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Getting Started with Open Source Technologies: Applying Open Source Technologies with Projects and Real Use Cases 1st Edition Sachin Rathee - The full ebook set is available with all chapters for download

The document provides information about various eBooks available for download at ebookmeta.com, including titles related to open source technologies, Arduino, project management, and more. It highlights the book 'Getting Started with Open Source Technologies' by Sachin Rathee and Amol Chobe, along with other recommended digital products. Additionally, it includes details about the authors, copyright information, and the structure of the book.

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Getting Started with

Open Source

Technologies

Applying Open Source

Technologies with Projects

and Real Use Cases

Sachin Rathee

Amol Chobe

Getting Started with Open Source Technologies: Applying


Open Source

Technologies with Projects and Real Use Cases

Sachin Rathee

Amol Chobe

Florida, FL, USA

New Jersey, NJ, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-8126-0

ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-8127-7

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8127-7

Copyright © 2022 by Sachin Rathee and Amol Chobe


This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
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and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the
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source- code.

Printed on acid-free paper

My creative daughter, Smera, who makes me feel loved

My kind-hearted son, Niam, who inspires me to be generous

My beautiful wife, Nupur, who makes me


whole with her smiles

My commando dad, who makes me proud

with his achievements

My loving mom, who encourages me in everything I do

My amazing big brother, Nishant, who always cares for me

—Sachin

My mom, dad, and big bro

for helping me believe that anything is possible

My wife, Anagha,

and my children, Aditi and Atharva,

for their endless love and support

—Amol

Table of Contents

About the Authors


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������xi About the Technical
Reviewer
�������������������������������
����������������������������xiii
Introduction
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������������xv Chapter
1: Open Source: How We Got Here
�������������������������������
������������1

Free Software Foundation


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������2

The Linux Era


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������3

The Cathedral and Bazaar Approaches


�������������������������������
�����������������������������5

The Open Source Initiative


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������6

The Open Source Definition


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������8

FSF and OSI Comparisons


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������9

Open Source and Closed Source


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������9
Other Varieties of Software
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������12

The Open Source Software Community Development


Process���������������������������13

The Current State of


Affairs����������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������15

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������16

References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������17

Chapter 2: Open Source and Open Standards


�������������������������������
������19

Open Standards
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����19

Building Standards
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�20

Open Source with Open Standards


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������22

Standards in Practice
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������������24

Table of ConTenTs

Standards in Communications Industry


�������������������������������
�������������������������24

Standards in Automotive Industry


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���28

Standards in Financial Industry


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������32

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������33
References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������34

Chapter 3: Open Source Licenses


�������������������������������
������������������������37

Trusted Open Source Licenses


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������37

Licensing Options
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���38

Choosing the Appropriate License for Your Work


�������������������������������
�����������������40

The Apache License


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������41

The Berkeley Software Distribution License (BSD License)


��������������������������42

The GNU General Public License


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����43
The MIT License
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������������������46

The Mozilla Public License


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������47

The Eclipse Public License


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������48

License Proliferation
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������������49

Profiting from Open Source


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������51

Product Contributions
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������51

Building an Ecosystem
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������52

Business Strategies
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������52

Product Services
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������������53

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������54

References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������54

vi

Table of ConTenTs

Chapter 4: Securing Open Systems


�������������������������������
���������������������57

Security in the Software Development Life Cycle


�������������������������������
����������������57

Planning and Requirements


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������58
Design and Architecture
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������59

Implementation
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������5
9

Verification
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������60

Release
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������60

Processes and Tools


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������������61

Open Source Vulnerability Management


�������������������������������
������������������������������62

Policies and Compliance


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������65
Security Organizations
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������������67

The Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP)


�������������������������������
�����67

The Open Source Security Foundation


�������������������������������
���������������������������69

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������71

References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������71

Chapter 5: Open Source in Infrastructure


�������������������������������
������������75

Physical Infrastructure Components


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����76

Provisioning Systems
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������79

Virtual Infrastructure Components


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������80

Virtualization Stack
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������������81

Software-Defined Networking
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������87

Open Virtual Network


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������88

Software-Defined Storage
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������90

Ceph
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������90

Cloud Computing
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����91

OpenStack
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������92

Kubernetes
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������94

vii

Table of ConTenTs

Management and Orchestration


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������95

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������96

References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������97
Chapter 6: Open Source Software for Emerging Technologies
�����������99

What Are AI, ML, DL, and IoT?


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������99

Artificial Intelligence Implementation


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�103

AI Engine Framework and Tooling


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������106

Hardware for AI/ML/IoT Workloads


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����112

How Businesses Use AI, ML, and IoT


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���115

AI, ML, and IoT Use Cases


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������116

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������121

References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����122

Chapter 7: Open Source Technology in Industry


�������������������������������1
25

Aerospace
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������125

Agriculture
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������127

Automotive
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������129

Energy
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������130
Gaming
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������132

Healthcare
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������133

Manufacturing
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������135

Telecom
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������137

Cross-Industry Initiatives
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������141

Edge�����������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������142

Blockchain
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������143

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������144

References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����145

viii

Table of ConTenTs

Chapter 8: Open Source Growth and Trends


�������������������������������
������149

Popular Open Source Projects


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������155

Popular Users
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������158

Language Statistics
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������������160

Emerging Domains in Open source


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����163

Cryptocurrency
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������������������163

Machine Learning
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������������164

Gaming
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������165

COVID-19
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������166

Commercial Organization’s Active Contribution


�������������������������������
�����������167

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������168

References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����169

Chapter 9: The Path Forward


�������������������������������
�����������������������������171

Open Source in Education


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������173

Curriculum
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������174

Software Tools
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������1
75

Industry Programs
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������176

Initiating Open Source Projects


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������177

Getting Involved in Open Source with Enterprises


�������������������������������
�������������179

Upcoming Innovations
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������180

Web
3�0�����������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������181

Metaverse
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������181

Multiexperience
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������������181

Quantum Computing
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������182

Decentralized Finance
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������183

ix

Table of ConTenTs

NFT (Non-Fungible Token)


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������183

Named Data Networking


�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������183

Conclusion
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������184

References
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����184

Index
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����187

x
About the Authors

Sachin Rathee is a technologist and business

executive with extensive experience in multiple

facets of the software industry. Sachin has led


many transformational projects using open

source technologies for various enterprises.

He is a strong proponent of open source

and presented its value at multiple global

conferences. Most recently, Sachin has led

the realization of 5G and edge computing

use cases in cloud-native environments. He

has a bachelor’s degree in engineering and a

master’s degree in business. Administration.

Amol Chobe is a solutions architect leader

with more than 20 years of experience

across numerous industries such as

telecommunications and finance. He

specializes in driving technology-based

solutions into business-valued solutions based

on customer needs and goals.

Amol has been a big advocate of the open

source community and has given several

presentations worldwide focusing on various

open source projects. Lately, he has been


working on cloud economics for hybrid and multi-clouds . He has a

master’s degree in computer engineering.

xi

About the Technical Reviewer

Markus is a Java Champion, former Java EE

Expert Group member, founder of JavaLand,

reputed speaker at Java conferences around

the world, and a very well-known figure in the

Enterprise Java world. With more than 16 years

of professional experience in the industry,

he designed and developed large Enterprise-

grade applications for Fortune 500 companies.


As an experienced team lead and architect,

he helped implement some of the largest

integration projects in automotive, finance,

and insurance companies. You can connect to him on LinkedIn at


www.

linkedin.com/in/markuseisele/or follow him on Twitter at https://

twitter.com/myfear.

xiii

Introduction

Welcome to Getting Started with Open Source Technologies: Applying


Open

Source Technologies with Projects and Real Use Cases. If you are
looking

to understand what open source is, how open source operates, which

industries are actively involved in open source, and open source


security

aspects, this is the right book for you.

Who Should Read This Book

This book is most suited for enterprises (developers/operators/

management) and students who want to get a 360-degree view of


open

source no matter how early or advanced they are in their adoption of


any
open source technology.

This book is based on real-world projects and use cases to help you

understand the open source ecosystem better.

What Is Covered in the Book

This book has nine chapters. Each chapter progressively builds on the

previous ones such that the readers get a good understanding of how

various aspects of open source interrelate.

• Chapter 1 describes how the concept of open source started with


the Free Software Foundation and Open

Source Initiative. This chapter describes the open

source community development process and discusses

its current state.

xv

InTroduCTIon

• Chapter 2 delves into comparisons between the terms open source


and open standards and how

they interoperate. The chapter also discusses their

interdependence with several examples.

• Chapter 3 goes into licensing terminology and explains the


importance of various popular open source

licenses. It also helps understand how to profit from


open source and lists important open source projects

for the licenses covered.

• Chapter 4 is about securing open systems. It covers security in the


software development life cycle in the

context of open source and how to handle vulnerability

management. It also gives insights into policies and

compliance and then goes over different security

organizations.

• Chapter 5 explains infrastructure requirements for IT components,


including computing, networks,

and storage. It also lists various open source projects

specific to these components.

• Chapter 6 covers basic concepts of emerging technologies like


artificial intelligence, machine

learning, and the Internet of Things and their use cases

across industries. It explains these technologies using

various open source projects and tools.

• Chapter 7 deals with the use of open source technologies in various


industries. While doing so, it

lists some of the most popular projects used today.

Industries covered include aerospace, agriculture,

automotive, energy, gaming, healthcare, manufacturing,


telecom, and various cross-industry initiatives.

xvi

InTroduCTIon

• Chapter 8 examines various trends in the open source world using


information from GitHub. It gives a view

of the most popular licenses, projects, programming

languages, and contributors.

• Chapter 9 is the book’s final chapter, which talks about the path
forward for open source technologies. This

chapter looks at what it takes to build a better and

sustainable path for open source and discusses school

curricula, tools, and industry programs. This chapter

concludes by looking at current industry trends and

upcoming innovations where open source technologies

can help.

xvii

CHAPTER 1

Open Source: How

We Got Here

In today’s world, open source technology is considered the backbone


of
digital innovation and modernization. So, what does open source
mean?

It is loosely defined as software that anyone can modify and share as


its

design is easily accessible to the public.

Open source technologies help increase the pace of innovation by

being open to collaboration, leading to the free exchange of


innovative

ideas within the communities. Suppose an end user or a developer


finds

a particular technology or a project fascinating. In that case, they can

download the software and try it out. They can see what it does and
if

it serves their needs. If it does, they can choose to join the open
source

project and contribute to it. They can also use it as a base or


foundation

to create something new. Millions of people around the globe use


open

source technologies today.

One of the leading examples of open source technology is the


Android

operating system started by Google. Android is an open source


operating
system initially created for mobile devices. Other open source
software

examples include the Apache web server, the Mozilla Firefox browser,

LibreOffice, and the Linux operating system.

This chapter defines the term open source and explains its
advantages,

challenges, and current state of affairs.

© Sachin Rathee and Amol Chobe 2022

S. Rathee and A. Chobe, Getting Started with Open Source


Technologies,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8127-7_1

Chapter 1 Open SOUrCe: hOw we GOt here

Free Software Foundation

The free software and open source era began in the mid-1980s. In

September 1983, Richard Stallman started the GNU project. GNU is


an

acronym for GNU’s Not Unix! [1-1]. By design, GNU is like Unix but
without

Unix code and uses “free” software. The main objective of this
project was

to create a Unix-like operating system with openly available source


code
that could be copied, changed, and redistributed. Additional
programs,

applications, and libraries were released under the auspices of the


GNU

Project.

Note Unix is a portable, multitasking, multiuser operating system

developed in 1969 at the Bell Labs research center.

The Free Software Foundation (FSF) was established in 1985 as a

non-profit organization promoting free software development. Under


the

leadership of Richard Stallman, this foundation continued supporting

GNU projects [1-2]. From FSF’s point of view, free software


empowers the

users to run, edit, share, and distribute the software. The emphasis
was on

free software as a matter of liberty, not price.

The FSF considers software “free” if it gives users the following four

essential freedoms. These freedoms are the four crucial pillars of FSF.

• The freedom to execute the program as you desire and

for any reason

• The freedom to analyze how the program operates and

modify it
• The freedom to redistribute copies

• The freedom to circulate copies of your updated/

modified variants to others

Chapter 1 Open SOUrCe: hOw we GOt here

Access to the source code is a prerequisite for the second and fourth

pillars. The main objective of these freedoms is to allow the entire

community to benefit from modifications made by anyone.

By the late 1980s and early 1990s, most developer communities used

GNU. They collaborated on the code and fixed bugs that they would
detect

while using the software. FSF continues to educate the developers


about

free software through various resources, articles, and in-person


advocacy.

The Linux Era

During the same time when FSF was formed, the hardware industry
was

undergoing evolution too. In 1985, the first x86 microprocessor with

a 32-bit instruction set called 80386 was released by Intel. The 80386

significance was that it maintained backward compatibility with Intel’s


previous processors, which allowed it to run existing PC software.
This

backward compatibility was a significant milestone in the world of x86

hardware. This opened doors further for the creation of much more

portable software which could run on multiple hardware


architectures,

and this helped to generate a knowledge pool of technical expertise


due to

easier access to the portable software and hardware in general

In 1991, in Helsinki, Finland, a computer science student at the

University of Helsinki, Linus Torvalds, purchased a personal computer

with an Intel 386 CPU. Torvalds started work on a new kernel and a
free

operating system. This project was developed using Minix. Torvalds


used

the GNU C compiler for the creation of this new kernel. This kernel
was

eventually named Linux. On August 25, 1991, Linus Torvalds


announced

the Linux system in a Usenet newsgroup forum.

Chapter 1 Open SOUrCe: hOw we GOt here

Note Minix is a lightweight operating system inspired by Unix.


andrew tannenbaum designed it for education purposes.

Usenet is an Internet-based network of discussion groups. It is a

forum where people share messages through Usenet servers.

The following is Linus Torvalds’ announcement [1-3].

From: [email protected] (Linus Benedict Torvalds)

Newsgroups: comp.os.minix

Subject: What would you like to see most in minix?

Summary: small poll for my new operating system

Message-ID:

Date: 25 Aug 91 20:57:08 GMT

Organization: University of Helsinki

Hello everybody out there using minix -

I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be

big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones. This has

been brewing since april, and is starting to get ready. I'd

like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as

my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-

system (due to practical reasons) among other things).

I've currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40), and things

seem to work. This implies that I'll get something practical


within a few months, and I'd like to know what features most

people would want. Any suggestions are welcome, but I won't

promise I'll implement them :-)

Linus ([email protected])

Chapter 1 Open SOUrCe: hOw we GOt here

PS. Yes - it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-

threaded fs.

It is NOT portable (uses 386 task switching etc), and it

probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks,

as that's all I have :-(.

Linus Torvalds initially distributed the Linux kernel under a license

that he created solely for this project [1-4]. Linux and GNU
developers

combined GNU components with the Linux kernel, making it a fully

functional and free operating system. Due to objections raised


against

the original license rule that prohibited commercial distribution of the

software, Linus Torvalds decided to distribute this operating system


under

GPL license, starting with the release of Linux 0.12.


The Cathedral and Bazaar Approaches

In 1997, at a Linux conference, an American software developer Eric

Raymond presented two fundamental approaches to building


software:

Bazaar and Cathedral. He wrote an essay on this topic, and


eventually, it

became a full-length book.

Cathedral software is where a group of developers come together to

code, find bugs, and fix those bugs. Then when the product is ready,
they

ship the product. This is similar to building a cathedral where


everything

is crafted and installed before allowing the public to see it. This
approach,

however, takes a lot of time.

On the other hand, the Bazaar software approach is free, running

where there is no central control. Different developers, like vendors

at a bazaar, offer different approaches to various problems, and these

developers improve functionality or fix bugs as they see a need.

Development is a collaborative process in this approach. This


approach

helps in releasing software early and often.

5
Chapter 1 Open SOUrCe: hOw we GOt here

In this essay, Raymond compares the Linux approach (Bazaar) to

the GNU approach (Cathedral) and finds the former more responsive
to

user needs. The essay received significant attention in the


developer’s

community. It was one of the key factors that motivated Netscape

Corporation to publish their crucial Netscape Communicator suite as


free

software. Netscape wanted to boost its business by tapping into a


virtually

unlimited developer talent pool for its next-generation browsers and

thwarting competition from Microsoft’s Internet Explorer. This source


code

consequently became the origin for Thunderbird and Mozilla Firefox.

The Open Source Initiative

The term open source was created in a session led by Eric Raymond
after

the notification of the release of the Netscape Communicator source


code.

This session was attended by industry stalwarts like Michael Tiemann,

Sam Ockman, Jon Hall, Larry Augustin, and Todd Andersen on


February 3,
1998, in Palo Alto, California.

The session attendees realized that the awareness around the

Netscape decision had produced an opportunity to teach and promote


the

advantage of an open development process in the software and


business

development community. During the session, there was a common

consensus that Netscape’s announcement around releasing code has

demonstrated a practical way to interlock with potential developers’

expertise from the community.

To distinguish themselves, Eric Raymond and other session attendees

started looking for a label or a term that would identify this initiative.
They

eventually agreed on the term open source, which was initially


suggested

by Christine Peterson [1-5]. The term gained much traction with early

support from Linus Torvalds and founding members of Apache, Perl,

Python, representatives from the Internet Engineering Task Force


(IETF),

and the Internet Software Consortium.

Chapter 1 Open SOUrCe: hOw we GOt here


Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
two cubs, encountered in a short turn of the river. I tried to kill these
also, but my rifle had got soaked in the rain that was pouring at the
time; as for the pistol shots, fired by some of the oarsmen, they only
seemed to increase her speed, and that of her cubs, as they reached
the shore and plunged through the willows. I had, previous to the
killing of the grizzly, killed a large black bear with a rifle of small
calibre, and gaining confidence, I attacked the grizzly, and was
fortunate in cutting a renal-artery, from which the bear soon bled to
death; but upon viewing the huge monster, I fully realized the folly
of an open attack upon this kind of game, and ever afterwards, so
far as I could, when alone, avoided their noted haunts. With all my
caution and dread of an unexpected encounter with them, I met
several face to face during mountain explorations; but invariably,
they seemed as anxious to get away from me as I was that they
should do so. Once while manœuvering to get a shot at a deer, a
grizzly came out in full view but a few yards in advance of me. I was
tempted to give him a shot, but as I had no refuge of dog or tree, if
I made a poor shot, and knowing that I was not seen by the bear, I
did not molest him, but felt relieved as he entered a chinquepin
thicket, and if there had been fifty of them, no doubt they might
have all gone without my saying a word.

I have seen a good deal of nonsense in print about bears, but will
venture to give these incidents. Joel H. Brooks and John Kenzie, ex-
members of “The Battalion,” were the least susceptible to fear of
them, of any persons I ever knew. Their skill as marksmen, was
something wonderful. They used to go through a drill on foot, firing
at some imaginary grizzly, then with a representative shot, the bear
was wounded, and pursuing them; they would turn and flee, loading
their rifles as they ran, and then turn and fire with deliberation at
the imaginary bear in pursuit.

This theory of bear hunting, they determined to put into practice,


and after the close of the Indian war, and the disbanding of the
battalion, they established themselves in a camp near the Tehon
Pass, a locality even more famous for bears than the Yosemite. They
were successful, killed a number, and were daily acquiring more
confidence in the practicability of their theory and plans of attack;
when one day, while Kenzie was out hunting by himself, he
unexpectedly met a huge grizzly face to face; both were for a
moment startled.

Contrary to the usual, and almost invariable, habit of the bear when
surprised or about to attack, he did not rise upon his hind feet; but
instead of affording Kenzie the advantage of the usual opportunity to
aim at the small, light-colored spot on his neck, which, if centered, is
instant death to the animal, the bear made a direct dash for the
hunter. Seeing his peril, Kenzie at once fired with all the deliberation
the urgency of the occasion would permit. The shot proved a fatal
one, but before Kenzie could avoid the furious charge of the animal,
he was fatally injured by blows from the terrible monster. His bowels
were literally torn out; he was unfortunate in being tripped by the
tangled brush, or he might have escaped, as the bear fell dead with
his first charge, Kenzie succeeded in dragging himself to their camp.
He described the locality of the adventure, and requested Brooks to
go and bring in the liver of the bear. He said it would afford him
some consolation to eat more of the bear than the bear had been
able to eat of him. Brooks brought in and cooked some of the liver,
fully gratifying Kenzie’s whim; but it was the hunter’s last poor
triumph—he died soon after. Brooks swore off from this method of
hunting, at least for a season, and accepted a position offered him
at the Indian Agency.

Another member of our battalion killed a grizzly that for a time made
him quite famous as a bear-fighter. As this man was an Indian, an
attempt has been made to weave the incident into a legend, giving
the honor of the combat to one of the Yosemites. The truth is, that a
full-blooded Cherokee, known as “Cherokee Bob,” or Robert Brown,
wounded a grizzly, and to keep the bear from entering a thicket, set
his dog on the game. While “Bob” was re-loading his rifle, and
before he could get the cap on, the bear, disregarding the dog,
charged upon Bob, and bore him to the ground. The dog instantly
attacked the bear, biting his hams most furiously. The grizzly turned
from Brown and caught the dog with his paw, holding him as a cat
would hold a mouse. By this means Bob was released, and but
slightly bruised. In an instant he drew his hunting knife and plunged
it to the heart of the bear, and ended the contest. The dog was
seriously injured, but Bob carried him in his arms to camp, and
attended his wounds as he would a comrade’s or as he might have
done his own. As “Cherokee Bob’s” bear fight was a reality known to
his comrades, I have noticed it here.

The various routes to the Yosemite are now so constantly traveled


that bears will rarely be seen. They possess a very keen scent, and
will avoid all thoroughfares traveled by man, unless very hungry;
they are compelled to search for food. Strange as it may appear to
some, the ferocious grizzly can be more reliably tamed and
domesticated than the black bear. A tame grizzly at Monterey, in
1849, was allowed the freedom of the city. Capt. Chas. M. Webber,
the original proprietor of the site of Stockton, had two that were
kept chained. They became very tame. One of these, especially
tame, would get loose from time to time and roam at will over the
city. The new inhabitants of Stockton seemed not to be inspired by
that faith in his docility and uprightness of character that possessed
the owner, for they found him ravenously devouring a barrel of sugar
that belonged to one of the merchants, and refused to give up any
portion of it. This offended the grocer, and he sent word to Mr.
Webber to come and remove his truant thief. The Captain came,
paid for the damaged sugar, and giving him, like a spoiled child,
some of the sweets he had confiscated to induce him to follow, led
the bear home. But bruin remembered his successful foray, and
breaking his chain again and again, and always returning to the
merchant’s premises for sugar, Mr. Webber rid himself and the
community of the annoyance by disposing of his grizzlies.

During a hunt in company with Col. Byron Cole, Messrs. Kent, Long
and McBrien of San Francisco, I caught a good sized cub, and Mr.
Long, with a terrier dog, caught another; the mother of which was
killed by the unerring aim of McBrien. These cubs were taken by
Cole and McBrien to San Francisco on their return, and sent to New
York. I was told that they became very tame. I hope they did, for
the comfort and security of their keepers; for in my first efforts to
tame a grizzly, I became somewhat prejudiced against bear training
as an occupation. Not long after my experience, I heard of poor Lola
Montez being bitten by one she was training at Grass Valley for
exhibition in Europe; and I now lost all faith in their reported docility
and domestic inclinations. The California lion, like the wolf, is a
coward, and deserves but little notice. Among the visitors to the
Yosemite, some will probably be interested in knowing where to find
the game: fish, birds and animals, that may yet remain to gratify the
sportsmen’s love of the rod and the chase. Most of the game has
been killed or driven off by the approach of civilization. Deer and
occasionally a grizzly, cinnamon or black bear may be found on the
slopes of the Tuolumne, Merced, Fresno and San Joaquin, and on all
the rivers and mountains south of these streams. The cinnamon
bear of California is much larger than the common brown bear of the
Rocky Mountains.

The blue black-tailed deer of California are distinct from the black
tuft-tailed deer of the eastern ranges; a very marked difference will
be observed in their horns and ears. This distinction has been
noticed by naturalists; but the species are often confounded in
newspaper correspondence. The habits of the California deer are
more goat-like; they are wilder, and more easily startled than the
“mule-eared” deer of the Rockies, and when alarmed, they move
with the celerity of the white-tailed Virginia deer. The bare, tuft-
tailed and big-eared Rocky Mountain deer, seem but little alarmed by
the report of a gun; and their curiosity is nearly equal to that of the
antelope.

The California deer are still abundant upon the spurs of the Sierras
during their migrations to and from the foot-hills. These migrations
occur during the Autumn and Spring. As the rainy season sets in,
they leave the higher mountains for the foot-hills and plains, keeping
near the snow line, and as the Spring advances, they follow back the
receding snow to the high Sierras and the Eastern Slope, but seldom
or never descend to the plain below. On account of these migratory
habits, they will most likely endure the assaults of the sportsmen.
The haunts of the grizzly are the same as those of the deer, for they
alike prefer the bushy coverts to the more open ground, except
when feeding. The deer prefer as food the foliage of shrubs and
weeds to the richest grasses, and the bear prefers clover, roots, ants
and reptiles; but both fatten principally on acorns, wild rye and wild
oats.

California grouse are found in the vicinity of the Yosemite. During


the months of July and August they were formerly found quite
numerous concealed in the grass and sedges of the valley and the
little Yosemite; but as they are much wilder than the prairie chicken,
they shun the haunts of man, and are now only found numerous in
mid-summer upon or bordering on the mountain meadows and in
the timber, among the pine forests, where they feed upon the pine
seeds and mistletoe, which also afford them ample concealment.
Their ventriloquial powers are such that while gobbling their
discordant notes, they are likely to deceive the most experienced
ear. It is almost impossible to feel quite sure as to which particular
tree the grouse is in without seeing it. He seems to throw his voice
about, now to this tree and now to that, concealing himself the while
until the inexperienced hunter is deluded into the belief that the
trees are full of grouse, when probably there is but one making all
the noise. His attention having been diverted, the hunter is left in
doubt from sheer conflicting sounds as to which particular tree he
saw a bird alight in. It is generally pretty sure to “fetch the bird,” if
you shoot into the bunch of mistletoe into which you supposed you
saw the grouse alight.

Beside the mountain grouse and mountain quail, among the most
beautiful of birds, that afford the sportsman a diversity of sport, an
occasional flock of pigeons, of much larger size than those of the
Atlantic States, will attract attention; though I have never seen them
in very large flocks. In most of the mountain streams, and their
branches, brook trout are quite abundant. They are not, however, so
ravenously accommodating, as to bite just when they are wanted. I
learned from the Indians that they would bite best in foaming water,
when they were unable to see the angler, or the bait distinctly; their
curiosity stimulating their appetites. It is important that the trout do
not see the angler, and when very wary, the rod even should not be
conspicuous. Below the cañon of the Yosemite, young salmon were
once abundant. The Indians used to catch fish in weirs made of
brush and stones; but during the extensive mining operations on the
Merced and other rivers, the salmon seemed to have almost
abandoned their favorite haunts, for the mud covered spawn would
not hatch. Large salmon were speared by the Indians in all the
rivers, with a curious bone spear of but one tine, while the smaller
fry were caught in their weirs. In the Tulare lakes and in the San
Joaquin, King’s, Kern and other rivers, fish, frogs and turtle are
abundant, and water fowl literally swarm during the winter months
in many parts of California.

Among the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, as well as in all the lesser
mountain ranges, may be found the common California blue quail,
and a very curious brush or chapparel cock, known to the Spanish
residents of California and Mexico as “El Paisano” (The Countryman),
and as the “Correo Camino” (Road-runner), and to ornithologists as
the Geo-coc cyx Californicus.14 They have received the name of
“countryman” because of their inclination to run like country children
at the sight of strangers, and that of “road-runner” from the habit of
frequenting roads and trails, for the purpose of wallowing in the
dust, and when alarmed darting off along the road with the speed of
an ostrich or wild turkey. The object they have in wallowing in the
dust is like that of the ruffled grouse, which indulge in the same
practice—they sun themselves and at the same time are rid of
vermin. Trusting to their legs to escape when alarmed, they take the
open ground—the road—until outrunning pursuit they hide in the
chapparel, and thus acquire the name of “road-runner” or “chapparel
cock.”

I have never seen any ruffled grouse in the Sierra Nevada, but a
species of these fine birds, are quite abundant in Oregon and
Washington territory. I have been able to solve a question regarding
them, upon which naturalists have disagreed, that is, as to how they
drum. Whether the sound is produced by the wings in concussive
blows upon their bodies, the air, logs or rocks? I am able to say from
personal and careful observation, that the sound of “drumming,” is
made, like the sound of the “night jar,” exclusively by a peculiar
motion of the wings in the air. It is true, the American “pheasant” or
American “partridge,” commonly stands upon a log while drumming,
but I have watched them while perched upon a dry small branch or
twig, drum for hours most sonorously, calling upon their rivals to
encounter them, and their mistresses to come and witness their
gallantry. Darwin has aptly said: “The season of love, is that of
battle.” Notwithstanding the acuteness of observation of Mr. Darwin,
he has been led into error in his statement that wild horses “do not
make any danger signals.” They snort and paw the earth with
impatience, when they cannot discover the cause of their alarm, and
almost invariably circle to the leeward of the object that disturbs
them. A mule is the best of sentinels to alarm a camp on the
approach of danger. Deer and elk whistle and strike the earth
perpendicularly with their feet when jumping up to discover the
cause of alarm. Deer and antelope are both so inquisitive, that if the
hunter has not been seen, or has been but imperfectly seen, by
dropping into the grass or brush, and raising some object to view
and suddenly withdrawing it, the deer or antelope will frequently
come up within a few feet of the object. Antelope are especially
curious to know what disturbs them.

The coyotes, or small wolves, and the grey or tree climbing foxes of
California, make a kind of barking noise, more like the bark of a
small dog than the howl of a wolf; and therefore barking is not so
much of “an acquired” art as has been supposed, though the
“laughter” of dogs is more or less acquired.

The whistle of the elk is as complete a call to his mistress, and is as


well understood, as though the female had said, “Whistle and I’ll
come to you.” Elk and antelope are still to be found in California, as
well as wild horses, but they are now quite timid, and resort to
unfrequented ranges. The best hunting now to be found in
California, except for water-fowl, is in the region of Kern River. Near
its source big-horn or mountain sheep may be killed, and from along
the base of the eastern slope, antelope range into the desert. Deer
and bear may be found on either slope of the range, and among the
broken hills south of the head of Tulare valley.

Wolves, foxes, badgers, coons, and other fur-clothed animals, are


also quite numerous. I have dared to question some of Mr. Darwin’s
facts, and as I expect this to be my last literary effort (oh, ye
reviewers!), I wish to remind the publishers of Webster’s Dictionary
that a beaver is not an “amphibious” animal, neither is a muscalonge
“an overgrown pickerel.”

A few days after we had moved camp to the south side of the
Merced, Captain Boling was prostrated with an attack of pneumonia.
From frequent wettings received while crossing the ice-cold torrents,
and a too free use of this snow-water, which did not agree with
many, he had for some days complained of slight illness, but after
this attack he was compelled to acknowledge himself sick. Although
the severe symptoms continued but a few days, his recovery was
lingering, and confined him to camp; consequently he knew but little
of his rocky surroundings. Although regular reports were made to
him by the scouting parties, he had but an imperfect conception of
the labors performed by them in clambering over the rocks of the
cañons and mountains. He would smile at the reports the more
enthusiastic gave of the wonders discovered; patiently listen to the
complaints of the more practical at their want of success in, what
they termed, their futile explorations; and finally concluded to
suspend operations until the fast-melting snow had so disappeared
from the high mountain passes as to permit our taking a supply-
train, in order to make our search thorough. The winter had been an
unusually dry and cold one—so said the Indians—and, as a
consequence, the accumulations of snow in the passes and lake
basins had remained almost intact. A succession of mountain storms
added to the drifts, so that when the snow finally began to melt, the
volume of water coming from the “High Sierras” was simply
prodigious—out of all proportion to the quantity that had fallen upon
the plains below.

Sandino persisted in trying to make the Captain believe that most of


the Yosemites had already gone through the Mono Pass, and that
those remaining hidden, were but the members of Ten-ie-ya’s family.
This theory was not accepted by Capt. Boling, and occasional
scouting parties would still be sent out. A few of us continued to
make short excursions, more for adventure and to gratify curiosity,
than with the expectation of discovering the hiding places of the
Indians; although we kept up the form of a search. We thus became
familiar with most of the objects of interest.

The more practical of our command could not remain quiet in camp
during this suspension of business. Beside the ordinary routine of
camp duties, they engaged in athletic sports and horse-racing. A
very fair race track was cleared and put in condition, and some of
the owners of fast horses were very much surprised, to see their
favorites trailing behind some of the fleet-footed mules. A maltese
Kentucky blooded mule, known as the “Vining Mule,” distanced all
but one horse in the command, and so pleased was Capt. Boling
with its gracefully supple movements, that he paid Vining for it a
thousand dollars in gold.

For a change of amusement, the members of our “Jockey Club”


would mount their animals and take a look at such points of interest
as had been designated in our camp-fire conversations as most
remarkable. The scenery in the Yosemite and vicinity, which is now
familiar to so many, was at that time looked upon with varied
degrees of individual curiosity and enjoyment, ranging from the
enthusiastic, to almost a total indifference to the sublime grandeur
presented. It is doubtful if any of us could have given a very graphic
description of what we saw, as the impressions then received were
so far below the reality. Distance, height, depth and dimensions
were invariably under-estimated; notwithstanding this, our attempts
at descriptions after our return to the settlements, were received as
exaggerated “yarns.”

While in Mariposa, upon one occasion not very long after the
discovery of Yosemite, I was solicited by Wm. T. Whitachre, a
newspaper correspondent from San Francisco, to furnish him a
written description of the Valley. This, of course, was beyond my
ability to do; but I disinterestedly complied with his request as far as
I could, by giving him some written details to work upon. On reading
the paper over, he advised me to reduce my estimates of heights of
cliffs and waterfalls, at least fifty per centum, or my judgment would
be a subject of ridicule even to my personal friends. I had estimated
El Capitan at from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet high; the
Yosemite Fall at about fifteen hundred feet, and other prominent
points of interest in about the same proportion.

To convince me of my error of judgment, he stated that he had


interviewed Captain Boling and some others, and that none had
estimated the highest cliffs above a thousand feet. He further said
that he would not like to risk his own reputation as a correspondent,
without considerable modification of my statements, etc. Feeling
outraged at this imputation, I tore up the manuscript, and left the
“newspaper man” to obtain where he could such data for his patrons
as would please him. It remained for those who came after us to
examine scientifically, and to correctly describe what we only
observed as wonderful natural curiosities. With but few exceptions,
curiosity was gratified by but superficial examination of the objects
now so noted. We were aware that the valley was high up in the
regions of the Sierra Nevada, but its altitude above the sea level was
only guessed at. The heights of its immense granite walls was an
uncertainty, and so little real appreciation was there in the battalion,
that some never climbed above the Vernal Fall. They knew nothing
of the beauties of the Nevada Fall, or the “Little Yosemite.” We, as a
body of men, were aware that the mountains, cañons and waterfalls
were on a grandly extensive scale, but of the proportions of that
scale we had arrived at no very definite conclusions.

During our explorations of the Sierras, we noticed the effects of the


huge avalanches of snow and ice that had in some age moved over
the smooth granite rocks and plowed the deep cañons. The
evidences of past glacial action were frequently visible; so common,
in fact, as hardly to be objects of special interest to us. The fact that
glaciers in motion existed in the vast piles of snow on the Sierras,
was not dreamed of by us, or even surmised by others, until
discovered, in 1870, by Mr. John Muir, a naturalist and most
persistent mountain explorer, who by accurate tests verified the
same, and gave his facts to the world. Mr. Muir has also brought into
prominent notice, by publications in “Scribner’s Monthly Illustrated
Magazine,” some of the beautiful lakes of the Sierras, having
discovered many unknown before. Mr. Muir’s descriptions combine
the most delightful imagery with the accuracy of a true lover of
nature. His article upon the water-auszel, “The humming-bird of the
California waterfalls,” in the same magazine, proves him a most
accomplished observer.

All of the smaller streams that pour their tribute into the valley
during the melting of the snow, become later in the season but dry
ravines or mere rivulets, but the principal tributaries, running up, as
they do, into the lake and snow reservoirs, continue throughout the
dry season to pour their ample supply. After returning from my
mountain explorations, I freely questioned Ten-ie-ya of the places
we had visited. The old chief had gradually assumed his customary
manner of sociability, and if convinced by outline maps in the sand
that we were familiar with a locality, he would become quite
communicative, and give the names of the places described in
distinct words. Our English alphabet utterly fails to express the
sounds of many of them, for they were as unpronounceable as
Apache. This difficulty is owing more or less to the guttural
termination given by the Indians.

Another important fact which causes a confusion of these names is,


that owing to the poverty of their language, they use the same
word, or what seems to be the same, for several objects, which by
accent, comparison and allusion, or by gestures, are readily
understood by them, but which it is difficult for one not familiar with
the dialect to comprehend, and still more difficult to illustrate or
remember. This I shall endeavor to demonstrate in giving the names
applied to different localities in the valley and vicinity.

While I was endeavoring to ascertain the names of localities from


Ten-ie-ya, he was allowed some privileges in camp, but was not
permitted to leave his guard. The cunning old fellow watched his
opportunity, and again made an attempt to escape by swimming the
river; but he was again foiled, and captured by the watchfulness and
surprising strength of Sergeant Cameron.

From this time Ten-ie-ya was secured by a rope which was fastened
around his waist. The only liberty allowed was the extent of the rope
with which he was fastened. He was a hearty feeder, and was
liberally supplied. From a lack of sufficient exercise, his appetite
cloyed, and he suffered from indigestion. He made application to
Captain Boling for permission to go out from camp to the place
where the grass was growing, saying the food he had been supplied
with was too strong; that if he did not have grass he should die. He
said the grass looked good to him, and there was plenty of it. Why
then should he not have it, when dogs were allowed to eat it?

The Captain was amused at the application, with its irony, but
surmised that he was meditating another attempt to leave us;
however, he good humoredly said: “He can have a ton of fodder if
he desires it, but I do not think it advisable to turn him loose to
graze.” The Captain consented to the Sergeant’s kindly arrangements
to tether him, and he was led out to graze upon the young clover,
sorrel, bulbous roots and fresh growth of ferns which were then
springing up in the valley, one species of which we found a good
salad. All of these he devoured with the relish of a hungry ox.
Occasionally truffles or wood-mushrooms were brought him by
Sandino and our allies, as if in kindly sympathy for him, or in
acknowledgment of his rank. Such presents and a slight deference to
his standing as a chief, were always received with grunts of
satisfaction. He was easily flattered by any extra attentions to his
pleasure. At such times he was singularly amiable and
conversational. Like many white men, it was evident that his more
liberal feelings could be the easiest aroused through his stomach.

Our supplies not being deemed sufficient for the expedition over the
Sierras, and as those verdureless mountains would provide no forage
for our animals, nor game to lengthen out our rations unless we
descended to the lower levels, Capt. Boling sent a pack train to the
Fresno for barley and extra rations. All of our Indians except Sandino
and Ten-ie-ya were allowed to go below with the detachment sent
along as escort for the train. While waiting for these supplies, some
of the command who had been exploring up Indian Cañon, reported
fresh signs at the head of that ravine. Feeling somewhat recovered
in strength, Captain Boling decided to undertake a trip out, and see
for himself some of our surroundings. Accordingly, the next morning,
he started with some thirty odd men up Indian Cañon. His design
was to explore the Scho-look or Scho-tal-lo-wi branch (Yosemite
Creek) to its source, or at least the Southern exposures of the divide
as far east as we could go and return at night. Before starting, I
advised the taking of our blankets, for a bivouac upon the ridge, as
from experience I was aware of the difficult and laborious ascent,
and intimated that the excursion would be a laborious one for an
invalid, if the undertaking was accomplished. The Captain laughed as
he said: “Are your distances equal to your heights? If they
correspond, we shall have ample time!” Of course, I could make no
reply, for between us, the subject of heights had already been
exhausted, although the Captain had not yet been to the top of the
inclosing walls.

Still, realizing the sensitive condition of his lungs, and his


susceptibility to the influences of the cold and light mountain air, I
knew it would not be prudent for him to camp at the snow-line; and
yet I doubted his ability to return the same day; for this reason I felt
it my duty to caution him. A few others, who had avoided climbing
the cliffs, or if they had been upon any of the high ridges, their
mules had taken them there, joined in against my suggestion of
providing for the bivouac. I have before referred to the Texan’s
devotion to the saddle. In it, like Comanche Indians, he will undergo
incredible hardships; out of it, he is soon tired, and waddles
laboriously like a sailor, until the unaccustomed muscles adapt
themselves to the new service required of them; but the probabilities
are against the new exercise being continued long enough to
accomplish this result. Understanding this, I concluded in a spirit of
jocularity to make light of the toil myself; the more so, because I
knew that my good Captain had no just conception of the labor
before him. By a rude process of measurement, and my practical
experience in other mountains in climbing peaks whose heights had
been established by measurements, I had approximately ascertained
or concluded that my first estimate of from fifteen hundred to two
thousand feet for the height of El Capitan, was much below the
reality. I had so declared in discussing these matters. Captain Boling
had finally estimated the height not to exceed one thousand feet.
Doctor Black’s estimate was far below this. I therefore felt assured
that a walk up the cañon, would practically improve their judgments
of height and distance, and laughed within myself in anticipation of
the fun in store. On starting, I was directed to take charge of Ten-ie-
ya, whom we were to take with us, and to keep Sandino near me, to
interpret anything required during the trip. As we entered Indian
Cañon, the old chief told the Captain that the ravine was a bad one
to ascend. To this the Captain replied, “No matter, we know this
ravine leads out of the valley; Ten-ie-ya’s trail might lead us to a
warmer locality.”
Climbing over the wet, mossy rocks, we reached a level where a halt
was called for a rest. As Doctor Black came up from the rear, he
pointed to a ridge above us, and exclaimed, “Thank God, we are in
sight of the top at last.” “Yes, Doctor,” said I, “that is one of the first
tops.” “How so?” he inquired; “Is not that the summit of this ravine?”
To this I cheerfully replied, “You will find quite a number of such
tops before you emerge from this cañon.” Noticing his absence
before reaching the summit, I learned he took the trail back, and
safely found his weary way to camp. Captain Boling had over-
estimated his strength and endurance. He was barely able to reach
the table land at the head of the ravine, where, after resting and
lunching, he visited the Falls, as he afterwards informed me. By his
order I took command of nine picked men and the two Indians. With
these I continued the exploration, while the party with the Captain
explored the vicinity of the High Fall, viewed the distant mountains,
and awaited my return from above.

With my energetic little squad, I led the way, old Ten-ie-ya in front,
Sandino at his side, through forest openings and meadows, until we
reached the open rocky ground on the ridge leading to what is now
known as Mt. Hoffman. I directed our course towards that peak. We
had not traveled very far, the distance does not now impress me,
when as we descended toward a tributary of Yosemite creek, we
came suddenly upon an Indian, who at the moment of discovery was
lying down drinking from the brook. The babbling waters had
prevented his hearing our approach. We hurried up to within fifty or
sixty yards, hoping to capture him, but were discovered. Seeing his
supposed danger, he bounded off, a fine specimen of youthful vigor.
No racehorse or greyhound could have seemingly made better time
than he towards a dense forest in the valley of the Scho-look.
Several rifles were raised, but I gave the order “don’t shoot,” and
compelled the old chief to call to him to stop. The young Indian did
stop, but it was at a safe distance. When an attempt was made by
two or three to move ahead and get close to him, he saw the
purpose and again started; neither threatening rifles, nor the calls of
Ten-ie-ya, could again stop his flight.
As we knew our strength, after such a climb, was not equal to the
chase of the fleet youth, he was allowed to go unmolested. I could
get no information from Ten-ie-ya concerning the object of the
exploration; and as for Sandino, his memory seemed to have
conveniently failed him. With this conclusion I decided to continue
my course, and moved off rapidly. Ten-ie-ya complained of fatigue,
and Sandino reminded me that I was traveling very fast. My reply to
both cut short all attempts to lessen our speed; and when either
were disposed to lag in their gait, I would cry out the Indian word,
“We-teach,” meaning hurry up, with such emphasis as to put new
life into their movements.

We soon struck an old trail that led east along the southern slope of
the divide, and when I abandoned my purpose of going farther
towards the Tuolumne, and turned to the right on the trail
discovered, Ten-ie-ya once more found voice in an attempt to
dissuade me from this purpose, saying that the trail led into the
mountains where it was very cold, and where, without warm clothing
at night, we would freeze. He was entirely too earnest, in view of his
previous taciturnity; and I told him so.

The snow was still quite deep on the elevated portions of the ridge
and in shaded localities, but upon the open ground, the trail was
generally quite bare. As we reached a point still farther east, we
perceived the trail had been recently used; the tracks had been
made within a day or two. From the appearances, we concluded
they were made by Ten-ie-ya’s scouts who had followed down the
ridge and slope west of the North Dome to watch our movements.
The tracks were made going and returning, thus showing a
continued use of this locality. As the tracks diverged from the trail at
this point, they led out of the direct line of any communication with
the valley, and after some reflection, I was satisfied that we had
struck a clue to their hiding place, and realizing that it was time to
return if we expected to reach the valley before dark, we turned
about and started at once on the down grade.
We found the Captain anxiously awaiting our return. He was pleased
with our report, and agreed in the conclusion that the Indians were
encamped not very far off. Captain Boling had suffered from fatigue
and the chill air of the mountains. In speaking of a farther pursuit of
our discoveries, he said: “I am not as strong as I supposed, and will
have to await the return of the pack train before taking part in these
expeditions.”

I told Captain Boling that upon the trip, Sandino had appeared
willfully ignorant when questioned concerning the country we were
exploring, and my belief that he stood in fear of Ten-ie-ya; that as a
guide, no dependence could be placed upon him, and that his
interpretations of Ten-ie-ya’s sayings were to be received with
caution when given in the old chief’s presence, as Ten-ie-ya’s
Spanish was about equal to his own. Captain Boling instructed me to
tell Sandino, that in future, he need only act as interpreter. He
seemed satisfied with this arrangement, and said that the country
appeared different from what it was when he was a boy and had
been accustomed to traverse it.

When we commenced our descent into the valley Ten-ie-ya wanted


us to branch off to the left, saying he was very tired, and wanted to
take the best trail. Said he, “There is a good trail through the arrow-
wood rocks to the left of the cañon.” I reported this to the Captain,
and expressed the opinion that the old chief was sincere for once;
he had grumbled frequently while we were ascending the cañon in
the morning, because we were compelled to climb over the moss
covered bowlders, while crossing and re-crossing the stream, and he
told Sandino that we should have taken the trail along the cliff
above. Captain Boling replied: “Take it, or it will be long after dark
before we reach camp.” Accordingly I let Ten-ie-ya lead the way, and
told him to travel fast. He had more than once proved that he
possessed an agility beyond his years. As his parole was at a
discount, I secured a small cord about his chest and attached the
other end to my left wrist to maintain telegraphic communication
with him; but as the hidden trail narrowed and wound its crooked
way around a jutting point of the cliff overlooking the valley and
ravine, I slipped the loop from my wrist and ordered a halt.

Captain Boling and the men with him came up and took in the view
before us. One asked if I thought a bird could go down there safely.
Another wanted to know if I was aiding “Old Truthful” to commit
suicide. The last question had an echo of suspicion in my own
thoughts. I immediately surmised it possible the old sachem was
leading us into another trap, where, by some preconcerted signal, an
avalanche of rocks would precipitate us all to the bottom. I asked
Ten-ie-ya if this trail was used by his people; he assured me it was,
by women and children; that it was a favorite trail of his. Seeing
some evidences of it having been recently used, and being assured
by Sandino that it was somewhere below on this trail that Ten-ie-ya
had descended to the valley when taken a prisoner, a few of us were
shamed into a determination to make the attempt to go where the
old chief could go.

Most of the party turned back. They expressed a willingness to fight


Indians, but they had not, they said, the faith requisite to attempt to
walk on water, much less air. They went down Indian Cañon, and
some did not reach camp until after midnight, tired, bruised and
footsore. We who had decided to take our chances, re-commenced
our descent. I told Ten-ie-ya to lead on, and to stop at the word
“halt,” or he would be shot. I then dispatched Sandino across the
narrow foot-way, which, at this point was but a few inches in width,
and which was all there was dividing us from Eternity as we passed
over it. Telling them both to halt on a projecting bench in view, I
crossed this yawning abyss, while Sandino, aided by a very dead
shot above, held the old man as if petrified, until I was able once
more to resume my charge of him.

This I found was the only really dangerous place, on what was
facetiously called, by those who were leaving us, “a very good trail.”
The last fifty or sixty feet of the descent was down the sloping side
of an immense detached rock, and then down through the top of a
black oak tree at the south-westerly base of the vast cliff or
promontory known as the “Arrow-wood Cliff.” The “Royal Arches,”
the “Washington Column,” and the “North Dome,” occupy positions
east of this trail, but upon the same vast pile of granite.

I sometime afterward pointed out the trail to a few visitors that I


happened to meet at its foot. They looked upon me with an
incredulous leer, and tapped their foreheads significantly, muttering
something about “Stockton Asylum.” Fearing to trust my amiability
too far, I turned and left them. Since then I have remained
cautiously silent. Now that the impetuosity of youth has given place
to the more deliberative counsels of age, and all dangers to myself
or others are past, I repeat, for the benefit of adventurous tourists,
that on the southwesterly face of the cliff overlooking the valley and
Indian Cañon, there is a trail hidden from view, that they may travel
if they will, and experience all the sensations that could ever have
been felt, while alive, by a Blondin or LaMountain.

This portion of the cliff we designated as Ten-ie-ya’s Trail, and it


accords well with the scene in the Jungfrau Mountains, where
Manfred, alone upon the cliffs, says:

“And you, ye craigs, upon whose extreme edge


I stand, and on the torrent’s brink beneath
Behold the tall pines dwindled as to shrubs,
In dizziness of distance; when a leap,
A stir, a motion, even a breath, would bring
My breast upon its rocky bosom’s bed
To rest forever—wherefore do I pause?
I feel the impulse—yet I do not plunge;
I see the peril—yet do not recede;
And my brain reels—and yet my foot is firm:
There is a power upon me which withholds,
And makes it my fatality to live.”
CHAPTER XIII.
The Indian Names—Difficulty of their Interpretation—Circumstances Suggesting
Names of Vernal, Nevada and Bridal Veil Falls—Mr. Richardson’s Descriptions of the
Falls and Round Rainbow—Py-we-ack Misplaced, and “Illiluette” an Absurdity—An
English Name Suggested for Too-lool-lo-we-ack, Pohono and Tote-ack-ah-nü-la—
Indian Superstitions and Spiritual Views—A Free National Park Desirable—Off on
the Trail.

During our long stay in the Yosemite, I discovered that almost every
prominent object and locality in and about it, had some distinctive
appellation. Every peak and cliff, every cañon or ravine, meadow,
stream and waterfall, had a designation by which it could be
distinguished by the Yosemites. I made considerable effort to
acquire these names in their native purity. Although I did not at that
time learn all of them, I did in subsequent visits to the valley and to
the camps of the remnants of the tribes, acquire, as I then believed,
a very nearly correct pronunciation of most of them. I used all the
advantages afforded by my position as one of the Spanish
interpreters, and applied myself perseveringly to the task of
preserving these names; for even at that early day I realized that
public interest would, in time, be attached to that wonderful locality.
I was ridiculed for the idea, or at least for the supposition that it
probably would be awakened during my life-time.

I obtained many of the names of objects and locations from old Ten-
ie-ya himself, whenever I could find him in a communicative mood.
As he was reputed to be quite a linguist, speaking, besides his native
Ah-wah-ne-chee, the Pai-ute, and other dialects, I regarded his
authority as superior to that of either the Po-ho-no or Noot-chü
Indians, who differed from him in the pronunciation of some of the
names.
I was unable to converse with Ten-ie-ya except through an
interpreter, but the words I noted down from the old chief’s lips as
they sounded to my ear at the time, getting the signification as best
I could, or not at all. There is really no more sentiment or refined
imagery of expression among Indians than will be found among
ignorant people of any kind. But living as they do in close affinity
with nature, natural objects first attract their attention, and the
dominant characteristics of any object impress themselves upon
their language. Hence many of their words are supposed to be
representative of natural sounds. Our Po-ho-no-chee and Noot-chü
scouts were familiar with the dialect in common use by the
Yosemites, and they also aided me, while at times they confused, in
acquiring the proper names. The territory claimed by the Po-ho-no-
chees, joined that of the Yosemites on the south. During the
Summer months, they occupied the region of the Po-ho-no
Meadows, and the vicinity of the Pohono Lake. Their territory,
however, extended to the right bank of the South Fork of the
Merced. It was there we found a little band on our first expedition.
Some of this band were quite intelligent, having with the Noot-chüs,
worked for Major Savage. It was from them that the Major first
learned that the Yosemites were a composite band, collected from
the disaffected of other bands in that part of California, and what is
now Nevada; and as the Major said, the dialect in common use
among them was nearly as much of a mixture as the components of
the band itself, for he recognized Pai-ute, Kah-we-ah and Oregon
Indian words among them.

Major Savage was intimately familiar with the dialects of his Indian
miners and customers, and was probably at that time the best
interpreter in California of the different mountain dialects.

I consulted him freely as to the pronunciation of the names, and


learned his interpretation of the meaning of them. These names, or
most of them, were first given for publication by myself, as received
from the Yosemites and Po-ho-no-chees; together with English
names which had been given to some of the same points by the
battalion. I purposely avoided all attempts at description, giving
instead, a few estimates of heights. The data then furnished by
myself was published in editorials, and has been mostly preserved,
though in an imperfect state, from some fault in my writing or that
of the proof-reader. Reference to old files of the “California
Chronicle,” “Sacramento Union,” “California Farmer” and the
Mariposa papers, will show a somewhat different orthography from
that now in use.15

While in the valley I made memoranda of names and important


events, which I have preserved, and which, with interpretations
kindly furnished me by Mr. B. B. Travis, an excellent modern
interpreter, I am now using to verify my recollections and those of
my comrades. While acquiring these names, I employed every
opportunity to make them familiar, but this proved to be a thankless
task, or at least it was an impossible one. The great length of some
of the names, and the varied pronunciations, made the attempt an
impracticable one. I then gave attention to the substitution of
suitable English names in place of the Indian words, and to
supersede the fantastic and absurd ones already suggested and
affixed by some of the command. It is so customary for frontiersmen
to give distinctive names of their own coinage, that we had great
difficulty in getting any of the Indian names adopted; and
considerable judgment had to be exercised in selecting such English
names as would “stick”—as would displace such names as the
“Giant’s Pillar,” “Sam Patch’s Falls,” “The Devil’s Night-Cap,” etc., etc.
Many English names were given because they were thought to be
better than the Indian names, which could not be remembered or
pronounced, and the meaning of which was not understood. The
English names agreed upon and adopted at that time have since
been retained, notwithstanding some adverse criticisms and efforts
to supersede them by some fancied Indian or mythological
substitute. Some of these names were the selection of my comrades
—“Cloud’s Rest,” for one; because upon our first visit the party
exploring the “Little Yosemite” turned back and hastened to camp
upon seeing the clouds rapidly settling down to rest upon that
mountain, thereby indicating the snow storm that soon followed.

The most of the names were however, selected by myself, and


adopted by our command. This deference was awarded to my
selections because I was actively interested in acquiring the Indian
names and significations, and because I was considered the most
interested in the scenery.

I have related in a previous chapter the incident of selecting the


name “Yosemite” for the valley, not then knowing its Indian name.
As the “High Fall,” near which we were encamped, appeared to be
the principal one of the Sierras, and was the fall par excellence, I
gave that the name of “Yosemite Falls,” and in so naming it I but
followed out the idea of the Indians who called it “Choolook” or
“Scholook,” which signifies in this case “The Fall.” A comparison of
the Yosemite Falls with those known in other parts of the world, will
show that in elements of picturesque beauty, height, volume, color
and majestic surroundings, the Yosemite has no rival upon earth.
The Zambesi and Niagara are typical of volume, but the Yosemite is
sixteen times greater in height than Niagara, and about eight times
that of the Victoria Falls. The upper part of the Yosemite is more
than twice the height of the Svoringvoss, of Norway, and lacks but
thirty feet of being twice as high as the highest of the Southerland
waterfalls, of New Zealand. The three falls of the Southerland
aggregate but 1,904 feet, 730 less than the Yosemite.

The Ribbon Fall of the El Capitan has a sheer descent of 2,100 feet,
but its beauty disappears with the melting snow. The other falls
were only designated by the names of the streams upon which they
are situated. The river Merced was spoken of as the river of Ah-wah-
ne; but the three principal branches were variously designated; the
main, or middle, up to the Vernal Fall, as “Yan-o-pah,” the “Water
Cloud” branch, and above the Vernal, as “Yo-wy-we-ack,” “the
twisting rock branch.”
The north and south branches had their distinctive names; the
north, Py-we-ack, meaning the branch of the “Glistening Rocks,” and
the south, Too-lool-we-ack, or more definitely, Too-lool-lo-we-ack.
The modern interpretations of some of these names may be
regarded as quite fanciful, though Major Savage would declare that
Indian languages were so full of figures of speech that without
imagination they could not be understood.

The strictly literal interpretation of this name would be inadmissable,


but it is well enough to say, that to the unconscious innocence of
their primitive state, the word simply represented an effort of nature
in the difficult passage of the water down through the rocky gorge.
It is derived from Too-lool and We-ack, and means, ὁ ποταμὸς, ὃς
διὰ πέτρας οὐρεῖ. This name has been published as if by authority to
signify. “The Beautiful”—how beautiful, the learned in Greek may
judge.

This really beautiful fall was visited by few of our battalion, and
owing to the impracticability of following up the cañon above the
fall, and the great difficulty of access to it, it was left neglected; the
command contenting itself with a distant view. In view of the
discoveries of Mr. Muir that there were glaciers at its source, and
that the cliff now known as “Glacier Point” may be said to mark the
entrance to this “South Cañon,” a name often confounded with
“South Fork,” and especially because of the impropriety of translating
this Indian name, I think it advisable to call this the Glacier Fall, and,
therefore, give it that name in this volume. The name of “Illeuette”
is not Indian, and is, therefore, meaningless and absurd. In
accordance with the customs of these mountain people of naming
their rivers from the most characteristic features of their source, the
North or Ten-ie-ya branch of the Merced, which comes down the
North Cañon from the glistening glacial rocks at its source, was
called Py-we-ack, “the river of glistening rocks,” or more literally,
perhaps, “the river-smoothed rocks.” Whether from Pai, a river, or
from Py-ca-bo, a spring, I am in doubt. If the first syllable of the
name Py-we-ack be derived from Py-ca-bo, then, probably, the name
signified to them “the glistening rock spring branch,” as the ice-
burnished rocks at the head of Lake Ten-ie-ya stand at the source of
the river.

I have never been satisfied with the poetical interpretation given the
name, nor with its transfer to “Yan-o-pah,” the branch of the “little
cloud,” as rendered by Mr. Travis. But as Py-we-ack has been
displaced from Lake Ten-ie-ya and its outlet, it is proper and in
accordance with the custom to call the branch Ten-ie-ya also. The
name of Ten-ie-ya was given to the lake at the time of its discovery.
It was there we captured the remnant of the Yosemite band, as will
be explained in the next chapter. The name of Ten-ie-ya Cañon, Ten-
ie-ya Fork and Lake Ten-ie-ya, has for this reason superseded the
original name of Py-we-ack; but in naming the lake, I preserved an
Indian name that represented the central figure in all of our
operations.

Wai-ack was the name for “Mirror Lake,” as well as for the mountain
it so perfectly reflected. The lake itself was not particularly attractive
or remarkable, but in the early morning, before the breeze swept up
the cañon, the reflections were so perfect, especially of what is now
known as Mt. Watkins, that even our scouts called our attention to it
by pointing and exclaiming: “Look at Wai-ack,” interpreted to mean
the “Water Rock.” This circumstance suggested the name of “Mirror
Lake.” The name was opposed by some, upon the ground that all
still water was a mirror. My reply established the name. It was that
other conditions, such as light and shade, were required, as when
looking into a well, the wall of the Half Dome perfecting the
conditions, and that when shown another pool that was more
deserving, we would transfer the name. Captain Boling approved the
name, and it was so called by the battalion.

The middle or main branch was designated by the Yosemites—from


the fork of the Glacial Branch up to the Vernal Fall—as Yan-o-pah,
because they were compelled to pass through the spray of the
Vernal, to them a “little cloud,” while passing up this cañon. The
Indian name of the Nevada Fall, “Yo-wy-we,” or Yo-wy-ye, and that
of Too-lool-lo-we-ack, afforded innumerable jests and amusing
comments, and when the suggestion of naming these falls was
made, it was received with rude hilarity. Names without number
were presented as improvements on the originals. These names
were indeed more than my own gravity would endure; Yo-wy-we
being represented at first to signify the “wormy” water, from the
twist or squirm given to the water in falling upon an obstructing
rock; and therefore, after consultation with a few of my personal
friends, I suggested Vernal, as an English name for Yan-o-pah, and
Nevada, for that of Yo-wy-we. The Nevada Fall was so called
because it was the nearest to the Sierra Nevada, and because the
name was sufficiently indicative of a wintry companion for our
spring.

MIRROR LAKE—WATKINS’ AND CLOUDS’ REST.

It would be a difficult task to trace out and account for all of our
impressions, or for the forms they take; but my recollection is that
the cool, moist air, and newly-springing Kentucky blue-grass at the

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