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Getting Started with
Open Source
Technologies
Sachin Rathee
Amol Chobe
Sachin Rathee
Amol Chobe
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8127-7
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true
and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the
editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any
errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no
warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein.
New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004-1562, USA. Phone
1-800-SPRINGER, fax (201) 348-4505, e-mail orders-ny@springer-
sbm.com, or visit www.springeronline.com. Apress Media, LLC is a
California LLC and the sole member (owner) is Springer Science +
Business Media Finance Inc (SSBM Finance Inc). SSBM Finance Inc is
a Delaware corporation.
source- code.
—Sachin
My wife, Anagha,
—Amol
Table of Contents
Conclusion
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References
�������������������������������
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Open Standards
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Building Standards
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�20
Standards in Practice
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Table of ConTenTs
Conclusion
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References
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Licensing Options
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���38
License Proliferation
�������������������������������
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�����������������������������49
Product Contributions
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������51
Building an Ecosystem
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
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Business Strategies
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������52
Product Services
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������������53
Conclusion
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��������54
References
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�������54
vi
Table of ConTenTs
Implementation
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�������������������������������
�������������������������������5
9
Verification
�������������������������������
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�������������������������������
�������60
Release
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������60
Conclusion
�������������������������������
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�������������������������������
�������������71
References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������71
Provisioning Systems
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������79
Virtualization Stack
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������������81
Software-Defined Networking
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������87
Software-Defined Storage
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������90
Ceph
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������90
Cloud Computing
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����91
OpenStack
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������92
Kubernetes
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������94
vii
Table of ConTenTs
Conclusion
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�������������96
References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������97
Chapter 6: Open Source Software for Emerging Technologies
�����������99
Conclusion
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�����������121
References
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Aerospace
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�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������125
Agriculture
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������127
Automotive
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������129
Energy
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�������������������������������
������������������130
Gaming
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�������������������������������
�����������������132
Healthcare
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������������133
Manufacturing
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Telecom
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Cross-Industry Initiatives
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��������������������141
Edge�����������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������142
Blockchain
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�������������������������������
������143
Conclusion
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�����������144
References
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viii
Table of ConTenTs
Popular Users
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�������158
Language Statistics
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Cryptocurrency
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Machine Learning
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Gaming
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�����������165
COVID-19
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��������166
Conclusion
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�����������168
References
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�������������������������������
�����169
Curriculum
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�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������174
Software Tools
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�������������������������������
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75
Industry Programs
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�������������������������������
�������������������������176
Upcoming Innovations
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�������������������������������
�������������������������180
Web
3�0�����������������������������
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�������������181
Metaverse
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�������������������������������
�������181
Multiexperience
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�������������������������������
�����������������������������181
Quantum Computing
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������182
Decentralized Finance
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������183
ix
Table of ConTenTs
Conclusion
�������������������������������
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�������������������������������
�����������184
References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����184
Index
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�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����187
x
About the Authors
xi
twitter.com/myfear.
xiii
Introduction
Source Technologies with Projects and Real Use Cases. If you are
looking
to understand what open source is, how open source operates, which
This book is based on real-world projects and use cases to help you
This book has nine chapters. Each chapter progressively builds on the
previous ones such that the readers get a good understanding of how
xv
InTroduCTIon
organizations.
xvi
InTroduCTIon
• Chapter 9 is the book’s final chapter, which talks about the path
forward for open source technologies. This
can help.
xvii
CHAPTER 1
We Got Here
download the software and try it out. They can see what it does and
if
it serves their needs. If it does, they can choose to join the open
source
examples include the Apache web server, the Mozilla Firefox browser,
This chapter defines the term open source and explains its
advantages,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8127-7_1
The free software and open source era began in the mid-1980s. In
acronym for GNU’s Not Unix! [1-1]. By design, GNU is like Unix but
without
Unix code and uses “free” software. The main objective of this
project was
Project.
users to run, edit, share, and distribute the software. The emphasis
was on
The FSF considers software “free” if it gives users the following four
essential freedoms. These freedoms are the four crucial pillars of FSF.
modify it
• The freedom to redistribute copies
Access to the source code is a prerequisite for the second and fourth
By the late 1980s and early 1990s, most developer communities used
GNU. They collaborated on the code and fixed bugs that they would
detect
During the same time when FSF was formed, the hardware industry
was
a 32-bit instruction set called 80386 was released by Intel. The 80386
hardware. This opened doors further for the creation of much more
with an Intel 386 CPU. Torvalds started work on a new kernel and a
free
the GNU C compiler for the creation of this new kernel. This kernel
was
Newsgroups: comp.os.minix
Message-ID:
big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones. This has
Linus ([email protected])
PS. Yes - it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-
threaded fs.
that he created solely for this project [1-4]. Linux and GNU
developers
code, find bugs, and fix those bugs. Then when the product is ready,
they
is crafted and installed before allowing the public to see it. This
approach,
5
Chapter 1 Open SOUrCe: hOw we GOt here
the GNU approach (Cathedral) and finds the former more responsive
to
The term open source was created in a session led by Eric Raymond
after
started looking for a label or a term that would identify this initiative.
They
by Christine Peterson [1-5]. The term gained much traction with early
I have seen a good deal of nonsense in print about bears, but will
venture to give these incidents. Joel H. Brooks and John Kenzie, ex-
members of “The Battalion,” were the least susceptible to fear of
them, of any persons I ever knew. Their skill as marksmen, was
something wonderful. They used to go through a drill on foot, firing
at some imaginary grizzly, then with a representative shot, the bear
was wounded, and pursuing them; they would turn and flee, loading
their rifles as they ran, and then turn and fire with deliberation at
the imaginary bear in pursuit.
Contrary to the usual, and almost invariable, habit of the bear when
surprised or about to attack, he did not rise upon his hind feet; but
instead of affording Kenzie the advantage of the usual opportunity to
aim at the small, light-colored spot on his neck, which, if centered, is
instant death to the animal, the bear made a direct dash for the
hunter. Seeing his peril, Kenzie at once fired with all the deliberation
the urgency of the occasion would permit. The shot proved a fatal
one, but before Kenzie could avoid the furious charge of the animal,
he was fatally injured by blows from the terrible monster. His bowels
were literally torn out; he was unfortunate in being tripped by the
tangled brush, or he might have escaped, as the bear fell dead with
his first charge, Kenzie succeeded in dragging himself to their camp.
He described the locality of the adventure, and requested Brooks to
go and bring in the liver of the bear. He said it would afford him
some consolation to eat more of the bear than the bear had been
able to eat of him. Brooks brought in and cooked some of the liver,
fully gratifying Kenzie’s whim; but it was the hunter’s last poor
triumph—he died soon after. Brooks swore off from this method of
hunting, at least for a season, and accepted a position offered him
at the Indian Agency.
Another member of our battalion killed a grizzly that for a time made
him quite famous as a bear-fighter. As this man was an Indian, an
attempt has been made to weave the incident into a legend, giving
the honor of the combat to one of the Yosemites. The truth is, that a
full-blooded Cherokee, known as “Cherokee Bob,” or Robert Brown,
wounded a grizzly, and to keep the bear from entering a thicket, set
his dog on the game. While “Bob” was re-loading his rifle, and
before he could get the cap on, the bear, disregarding the dog,
charged upon Bob, and bore him to the ground. The dog instantly
attacked the bear, biting his hams most furiously. The grizzly turned
from Brown and caught the dog with his paw, holding him as a cat
would hold a mouse. By this means Bob was released, and but
slightly bruised. In an instant he drew his hunting knife and plunged
it to the heart of the bear, and ended the contest. The dog was
seriously injured, but Bob carried him in his arms to camp, and
attended his wounds as he would a comrade’s or as he might have
done his own. As “Cherokee Bob’s” bear fight was a reality known to
his comrades, I have noticed it here.
During a hunt in company with Col. Byron Cole, Messrs. Kent, Long
and McBrien of San Francisco, I caught a good sized cub, and Mr.
Long, with a terrier dog, caught another; the mother of which was
killed by the unerring aim of McBrien. These cubs were taken by
Cole and McBrien to San Francisco on their return, and sent to New
York. I was told that they became very tame. I hope they did, for
the comfort and security of their keepers; for in my first efforts to
tame a grizzly, I became somewhat prejudiced against bear training
as an occupation. Not long after my experience, I heard of poor Lola
Montez being bitten by one she was training at Grass Valley for
exhibition in Europe; and I now lost all faith in their reported docility
and domestic inclinations. The California lion, like the wolf, is a
coward, and deserves but little notice. Among the visitors to the
Yosemite, some will probably be interested in knowing where to find
the game: fish, birds and animals, that may yet remain to gratify the
sportsmen’s love of the rod and the chase. Most of the game has
been killed or driven off by the approach of civilization. Deer and
occasionally a grizzly, cinnamon or black bear may be found on the
slopes of the Tuolumne, Merced, Fresno and San Joaquin, and on all
the rivers and mountains south of these streams. The cinnamon
bear of California is much larger than the common brown bear of the
Rocky Mountains.
The blue black-tailed deer of California are distinct from the black
tuft-tailed deer of the eastern ranges; a very marked difference will
be observed in their horns and ears. This distinction has been
noticed by naturalists; but the species are often confounded in
newspaper correspondence. The habits of the California deer are
more goat-like; they are wilder, and more easily startled than the
“mule-eared” deer of the Rockies, and when alarmed, they move
with the celerity of the white-tailed Virginia deer. The bare, tuft-
tailed and big-eared Rocky Mountain deer, seem but little alarmed by
the report of a gun; and their curiosity is nearly equal to that of the
antelope.
The California deer are still abundant upon the spurs of the Sierras
during their migrations to and from the foot-hills. These migrations
occur during the Autumn and Spring. As the rainy season sets in,
they leave the higher mountains for the foot-hills and plains, keeping
near the snow line, and as the Spring advances, they follow back the
receding snow to the high Sierras and the Eastern Slope, but seldom
or never descend to the plain below. On account of these migratory
habits, they will most likely endure the assaults of the sportsmen.
The haunts of the grizzly are the same as those of the deer, for they
alike prefer the bushy coverts to the more open ground, except
when feeding. The deer prefer as food the foliage of shrubs and
weeds to the richest grasses, and the bear prefers clover, roots, ants
and reptiles; but both fatten principally on acorns, wild rye and wild
oats.
Beside the mountain grouse and mountain quail, among the most
beautiful of birds, that afford the sportsman a diversity of sport, an
occasional flock of pigeons, of much larger size than those of the
Atlantic States, will attract attention; though I have never seen them
in very large flocks. In most of the mountain streams, and their
branches, brook trout are quite abundant. They are not, however, so
ravenously accommodating, as to bite just when they are wanted. I
learned from the Indians that they would bite best in foaming water,
when they were unable to see the angler, or the bait distinctly; their
curiosity stimulating their appetites. It is important that the trout do
not see the angler, and when very wary, the rod even should not be
conspicuous. Below the cañon of the Yosemite, young salmon were
once abundant. The Indians used to catch fish in weirs made of
brush and stones; but during the extensive mining operations on the
Merced and other rivers, the salmon seemed to have almost
abandoned their favorite haunts, for the mud covered spawn would
not hatch. Large salmon were speared by the Indians in all the
rivers, with a curious bone spear of but one tine, while the smaller
fry were caught in their weirs. In the Tulare lakes and in the San
Joaquin, King’s, Kern and other rivers, fish, frogs and turtle are
abundant, and water fowl literally swarm during the winter months
in many parts of California.
Among the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, as well as in all the lesser
mountain ranges, may be found the common California blue quail,
and a very curious brush or chapparel cock, known to the Spanish
residents of California and Mexico as “El Paisano” (The Countryman),
and as the “Correo Camino” (Road-runner), and to ornithologists as
the Geo-coc cyx Californicus.14 They have received the name of
“countryman” because of their inclination to run like country children
at the sight of strangers, and that of “road-runner” from the habit of
frequenting roads and trails, for the purpose of wallowing in the
dust, and when alarmed darting off along the road with the speed of
an ostrich or wild turkey. The object they have in wallowing in the
dust is like that of the ruffled grouse, which indulge in the same
practice—they sun themselves and at the same time are rid of
vermin. Trusting to their legs to escape when alarmed, they take the
open ground—the road—until outrunning pursuit they hide in the
chapparel, and thus acquire the name of “road-runner” or “chapparel
cock.”
I have never seen any ruffled grouse in the Sierra Nevada, but a
species of these fine birds, are quite abundant in Oregon and
Washington territory. I have been able to solve a question regarding
them, upon which naturalists have disagreed, that is, as to how they
drum. Whether the sound is produced by the wings in concussive
blows upon their bodies, the air, logs or rocks? I am able to say from
personal and careful observation, that the sound of “drumming,” is
made, like the sound of the “night jar,” exclusively by a peculiar
motion of the wings in the air. It is true, the American “pheasant” or
American “partridge,” commonly stands upon a log while drumming,
but I have watched them while perched upon a dry small branch or
twig, drum for hours most sonorously, calling upon their rivals to
encounter them, and their mistresses to come and witness their
gallantry. Darwin has aptly said: “The season of love, is that of
battle.” Notwithstanding the acuteness of observation of Mr. Darwin,
he has been led into error in his statement that wild horses “do not
make any danger signals.” They snort and paw the earth with
impatience, when they cannot discover the cause of their alarm, and
almost invariably circle to the leeward of the object that disturbs
them. A mule is the best of sentinels to alarm a camp on the
approach of danger. Deer and elk whistle and strike the earth
perpendicularly with their feet when jumping up to discover the
cause of alarm. Deer and antelope are both so inquisitive, that if the
hunter has not been seen, or has been but imperfectly seen, by
dropping into the grass or brush, and raising some object to view
and suddenly withdrawing it, the deer or antelope will frequently
come up within a few feet of the object. Antelope are especially
curious to know what disturbs them.
The coyotes, or small wolves, and the grey or tree climbing foxes of
California, make a kind of barking noise, more like the bark of a
small dog than the howl of a wolf; and therefore barking is not so
much of “an acquired” art as has been supposed, though the
“laughter” of dogs is more or less acquired.
A few days after we had moved camp to the south side of the
Merced, Captain Boling was prostrated with an attack of pneumonia.
From frequent wettings received while crossing the ice-cold torrents,
and a too free use of this snow-water, which did not agree with
many, he had for some days complained of slight illness, but after
this attack he was compelled to acknowledge himself sick. Although
the severe symptoms continued but a few days, his recovery was
lingering, and confined him to camp; consequently he knew but little
of his rocky surroundings. Although regular reports were made to
him by the scouting parties, he had but an imperfect conception of
the labors performed by them in clambering over the rocks of the
cañons and mountains. He would smile at the reports the more
enthusiastic gave of the wonders discovered; patiently listen to the
complaints of the more practical at their want of success in, what
they termed, their futile explorations; and finally concluded to
suspend operations until the fast-melting snow had so disappeared
from the high mountain passes as to permit our taking a supply-
train, in order to make our search thorough. The winter had been an
unusually dry and cold one—so said the Indians—and, as a
consequence, the accumulations of snow in the passes and lake
basins had remained almost intact. A succession of mountain storms
added to the drifts, so that when the snow finally began to melt, the
volume of water coming from the “High Sierras” was simply
prodigious—out of all proportion to the quantity that had fallen upon
the plains below.
The more practical of our command could not remain quiet in camp
during this suspension of business. Beside the ordinary routine of
camp duties, they engaged in athletic sports and horse-racing. A
very fair race track was cleared and put in condition, and some of
the owners of fast horses were very much surprised, to see their
favorites trailing behind some of the fleet-footed mules. A maltese
Kentucky blooded mule, known as the “Vining Mule,” distanced all
but one horse in the command, and so pleased was Capt. Boling
with its gracefully supple movements, that he paid Vining for it a
thousand dollars in gold.
While in Mariposa, upon one occasion not very long after the
discovery of Yosemite, I was solicited by Wm. T. Whitachre, a
newspaper correspondent from San Francisco, to furnish him a
written description of the Valley. This, of course, was beyond my
ability to do; but I disinterestedly complied with his request as far as
I could, by giving him some written details to work upon. On reading
the paper over, he advised me to reduce my estimates of heights of
cliffs and waterfalls, at least fifty per centum, or my judgment would
be a subject of ridicule even to my personal friends. I had estimated
El Capitan at from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet high; the
Yosemite Fall at about fifteen hundred feet, and other prominent
points of interest in about the same proportion.
All of the smaller streams that pour their tribute into the valley
during the melting of the snow, become later in the season but dry
ravines or mere rivulets, but the principal tributaries, running up, as
they do, into the lake and snow reservoirs, continue throughout the
dry season to pour their ample supply. After returning from my
mountain explorations, I freely questioned Ten-ie-ya of the places
we had visited. The old chief had gradually assumed his customary
manner of sociability, and if convinced by outline maps in the sand
that we were familiar with a locality, he would become quite
communicative, and give the names of the places described in
distinct words. Our English alphabet utterly fails to express the
sounds of many of them, for they were as unpronounceable as
Apache. This difficulty is owing more or less to the guttural
termination given by the Indians.
From this time Ten-ie-ya was secured by a rope which was fastened
around his waist. The only liberty allowed was the extent of the rope
with which he was fastened. He was a hearty feeder, and was
liberally supplied. From a lack of sufficient exercise, his appetite
cloyed, and he suffered from indigestion. He made application to
Captain Boling for permission to go out from camp to the place
where the grass was growing, saying the food he had been supplied
with was too strong; that if he did not have grass he should die. He
said the grass looked good to him, and there was plenty of it. Why
then should he not have it, when dogs were allowed to eat it?
The Captain was amused at the application, with its irony, but
surmised that he was meditating another attempt to leave us;
however, he good humoredly said: “He can have a ton of fodder if
he desires it, but I do not think it advisable to turn him loose to
graze.” The Captain consented to the Sergeant’s kindly arrangements
to tether him, and he was led out to graze upon the young clover,
sorrel, bulbous roots and fresh growth of ferns which were then
springing up in the valley, one species of which we found a good
salad. All of these he devoured with the relish of a hungry ox.
Occasionally truffles or wood-mushrooms were brought him by
Sandino and our allies, as if in kindly sympathy for him, or in
acknowledgment of his rank. Such presents and a slight deference to
his standing as a chief, were always received with grunts of
satisfaction. He was easily flattered by any extra attentions to his
pleasure. At such times he was singularly amiable and
conversational. Like many white men, it was evident that his more
liberal feelings could be the easiest aroused through his stomach.
Our supplies not being deemed sufficient for the expedition over the
Sierras, and as those verdureless mountains would provide no forage
for our animals, nor game to lengthen out our rations unless we
descended to the lower levels, Capt. Boling sent a pack train to the
Fresno for barley and extra rations. All of our Indians except Sandino
and Ten-ie-ya were allowed to go below with the detachment sent
along as escort for the train. While waiting for these supplies, some
of the command who had been exploring up Indian Cañon, reported
fresh signs at the head of that ravine. Feeling somewhat recovered
in strength, Captain Boling decided to undertake a trip out, and see
for himself some of our surroundings. Accordingly, the next morning,
he started with some thirty odd men up Indian Cañon. His design
was to explore the Scho-look or Scho-tal-lo-wi branch (Yosemite
Creek) to its source, or at least the Southern exposures of the divide
as far east as we could go and return at night. Before starting, I
advised the taking of our blankets, for a bivouac upon the ridge, as
from experience I was aware of the difficult and laborious ascent,
and intimated that the excursion would be a laborious one for an
invalid, if the undertaking was accomplished. The Captain laughed as
he said: “Are your distances equal to your heights? If they
correspond, we shall have ample time!” Of course, I could make no
reply, for between us, the subject of heights had already been
exhausted, although the Captain had not yet been to the top of the
inclosing walls.
With my energetic little squad, I led the way, old Ten-ie-ya in front,
Sandino at his side, through forest openings and meadows, until we
reached the open rocky ground on the ridge leading to what is now
known as Mt. Hoffman. I directed our course towards that peak. We
had not traveled very far, the distance does not now impress me,
when as we descended toward a tributary of Yosemite creek, we
came suddenly upon an Indian, who at the moment of discovery was
lying down drinking from the brook. The babbling waters had
prevented his hearing our approach. We hurried up to within fifty or
sixty yards, hoping to capture him, but were discovered. Seeing his
supposed danger, he bounded off, a fine specimen of youthful vigor.
No racehorse or greyhound could have seemingly made better time
than he towards a dense forest in the valley of the Scho-look.
Several rifles were raised, but I gave the order “don’t shoot,” and
compelled the old chief to call to him to stop. The young Indian did
stop, but it was at a safe distance. When an attempt was made by
two or three to move ahead and get close to him, he saw the
purpose and again started; neither threatening rifles, nor the calls of
Ten-ie-ya, could again stop his flight.
As we knew our strength, after such a climb, was not equal to the
chase of the fleet youth, he was allowed to go unmolested. I could
get no information from Ten-ie-ya concerning the object of the
exploration; and as for Sandino, his memory seemed to have
conveniently failed him. With this conclusion I decided to continue
my course, and moved off rapidly. Ten-ie-ya complained of fatigue,
and Sandino reminded me that I was traveling very fast. My reply to
both cut short all attempts to lessen our speed; and when either
were disposed to lag in their gait, I would cry out the Indian word,
“We-teach,” meaning hurry up, with such emphasis as to put new
life into their movements.
We soon struck an old trail that led east along the southern slope of
the divide, and when I abandoned my purpose of going farther
towards the Tuolumne, and turned to the right on the trail
discovered, Ten-ie-ya once more found voice in an attempt to
dissuade me from this purpose, saying that the trail led into the
mountains where it was very cold, and where, without warm clothing
at night, we would freeze. He was entirely too earnest, in view of his
previous taciturnity; and I told him so.
The snow was still quite deep on the elevated portions of the ridge
and in shaded localities, but upon the open ground, the trail was
generally quite bare. As we reached a point still farther east, we
perceived the trail had been recently used; the tracks had been
made within a day or two. From the appearances, we concluded
they were made by Ten-ie-ya’s scouts who had followed down the
ridge and slope west of the North Dome to watch our movements.
The tracks were made going and returning, thus showing a
continued use of this locality. As the tracks diverged from the trail at
this point, they led out of the direct line of any communication with
the valley, and after some reflection, I was satisfied that we had
struck a clue to their hiding place, and realizing that it was time to
return if we expected to reach the valley before dark, we turned
about and started at once on the down grade.
We found the Captain anxiously awaiting our return. He was pleased
with our report, and agreed in the conclusion that the Indians were
encamped not very far off. Captain Boling had suffered from fatigue
and the chill air of the mountains. In speaking of a farther pursuit of
our discoveries, he said: “I am not as strong as I supposed, and will
have to await the return of the pack train before taking part in these
expeditions.”
I told Captain Boling that upon the trip, Sandino had appeared
willfully ignorant when questioned concerning the country we were
exploring, and my belief that he stood in fear of Ten-ie-ya; that as a
guide, no dependence could be placed upon him, and that his
interpretations of Ten-ie-ya’s sayings were to be received with
caution when given in the old chief’s presence, as Ten-ie-ya’s
Spanish was about equal to his own. Captain Boling instructed me to
tell Sandino, that in future, he need only act as interpreter. He
seemed satisfied with this arrangement, and said that the country
appeared different from what it was when he was a boy and had
been accustomed to traverse it.
Captain Boling and the men with him came up and took in the view
before us. One asked if I thought a bird could go down there safely.
Another wanted to know if I was aiding “Old Truthful” to commit
suicide. The last question had an echo of suspicion in my own
thoughts. I immediately surmised it possible the old sachem was
leading us into another trap, where, by some preconcerted signal, an
avalanche of rocks would precipitate us all to the bottom. I asked
Ten-ie-ya if this trail was used by his people; he assured me it was,
by women and children; that it was a favorite trail of his. Seeing
some evidences of it having been recently used, and being assured
by Sandino that it was somewhere below on this trail that Ten-ie-ya
had descended to the valley when taken a prisoner, a few of us were
shamed into a determination to make the attempt to go where the
old chief could go.
This I found was the only really dangerous place, on what was
facetiously called, by those who were leaving us, “a very good trail.”
The last fifty or sixty feet of the descent was down the sloping side
of an immense detached rock, and then down through the top of a
black oak tree at the south-westerly base of the vast cliff or
promontory known as the “Arrow-wood Cliff.” The “Royal Arches,”
the “Washington Column,” and the “North Dome,” occupy positions
east of this trail, but upon the same vast pile of granite.
During our long stay in the Yosemite, I discovered that almost every
prominent object and locality in and about it, had some distinctive
appellation. Every peak and cliff, every cañon or ravine, meadow,
stream and waterfall, had a designation by which it could be
distinguished by the Yosemites. I made considerable effort to
acquire these names in their native purity. Although I did not at that
time learn all of them, I did in subsequent visits to the valley and to
the camps of the remnants of the tribes, acquire, as I then believed,
a very nearly correct pronunciation of most of them. I used all the
advantages afforded by my position as one of the Spanish
interpreters, and applied myself perseveringly to the task of
preserving these names; for even at that early day I realized that
public interest would, in time, be attached to that wonderful locality.
I was ridiculed for the idea, or at least for the supposition that it
probably would be awakened during my life-time.
I obtained many of the names of objects and locations from old Ten-
ie-ya himself, whenever I could find him in a communicative mood.
As he was reputed to be quite a linguist, speaking, besides his native
Ah-wah-ne-chee, the Pai-ute, and other dialects, I regarded his
authority as superior to that of either the Po-ho-no or Noot-chü
Indians, who differed from him in the pronunciation of some of the
names.
I was unable to converse with Ten-ie-ya except through an
interpreter, but the words I noted down from the old chief’s lips as
they sounded to my ear at the time, getting the signification as best
I could, or not at all. There is really no more sentiment or refined
imagery of expression among Indians than will be found among
ignorant people of any kind. But living as they do in close affinity
with nature, natural objects first attract their attention, and the
dominant characteristics of any object impress themselves upon
their language. Hence many of their words are supposed to be
representative of natural sounds. Our Po-ho-no-chee and Noot-chü
scouts were familiar with the dialect in common use by the
Yosemites, and they also aided me, while at times they confused, in
acquiring the proper names. The territory claimed by the Po-ho-no-
chees, joined that of the Yosemites on the south. During the
Summer months, they occupied the region of the Po-ho-no
Meadows, and the vicinity of the Pohono Lake. Their territory,
however, extended to the right bank of the South Fork of the
Merced. It was there we found a little band on our first expedition.
Some of this band were quite intelligent, having with the Noot-chüs,
worked for Major Savage. It was from them that the Major first
learned that the Yosemites were a composite band, collected from
the disaffected of other bands in that part of California, and what is
now Nevada; and as the Major said, the dialect in common use
among them was nearly as much of a mixture as the components of
the band itself, for he recognized Pai-ute, Kah-we-ah and Oregon
Indian words among them.
Major Savage was intimately familiar with the dialects of his Indian
miners and customers, and was probably at that time the best
interpreter in California of the different mountain dialects.
The Ribbon Fall of the El Capitan has a sheer descent of 2,100 feet,
but its beauty disappears with the melting snow. The other falls
were only designated by the names of the streams upon which they
are situated. The river Merced was spoken of as the river of Ah-wah-
ne; but the three principal branches were variously designated; the
main, or middle, up to the Vernal Fall, as “Yan-o-pah,” the “Water
Cloud” branch, and above the Vernal, as “Yo-wy-we-ack,” “the
twisting rock branch.”
The north and south branches had their distinctive names; the
north, Py-we-ack, meaning the branch of the “Glistening Rocks,” and
the south, Too-lool-we-ack, or more definitely, Too-lool-lo-we-ack.
The modern interpretations of some of these names may be
regarded as quite fanciful, though Major Savage would declare that
Indian languages were so full of figures of speech that without
imagination they could not be understood.
This really beautiful fall was visited by few of our battalion, and
owing to the impracticability of following up the cañon above the
fall, and the great difficulty of access to it, it was left neglected; the
command contenting itself with a distant view. In view of the
discoveries of Mr. Muir that there were glaciers at its source, and
that the cliff now known as “Glacier Point” may be said to mark the
entrance to this “South Cañon,” a name often confounded with
“South Fork,” and especially because of the impropriety of translating
this Indian name, I think it advisable to call this the Glacier Fall, and,
therefore, give it that name in this volume. The name of “Illeuette”
is not Indian, and is, therefore, meaningless and absurd. In
accordance with the customs of these mountain people of naming
their rivers from the most characteristic features of their source, the
North or Ten-ie-ya branch of the Merced, which comes down the
North Cañon from the glistening glacial rocks at its source, was
called Py-we-ack, “the river of glistening rocks,” or more literally,
perhaps, “the river-smoothed rocks.” Whether from Pai, a river, or
from Py-ca-bo, a spring, I am in doubt. If the first syllable of the
name Py-we-ack be derived from Py-ca-bo, then, probably, the name
signified to them “the glistening rock spring branch,” as the ice-
burnished rocks at the head of Lake Ten-ie-ya stand at the source of
the river.
I have never been satisfied with the poetical interpretation given the
name, nor with its transfer to “Yan-o-pah,” the branch of the “little
cloud,” as rendered by Mr. Travis. But as Py-we-ack has been
displaced from Lake Ten-ie-ya and its outlet, it is proper and in
accordance with the custom to call the branch Ten-ie-ya also. The
name of Ten-ie-ya was given to the lake at the time of its discovery.
It was there we captured the remnant of the Yosemite band, as will
be explained in the next chapter. The name of Ten-ie-ya Cañon, Ten-
ie-ya Fork and Lake Ten-ie-ya, has for this reason superseded the
original name of Py-we-ack; but in naming the lake, I preserved an
Indian name that represented the central figure in all of our
operations.
Wai-ack was the name for “Mirror Lake,” as well as for the mountain
it so perfectly reflected. The lake itself was not particularly attractive
or remarkable, but in the early morning, before the breeze swept up
the cañon, the reflections were so perfect, especially of what is now
known as Mt. Watkins, that even our scouts called our attention to it
by pointing and exclaiming: “Look at Wai-ack,” interpreted to mean
the “Water Rock.” This circumstance suggested the name of “Mirror
Lake.” The name was opposed by some, upon the ground that all
still water was a mirror. My reply established the name. It was that
other conditions, such as light and shade, were required, as when
looking into a well, the wall of the Half Dome perfecting the
conditions, and that when shown another pool that was more
deserving, we would transfer the name. Captain Boling approved the
name, and it was so called by the battalion.
It would be a difficult task to trace out and account for all of our
impressions, or for the forms they take; but my recollection is that
the cool, moist air, and newly-springing Kentucky blue-grass at the