a monomorphism, if it is left-cancellative; that is, if
f ◦ u = f ◦ v implies u = v for all u, v ∈ C.
• We say f is an isomorphism if there exists a morphism f −1 : Y → X, called
the inverse of f , such that f ◦ f −1 = idY and f −1 ◦ f = idX .
• The morphisms from an object to itself are called endomorphisms.
• The isomorphisms from an object to itself are called automorphisms.
The composition of two monomorphisms, epimorphisms, or isomorphisms is
again a monomorphism, epimorphism, or isomorphism respectively. Two objects
in a category are isomorphic if there is an isomorphism between them. Given an
object X ∈ C the collection of endomorphisms of X is denoted End(X) and the
collection of automorphisms of X is denoted Aut(X).
Any isomorphism is both epic and monic. In a concrete category any surjective
morphism is epic and any injective morphism is monic. The converse of these three
statements is true in some categories, for example Set, but in general this is not
the case. We can find an easy counter example for two of the statements in Top.
Consider the inclusion of a proper dense subspace into a topological space. Two
continuous maps that agree on a dense subspace agree everywhere so this inclusion,
while not surjective, is an epimorphism. Inclusions are injective so, while not an
isomorphism, it is both epic and monic.
A non-trivial counter example showing that monics need not be injective is
slightly harder to come by. For the reader interested in filling in the details them-
selves let Div be the full subcatagory of Grp consisting of divisible abelian groups
(full subcategories are defined in the next section). The canonical factor homomor-
phism Q → Q/Z is monic in this category but not injective.
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 7

2.2. Subcategories.
Definition 5. Let C be a category. A subcategory D of C consists of two pieces of
data:
• A subcollection Ob(D) of Ob(C) called the objects of the subcategory.
• For each X, Y ∈ Ob(D) a subcollection MorD (X, Y ) of MorC (X, Y ) called
the morphisms of the subcategory.
This data should satisfy:
• For every X ∈ Ob(D) the identity idX ∈ MorC (X, X) is contained in
MorD (X, X).
• The composition in C of two morphisms from D yields a morphism in D.
The subcategory D is a category in its own right using the composition law from
C. If MorC (X, Y ) = MorD (X, Y ) for every pair of objects X, Y ∈ D then we say
that D is a full subcategory. The two conditions of a subcategory are trivial in
this case so to specify a full subcategory we need only specify the subcollection of
objects.
Example 11. From Example 4, fVectk is a full subcategory of Vectk .
Example 12. The category of abelian groups is denoted Ab. It is the full subcat-
egory of Grp whose objects are the abelian groups in Grp.
2.3. Natural Isomorphisms and Types of Functors.
Definition 6. Let T : F → G be a natural transformation. If each component
morphism TX is an isomorphism then T is called a natural isomorphism and F and
G are naturally isomorphic.
Example 13. Let T : id → −∗∗ be the natural transformation from Example 10.
It is a standard result of linear algebra that the components TV : V → V ∗∗ are
isomorphisms and therefore T is a natural isomorphism. This is the content of the
word ‘natural’ when one says that a finite dimensional vector space is naturally
isomorphic to its double dual.
Definition 7. Let F : C → D be a functor.
• We say that F is an isomorphism if there is a functor F −1 : D → C such
that F ◦ F −1 = idD and F −1 ◦ F = idC .
• We say that F is an equivalence if there is a functor G : D → C such that
F ◦ G and G ◦ F are naturally isomorphic to idD and idC respectively.
• We say that F is full if the mapping f 7→ F (f ) induces a surjection
MorC (X, Y ) → MorD (F (X), F (Y )) for every pair of objects X, Y ∈ C.
• We say that F is faithful if the mapping f 7→ F (f ) induces an injection
MorC (X, Y ) → MorD (F (X), F (Y )) for every pair of objects X, Y ∈ C.
A functor that is both full and faithful is called fully faithful. It can be shown
that F : C → D is an equivalence if and only if F is fully faithful and for each X ∈ D
there exists a Y ∈ C such that X is isomorphic to F (Y ). Any faithful functor of the
form F : C → Set is called a forgetful functor and a category C is called concrete if
it has such a functor. If C is an object of this concrete category then F (C) is the
underlying set of C.
8 JIM STARK

Example 14. Let D be a subcategory of C. There is a functor F : D → C, called

the inclusion functor, that takes each object/morphism of D to that same ob-
ject/morphism considered as an element of C. This functor is always faithful. It is
full if and only if D is a full subcategory of C.
Definition 8. Let F : C → D and G : D → C be functors. The ordered pair of
functors (F, G) is called an adjoint pair if there exist a collection of bijections
τC,D : MorD (F (C), D) → MorC (C, G(D)), one for each C ∈ C and D ∈ D, such
that for any f ∈ MorC (A, C) and g ∈ MorD (D, B) the diagrams
−◦F (f )
MorD (F (C), D) / MorD (F (A), D)

τC,D τA,D
 
MorC (C, G(D)) / MorD (A, G(D))
−◦f

and
MorD (F (C), D)
g◦−
/ MorD (F (C), B)

τC,D τC,B
 
MorC (C, G(D)) / MorC (C, G(B))
G(g)◦−

commute.
If (F, G) is an adjoint pair then we say F is left-adjoint to G and G is right-
adjoint to F . There are two natural transformations associated to every adjoint
pair, the unit transformation, η : idC → G ◦ F , whose component along C ∈ C
is ηC = τC,F (C) (idF (C) ) and the counit transformation, ε : F ◦ G → idD , whose
−1
component along D ∈ D is εD = τG(D),D (idG(D) ).
A given functor does not always have an adjoint but when it does that adjoint
is essentially unique; that is, if
0
τC,D : MorD (F (C), D) → MorC (C, G0 (D))
is the bijection associated to another adjoint pair (F, G0 ) then the transformation
R : G → G0 with component RD = τG(D),D 0
(εD ) along D is a natural isomorphism
0 0
between G and G . Similarly if (F , G) is another adjoint pair with unit trans-
−1
formation η 0 : idC → G ◦ F 0 , then LC = τC,F 0
0 (C) (ηC ) gives a natural isomorphism

L : F → F 0.
Adjoints can be composed. If (F, G) and (H, K) are two adjoint pairs with
associated bijections
τC,D : MorC (F (C), D) → MorB (C, G(D)), and
0
τD,E : MorD (H(D), E) → MorC (D, K(E))
then ψC,E = τC,K(E) ◦ τF0 (C),E makes (H ◦ F, G ◦ K) an adjoint pair.
A functor F : Set → C is called free if it is left adjoint to a forgetful functor. An
object of C is a free object or is free on X if it is of the form F (X) for some set X.
Example 15. Let G : Vectk → Set be the forgetful functor defined in Example 6
and F : Set → Vectk the functor from Example 7. Maps out of vector spaces are
defined by where they send the basis elements therefore restricting a linear map on
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 9

F (X) to a set map on X is a bijection τX,V : Mor(F (X), V ) → Mor(X, G(V )) and
makes (F, G) an adjoint pair.
Example 16. Let G : Ab → Grp be the inclusion functor (see Example 14) and let
F : Grp → Ab be abelianization; that is, F (G) = G/[G, G] and for f : G → H the
map F (f ) : G/[G, G] → H/[H, H] is induced by factoring f to the quotient. If H
is abelian then precomposition with the factor homomorphism G → G/[G, G] gives
a bijection τG,H : Mor(G/[G, G], H) → Mor(G, H) making (F, G) an adjoint pair.

3. Universal Properties
Universal properties have a general definition as initial and final properties in
something called the comma category. This level of abstraction is not really neces-
sary; for most purposes it suffices to know specific examples and not bother with
the full generality. We take this approach here. This section is merely a collection
of definitions for some common universal objects.
We make the following convention on diagrams. A diagram containing both solid
and dotted edges is to be read initially as though the dotted edges are absent. When
we claim the existence of morphisms completing the diagram, this means that if
the dotted edges are labeled with these morphisms the entire diagram commutes.
For example we could say

Given
W /X
c
b d
 
Y /Z
e
there exists a unique morphism a : W → X completing the diagram.

This means that if there are morphisms b, c, d, and e such that the diagram

W X
c
b d
 
Y /Z
e

commutes then there exists a unique morphism a such that the diagram

W
a /X
c
b d
 
Y /Z
e

commutes.
Diagrams with dotted arrows can then be interpreted as if-then statements.
Often some objects will be fixed and others arbitrary. We take the convention that
any object or morphism not previously mentioned is quantified by a ∀ operator.
For example the product of two objects in a category C is defined as follows:
10 JIM STARK

Let X and Y be objects in C. Their product is an object X × Y

together with morphisms πX : X × Y → X and πY : X × Y → Y
satisfying the universal property:
Z fY

∃!

# 
X ×Y
πY
/Y
fX
πX

' 
X

The object Z and morphisms fX and fY were not mentioned before the diagram
and so are quantified by ∀ operators. Thus the above states that for every object
Z ∈ C with morphisms fX : Z → X and fY : Z → Y such that the diagram
Z fY


X ×Y
πY
/Y
fX
πX

' 
X
commutes there exists a unique morphism α : Z → X × Y such that the diagram
Z fY

# 
X ×Y
πY
/Y
fX
πX

' 
X
commutes. Note that the ∃ quantifiers of a diagram are asserted after the ∀ quan-
tifier on the new elements of the diagram so the choice of morphism α depends on
fX and fY (and obviously on Z).
Universal objects are unique up to a canonical isomorphism so we will use “the”
even though multiple objects in the category may satisfy the definition.

3.1. Products. Let C be a category and {Xα }α∈I a collection

Q of objects in C
indexed by some
 set I. The product of the Xα is an object α∈I Xα together with
Q
morphisms πi : α∈I Xα → Xi i∈I satisfying the universal property:

Z
fi
∃!

Y !
Xα / Xi
πi
α∈I
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 11

So morphisms into the Xi factor through the product. Note that we’ve shown the
diagram only for one Xi . We intend this diagram to represent Q the full diagram
that shows all of the Xi ; that is, the unique map α : Z → α∈IQXα should satisfy
fi = πi ◦ α for all i ∈ I. If the set I is finite then we say that α∈I Xα is a finite
product.
When I is finite, say I = {1, . . . , n}, the notation X1 × · · · × Xn is also used for
the product, but never ×α∈I Xα .

3.2. Coproducts. Let C be a category and {Xα }α∈I a collection

` of objects in C
indexed by someset I. The coproduct of the Xα is an object α∈I Xα together
`
with morphisms ιi : Xi → α∈I Xα i∈I satisfying the universal property:

Xi

ιi fi

a
Xα /Z
∃!
α∈I

So morphisms out`of the Xi factor through the coproduct. If the set I is finite
then we say that α∈I Xα is a finite coproduct. Note that this is the exact same
diagram from the definition of a product but with all the arrows reversed. For every
universal object in category theory there is a co-object or categorical dual defined
by taking the universal diagram and reversing all the arrows.

3.3. Inverse Limits. Let C be a category. A partially ordered set I is directed if

there is an upper bound for every pair of elements; that is, for all i, j ∈ I there
exists a k ∈ I such that i ≤ k and j ≤ k. Let I be a directed set. Objects {Xi }i∈I
together with morphisms {fij : Xj → Xi }i≤j are called an inverse system if the
diagram
> Xk
fkj fik

Xj / Xi
fij

commutes for all i ≤ k ≤ j.

Let X be the inverse system with objects {Xi }i∈I and morphisms {fij }i≤j . The
inverse limit, or projective limit, of this system is an object lim Xα together with
n o ←−
morphisms πi : lim Xα → Xi satisfying the the universal property:
←−
Z φi

∃!

" 
lim Xα
πi
/ Xi
←− <
φj
πj
fij
% 
Xj
So morphisms into the inverse system factor through the inverse limit.
12 JIM STARK

3.4. Direct Limits. Let C be a category and I a directed set. Objects {Xi }i∈I
together with morphisms {fij : Xi → Xj }i≤j are called a direct system if the dia-
gram
fij
Xi / Xj
>
fik fkj

Xk
commutes for all i ≤ k ≤ j.
Let X be the direct system with objects {Xi }i∈I and morphisms {fij }i≤j . The
direct limit, or injective limit, of this system is an object lim Xα together with
n o −→
morphisms ιi : Xi → lim Xα satisfying the the universal property:
−→

< Xj
fij
ιj
 φj
Xi / lim Xα
ιi −→
∃!

" 
φi 0Z

So morphisms out of the direct system factor through the direct limit.

3.5. Pullbacks. Let C be a category and f : X → W and g : Y → W morphisms.

The pullback, or fibered product, of X and Y is an object X ×W Y together with
morphisms πX : X ×W Y → X and πY : X ×W Y → Y satisfying the universal
property:
Z φY

∃!

$
X ×W Y
πY
/Y
φX
πX g

'  /W

X
f

3.6. Pushouts. Let C be a category and f : W → X and g : W → Y morphisms.

The pushout, or fibered coproduct, of X and Y is an object X qW Y together
with morphisms ιX : X → X qW Y and ιY : Y → X qW Y satisfying the universal
property:
W
g
/Y

f ιY
  φY
X / X qW Y
ιX
∃!

$ 
φX 1Z
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 13

3.7. Final Objects. Let C be a category. The final object is an object F satisfying
the universal property:
Z
∃! /F
So every object has exactly one morphism into F .

3.8. Initial Objects. Let C be a category. The initial object is an object I satis-
fying the universal property:
I
∃! /Z
So there is exactly one morphism from I into any object.

3.9. Zero Objects and Morphisms. Let C be a category. The zero or null object
is an object 0C that is both initial and final. The unique map into or out of a zero
object is called the zero morphism and is also denoted 0. Given any two objects X
and Y the composition X → 0C → Y is called the zero map from X to Y and is
again denoted 0.

3.10. Kernels. Let C be a category with a zero object and morphism f : X → Y .

The kernel of f is an object ker f together with morphism k : ker f → X satisfying
f ◦ k = 0 and the universal property:
Z 0
∃!

! 
ker f
0 /Y
=
φ
k
& 
f
X
Immediately one has that k is monic. If f is monic then ker f is the final object
in C. The kernel of a zero morphism is the identity morphism of the domain.
Here, as elsewhere, term ‘kernel’ can mean either the object ker f , the morphism
k : ker f → X, or the pair of the two. When only the object is given the morphism
should be clear from context.

3.11. Cokernels. Let C be a category with a zero object and morphism f : X → Y .

The cokernel of f is an object coker f together with morphism k : Y → coker f
satisfying k ◦ f = 0 and the universal property:

;Y
f
k
 φ
X / coker f
0
∃!

# 
0 1Z
Immediately one has that k is epic. If f is epic then coker f is the initial object in
C. The cokernel of a zero morphism is the identity morphism of the codomain. As
with kernels the term ‘cokernel’ can mean either the object, the morphism, or the
pair of the two.
14 JIM STARK

3.12. Biproducts. Let C be a category with zero morphisms (as in Section 3.9 or
Section 4.1) and let {Xα }α∈I be a finite collection of objects. The biproduct of the
L L
Xα is an object α∈I Xα together with morphisms πi :
 α∈I Xα → Xi i∈I and
L
ιi : Xi → α∈I Xα i∈I such that the following properties hold:
L
• Lα∈I Xα together with {πi }i∈I is a product.
• α∈I Xα together with {ιi }i∈I is a coproduct.
• The composition πi ◦ ιj equals idXi if i = j and 0 otherwise.
Immediately one has that the πi are epic and the ιi are monic. Note that nothing
in the definition explicitly requires the collection I to be finite, but in practice only
finite biproducts exist or are ever assumed to exist so here we just define them as
such.
3.13. Equalizers. Let C be a category and f, g : X → Y two morphisms. The
equalizer (also called a difference kernel) of f and g is an object E(f, g) together
with a morphism e : E(f, g) → X satisfying the following universal property:
Z
∃!
φ
{ 
E(f, g) /X
f
// Y
e g

Immediately one has that e is monic.

4. Enriched Categories
Informally a category C is enriched in D if for any two objects X, Y ∈ C the
morphism class MorC (X, Y ) is an object of the category D in such a way that the
two structures interact nicely. Full generality here is unnecessary; for most purposes
it suffices to know the examples below in which categories are enriched in Ab.
4.1. Ab-categories.
Definition 9. An Ab-category is a category C such that:
• Each MorC (X, Y ) is an abelian group.
• Composition of morphisms is bilinear.
We write the group operation on each morphism set as addition. The condi-
tion that composition of morphisms is bilinear then means that for all morphisms
f1 , f2 ∈ Mor(X, Y ), g ∈ Mor(Y, Z), and h ∈ Mor(W, X) the identities
g ◦ (f1 + f2 ) = g ◦ f1 + g ◦ f2 and (f1 + f2 ) ◦ h = f1 ◦ h + f2 ◦ h
hold.
Example 17. Both Ab and Vectk are Ab-categories. The abelian group structure
on each Mor(X, Y ) is given by pointwise addition.
Two morphisms f and g in C are called parallel if they have the same domain
and codomain. The identity object of Mor(X, Y ) is called the zero morphism from
X to Y and is denoted 0, or 0(X,Y ) if the domain and range need be notated. For
any morphisms f : W → X and g : Y → Z one can show 0(X,Y ) ◦ f = 0(W,Y ) and
g ◦0(X,Y ) = 0(X,Z) . When C has a zero object the zero morphism 0(X,Y ) just defined
is exactly the zero morphism X → 0 → Y defined in Section 3.9.
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 15

For every object X ∈ C the abelian group structure on End(X) = Mor(X, X)

becomes a ring structure with multiplication given by composition of morphisms.
This is called the endomorphism ring of X or associated to X. If two objects are
isomorphic then so are their associated rings. The ring isomorphism is given by
f ◦ − ◦ f −1 : End(X) → End(Y ) where f : X → Y is any isomorphism in C.
Definition 10. A functor F : C → D is called additive if F (f + g) = F (f ) + F (g)
whenever f and g are parallel.
Example 18. Every object A ∈ C induces an additive functor Mor(A, −) : C → Ab
which maps an object X to the abelian group Mor(A, X) and a morphism f : X →
Y to the homomorphism Mor(A, f ) : Mor(A, X) → Mor(A, Y ), more commonly
denoted f ◦ −, given by post-composition with f (i.e. φ 7→ f ◦ φ). Similarly, A
induces an additive contravariant functor Mor(−, A), using pre-composition − ◦
f : Mor(Y, A) → Mor(X, A) instead of post.
Kernels and equalizers are identical; that is, if either of E(f, g) or ker(f −g) exists
then they both exist and are canonically isomorphic. This is also true of products,
coproducts, and biproducts. If the product X × Y exists then its universal property
gives unique maps ιX and ιY making the diagrams
X 0 and Y idY

ιX ιY

#  # 
X ×Y
πY
/Y X ×Y
πY
/Y
idX 0
πX πX

'  ' 
X X
commute. These maps make X × Y into a coproduct. Similarly if the coproduct
X q Y exists then its universal property gives unique maps πX and πY making the
diagrams
Y and Y
ιY ιY
 0  idY
X / X qY X / X qY
ιi ιi
πX πX

#  # 
idX 1X 0 1Y

commute. These maps make X q Y into a product. In either case the resulting
morphisms satisfy the additional condition required of a biproduct.

4.2. Additive Categories.

Definition 11. An additive category is a category C such that:
• Each MorC (X, Y ) is an abelian group.
• Composition of morphisms is bilinear.
• There is a zero object in C.
• Any two objects have a biproduct.
16 JIM STARK

So an additive category is simply an Ab-category with a zero and biproducts.

Note that when checking that a particular category satisfies these axioms it suffices
to check that every pair of objects has either a product or a coproduct as these will
automatically be biproducts.
Example 19. The trivial group is the zero object of Ab and the direct sum is a
biproduct so Ab, and similarly Vectk , are additive categories.
An additive functor between two additive categories takes the zero object in the
domain to the zero object in the codomain. It also takes any zero morphism to a
zero morphism.
Lm Ln
Let f : Xi → Y be a morphism between two biproducts and let
n Lm
i=1 om j=1 nj Ln on
ιi : Xi → j=1 Xj and πj : i=1 Yi → Yj be the inclusions and pro-
i=1 j=1
jections respectively. Then fM = [πi ◦ f ◦ ιj ], called the matrix representation of
f , is an n × m matrix whose (i, j)th entry is a morphism in Mor(Xj , Yi ). Con-
versely given any such a matrix [fij ] theL
universal properties of biproducts ensure
m Ln
that there exists a unique morphism f : i=1 X i → j=1 Yj such that fM = [fij ].
If f and g are either parallel or composable morphisms then the sum or product
respectively of the matrixes fM and gM (using the standard matrix formulas) will
be well defined and satisfy fM + gM = (f + g)M and fM · gM = (f ◦ g)M .

4.3. Abelian Categories.

Definition 12. An abelian category is a category C such that:
• Each MorC (X, Y ) is an abelian group.
• Composition of morphisms is bilinear.
• There is a zero object in C.
• Any two objects have a biproduct.
• Every morphism has a kernel and a cokernel.
• Every monic is a kernel and every epic is a cokernel.
So an abelian category is simply an additive category in which all kernels and
cokernels exist, all monics are kernels, and all epics are cokernels. When every
morphism has a kernel and a cokernel the last condition is equivalent to the state-
ment that for every monic f and for every epic g we have ker(coker f ) = f and
coker(ker g) = g. Some authors define abelian categories using this condition in-
stead.
Example 20. In Ab any morphism f : X → Y has kernel f −1 (0) and cokernel
Y / im f . The monic and epic morphisms are exactly the injective and surjective
homomorphisms respectively and one can easily check the alternate final condition
on these maps. Thus Ab, and similarly Vectk , are abelian categories.
In an abelian category pullbacks and pushouts always exist. A morphism is
monic if and only if its kernel is zero, epic if and only if its cokernel is zero, and an
isomorphism if and only if it is both monic and epic.

5. Common Categories
The following is a list of some common categories along with the constructions
for the universal objects that they poses.
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 17

5.1. Sets.
• Denoted: Set
• Objects: All sets.
• Mor(X, Y ): Set maps f : X → Y .
• Product: Cartesian product.
• Coproduct: Disjoint union.
• Inverse Limit: Subset {(ai ) | ai = fij (aj ) ∀i ≤ j} of the product.
• Direct Limit: Coproduct modulo xi ∼ xj if fik (xi ) = fjk (xj ) for some k.
• Pullback: Subset {(x, y) | f (x) = g(y)} of the product.
• Pushout: Disjoint union modulo f (w) ∼ g(w) for all w ∈ W .
• Initial object: The empty set.
• Final object: Any singleton.
• Zero object: None.
• Equalizer: Subset {x | f (x) = g(x)} of the domain.
5.2. Groups.
• Denoted: Grp
• Objects: All groups.
• Mor(G, H): Group homomorphisms f : G → H.
• Product: Direct product.
• Coproduct: Free product.
• Inverse Limit: Subgroup {(ai ) | ai = fij (aj ) ∀i ≤ j} of the product.
• Direct Limit: Coproduct modulo xi ∼ xj if fik (xi ) = fjk (xj ) for some k.
• Pullback: Subgroup {(x, y) | f (x) = g(y)} of the product.
• Pushout: Free product with amalgamation.
• Zero object: Trivial group.
• Kernel: Subgroup f −1 (identity).
• Cokernel: Factor group Y /im f where im f is the normal closure of im f .
• Equalizer: Subgroup {x | f (x) = g(x)} of the domain.
5.3. Abelian Groups.
• Denoted: Ab
• Objects: Abelian groups.
• Mor(G, H): Group homomorphisms f : G → H.
• Product: Direct product.
• Coproduct: Direct sum.
• Inverse Limit: Subgroup {(ai ) | ai = fij (aj ) ∀i ≤ j} of the product.
• Direct Limit: Coproduct modulo xi ∼ xj if fik (xi ) = fjk (xj ) for some k.
• Pullback: Subgroup {(x, y) | f (x) = g(y)} of the product.
• Pushout: Direct sum modulo h(f (w), −g(w)) | w ∈ W i.
• Zero object: Trivial group.
• Kernel: Subgroup f −1 (identity).
• Cokernel: Factor group Y / im f .
• Biproduct: Exists.
• Equalizer: Kernel of f − g.
5.4. Rings.
• Denoted: Rng
• Objects: All rings (with unity).
18 JIM STARK

• Mor(R, S): Ring homomorphisms f : R → S (respecting unity).

• Product: Direct product.
• Coproduct: A construction analogous to the free product of groups.
• Inverse Limit: Subring {(ai ) | ai = fij (aj ) ∀i ≤ j} of the product.
• Direct Limit: Coproduct modulo xi ∼ xj if fik (xi ) = fjk (xj ) for some k.
• Pullback: Subring {(x, y) | f (x) = g(y)} of the product.
• Pushout: Coproduct modulo f (w) ∼ g(w).
• Initial object: Ring of integers Z.
• Final object: Trivial ring (0 = 1).
• Zero object: None.
• Equalizer: Subring {x | f (x) = g(x)} of the domain.

5.5. Commutative Rings.

• Denoted: CRng
• Objects: Commutative rings (with unity).
• Mor(R, S): Ring homomorphisms f : R → S (respecting unity).
• Product: Direct product.
• Coproduct: Tensor Product.
• Inverse Limit: Subring {(ai ) | ai = fij (aj ) ∀i ≤ j} of the product.
• Direct Limit: Coproduct modulo xi ∼ xj if fik (xi ) = fjk (xj ) for some k.
• Pullback: Subring {(x, y) | f (x) = g(y)} of the product.
• Pushout: Tensor product modulo f (w) ∼ g(w).
• Initial object: Ring of integers Z.
• Final object: Trivial ring (0 = 1).
• Zero object: None.
• Equalizer: Subring {x | f (x) = g(x)} of the domain.

5.6. Modules. Fix a ring A.

• Denoted: A − Mod
• Objects: All left A-modules.
• Mor(M, N ): A-module homomorphisms f : X → Y .
• Product: Direct product.
• Coproduct: Direct sum.
• Inverse Limit: Submodule {(ai ) | ai = fij (aj ) ∀i ≤ j} of the product.
• Direct Limit: Coproduct modulo xi ∼ xj if fik (xi ) = fjk (xj ) for some k.
• Pullback: Submodule {(x, y) | f (x) = g(y)} of the product.
• Pushout: Direct sum modulo h(f (w), −g(w)) | w ∈ W i.
• Zero object: Trivial module.
• Kernel: ker f = f −1 (0).
• Cokernel: Quotient module Y / im f .
• Biproduct: Exists.
• Equalizer: Kernel of f − g.

5.7. Topological Spaces.

• Denoted: Top
• Objects: All topological spaces.
• Mor(X, Y ): Continuous maps f : X → Y .
• Product: Product of the underlying sets with the product topology.
• Coproduct: Disjoint union of the Xα with the disjoint union topology.
 NOTES ON CATEGORY THEORY 19

• Inverse Limit: Inverse limit in Set with the initial topology.

• Direct Limit: Direct limit in Set with the final topology.
• Pullback: Subspace {(x, y) | f (x) = g(y)} of the product.
• Pushout: Disjoint union modulo f (w) ∼ g(w).
• Initial object: The empty space.
• Final object: Any singleton.
• Zero object: None.
• Equalizer: Subspace {x | f (x) = g(x)} of the domain.
5.8. Pointed Topological Spaces.
• Denoted: Top∗
• Objects: Pairs (X, x) with X ∈ Top and x ∈ X (called the base point).
• Mor((X, x), (Y, y)): Continuous maps f : X → Y such that f (x) = y.
• Product: Product in Top based at the product of the base points.
• Coproduct: Wedge sum with the base points identified.
• Inverse Limit: Inverse limit in Set with the initial topology.
• Direct Limit: Direct limit in Set with the final topology.
• Pullback: Subspace {(x, y) | f (x) = g(y)} of the product.
• Pushout: Disjoint union modulo f (w) ∼ g(w).
• Zero object: Any singleton.
• Kernel: Subspace f −1 (base point) based at the base point of X.
• Cokernel: Quotient space Y /im f based at im f .
• Equalizer: Subspace {x | f (x) = g(x)} of the domain.

References
[ASS] Ibrahim Assem, Daniel Simson, and Andrezej Skowroński. Elements of the Representation
Theorey of Associative Algebras, volume 1. Cambridge, 2006.
[Mac] Saunders Mac Lane. Categories for the Working Mathematician. Springer, 1998.
[Rot] Joseph Rotman. Advanced Modern Algebra. Prentice Hall, 2002.
[Wei] Charles A. Weibel. An Introduction to Homological Algebra. Cambridge, 1997.

Department of Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105

E-mail address: [email protected]