6 8th English
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gamger9176 8th English
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gamger917REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR CLASS 6th, 7th AND 8th
Please Note-This is for the reference purpose only. Students are encouraged to also read from
other sources.
Content-
NCERT books-chapters specified below
1. Class 6- Textbook (NCERT) - Social and Political life-I
Chapter 3-What is Government
Chapter 4-Key Elements of a Democratic Government
Chapter 5-Panchayati Raj (Local Government)
Chapter 6-Rural Administration
Chapter 7- Urban Administration
2. Class 7-Textbook (NCERT)- Social and Political life-II
Chapter 1-Equality in Indian Democracy
Chapter 2-Role of the government in health
Chapter 3-How the State Government Works
Chapter 9-Struggles for equality
3. Class 8-
A) Textbook (NCERT)-History- Our Pasts-III
Chapter 5- When People Rebel, 1857 and After
Chapter 9-The Making of the National Movement: 1870s–1947
Chapter 10- India After Independence
B) Textbook (NCERT)-Social and Political life-III
Chapter 1-The Indian Constitution
Chapter 2-Understanding Secularism
Chapter 3-Why do we need a Parliament?
Chapter 4-Understanding the Law
Chapter 5-Judiciary
Chapter 10-Law and Social Justice
National Anthem of India
Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Punjaba-Sindhu-Gujarata-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
uchchala-jaladhi-taranga.
Tava shubha name jage, tava shubha asisa mage,
gahe tava jaya-gatha.
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
jaya jaya jaya jaya he!
Translation of the National Anthem
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people,
dispenser of India’s destiny.
Thy name rouses the hearts of
the Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat and Maratha,
of the Dravida and Odisha and Bengal.
It echoes in the hills of the Vindhyas and Himalayas,
mingles in the music of Yamuna and Ganga and is
chanted by the waves of the Indian Sea.
They pray for thy blessings and sing thy praise.
The saving of all people waits in thy hand,
thou dispenser of India’s destiny.
Victory, Victory, Victory to thee!
Note: “Jana Gana Mana” was translated by Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore from Bengali to English in
February 1919 at Madanapalle in the District of Chittoor. (Source: www.btcollege.org)
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Unit_I Ch 1.indd 2 08-10-2021 10:18:15
UNIT - II
Not bad! One of the taps in
the nearby village must be
getting water!
G o v e rrn
Go
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nt
o t
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e nt
Go e
ve
v e rr m mente
G o v eerrnrn
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G v
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G
ent
Go
nt
I told him to make the
garland smaller... He is a
frail old man and wouldn’t
be able to stand the weight
of such a huge garland!
A cartoonist’s business in a democracy
is to exercise his right to criticise,
ridicule, find fault with... political
leaders, through cartoons...
- R.K.Laxman
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Unit_II Ch 3.indd 25 08-10-2021 10:44:37
Chapter 3
You must have heard the word ‘government’
What is mentioned several times. In this chapter you
will learn about what a government is and the
Government?
important role it plays in our lives. What do
governments do? How do they decide what to
do? What is the difference between different
types of governments such as monarchies and
democracies? Read more and find out….
Look at the newspaper headlines above
and list the different kinds of activities
E very country needs a government
to make decisions and get things
done. These can be decisions about
that the government is reported to be
doing in these newspaper headlines. where to build roads and schools, or
how to reduce the price of onions
1.
when they get too expensive or ways
2.
to increase the supply of electricity.
3.
4.
The government also takes action on
many social issues, for example it has
Isn’t this a wide range of activities?
What do you think government is? several programmes to help the poor.
Discuss in class. It does other important things such as
running postal and railway services.
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28 / Social and Political Life
The government also has the job
Can you list three things that the
of protecting the boundaries of the government does which have not
country and maintaining peaceful been mentioned.
relations with other countries. It is
1.
responsible for ensuring that all its
citizens have enough to eat and have 2.
good health facilities. When there are 3.
natural disasters like the tsunami or
an earthquake it is the government that
Some rules have to be made that
mainly organises aid and assistance for
apply to everyone. For example, there
the affected people. If there is a dispute
is a need to control resources and
or if someone has committed a crime
protect the territory of a country, so
you find people in a court. Courts are
people can feel secure. Governments
also part of the government.
do this on behalf of their people
Perhaps you are wondering how by exercising leadership, taking
governments manage to do all this. decisions and implementing these
And why it is necessary for them among all the people living in their
to do so. When human beings live territory.
and work together, there needs to be
some amount of organisation so that Levels of Government
decisions can be made. Now that you know that the
government is responsible for so many
Some examples of
institutions that are
part of the government:
The Supreme Court,
The Indian Railways
and Bharat Petroleum.
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Unit_II Ch 3.indd 28 08-10-2021 10:44:39
What is Government / 29
different things, can you think of Haryana or Assam and the national
how it manages to do all these? The level relates to the entire country (see
government works at different levels: the maps). Later in this book, you will
at the local level, at the level of the read about how local level government
state and at the national level. The functions, and when you go into the
local level means in your village, town next few classes you will learn about
or locality, the state level would mean how governments function at the state
that which covers an entire state like and central levels.
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30 / Social and Political Life
Source: www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/maps/atlas/00part1.pdf
Note: Telangana became the 29th State of India on the 2nd June, 2014 after the reorganisation of the State of Andhra Pradesh.
Since 31 October 2019, the state of Jammu & Kashmir was divided into two union territories — Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.
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Unit_II Ch 3.indd 30 08-10-2021 10:44:41
What is Government / 31
Laws and the Government who give the government this power.
The government makes laws and They do this through elections in which
everyone who lives in the country they vote for particular persons and
has to follow these. This is the only elect them. Once elected, these persons
way governments can function. Just form the government. In a democracy
like the government has the power to the government has to explain its
make decisions, similarly it has the actions and defend its decisions to
power to enforce its decisions. For the people.
example, there is a law that says that Another form of government
all persons driving a motor vehicle is monarchy. The monarch (king
must have a licence. Any person or queen) has the power to make
caught driving a vehicle without a decisions and run the government.
licence can either be jailed or fined a The monarch may have a small group
large sum of money. Without these of people to discuss matters with,
laws the government’s power to make but the final decision-making power
decisions is not of much use. remains with the monarch. Unlike in
a democracy, kings and queens do not
Discuss
have to explain their actions or defend
Think of an example of another the decisions they take.
law. Why do you think it is
important that people abide by
this law?
In addition to any actions that
governments can take, there are also
steps that people can take if they
feel that a particular law is not being
followed. If a person feels, for example,
that they were not hired for a job
because of their religion or caste, he or
she may approach the court and claim
that the law is not being followed. The
court can then give orders about what
should be done.
Types of Government
Who gives the government this power to
make decisions and enforce laws?
The answer to this question depends
on the type of government there is in a
country. In a democracy it is the people
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32 / Social and Political Life
Discuss Nowhere in the world
1. Do you think it is important have governments
for people to be involved in willingly shared
decisions that affect them? Give power. All over
two reasons for your answer. Europe and
2. Which type of government USA, women
would you prefer to have in the and the poor
place you live in? Why? have had
3. Which of the statements to fight for
below is correct? Correct those participation in
sentences that you think need government.
correction.
Women’s
a. In a monarchy the country’s
struggle to vote got
citizens are allowed to elect
strengthened during
whomever they want.
the First World War. This movement is
b. In a democracy a king has
absolute powers to rule the called the women’s suffrage movement
country. as the term suffrage usually means
c. In a monarchy people right to vote.
can raise questions about the During the War, many men were away
decisions the monarch takes. fighting, and because of this women
were called upon to do work that
Democratic Governments was earlier considered men’s work.
India is a democracy. This achievement Many women began organising and
is the result of a long and eventful managing different kinds of work.
struggle of the Indian people. There are When people saw this they began
other places in the world where people to wonder why they had created so
have also struggled to have democracies. many unfair stereotypes about women
You now know that the main feature and what they were capable of doing.
of a democracy is that the people have So women began to be seen as being
the power to elect their leaders. So in equally capable of making decisions.
a sense a democracy is rule by the The suffragettes demanded the right
people. The basic idea is that people to vote for all women and to get
rule themselves by participating in the their demands heard they chained
making of these rules. themselves to railings in public places.
Many suffragettes were imprisoned and
Democratic governments in our
went on hunger strikes,and they had
times are usually referred to as
to be fed by force. American women got
representative democracies. In the right to vote in 1920 while women
representative democracies people do in the UK got to vote on the same terms
not participate directly but, instead, as men some years later, in 1928.
choose their representatives through an
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Unit_II Ch 3.indd 32 08-10-2021 10:44:42
What is Government / 33
Voting in a rural area: A mark is put on the finger to
make sure that a person casts only one vote.
election process. These representatives In India, before Independence,
meet and make decisions for the entire only a small minority was allowed to
population. These days a government vote and they therefore came together
cannot call itself democratic unless it to determine the fate of the majority.
allows what is known as universal adult Several people including Gandhiji
franchise. This means that all adults in were shocked at the unfairness of this
the country are allowed to vote. practice and demanded that all adults
have the right to vote. This is known as
But it was not always like this. Can
universal adult franchise.
you believe that there was a time when
governments did not allow women and Writing in the journal Young India in
the poor to participate in elections? 1931, Gandhiji said, “I cannot possibly
In their earliest forms governments bear the idea that a man who has got
allowed only men who owned property wealth should have the vote, but that a
and were educated, to vote. This meant man who has got character but no
that women, the poor, the property-less wealth or literacy should have no vote,
and the uneducated were not allowed or that a man who works honestly by
to vote. The country was governed by the sweat of his brow day in and day
the rules and regulations that these out should not have the vote for the
few men made! crime of being a poor man…”.
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34 / Social and Political Life
Look at the maps on Pages 29 and 30. They show the States, Union Territories and
Districts of India. Find out the following information from these maps and various
other resources.
• Names of the neighbours of India
• Names of your State or Union Territory and its neighbours
• Names of your District and its neighbours
• Routes from your District to the National Capital
Exercise: Look at the statements in the column on the left. Can
you identify which level they belong to? Place tick marks against
the level you consider most appropriate.
Local State Central
• The decision of the Government of India to
maintain peaceful relations with Russia.
• The decision of the Government of West Bengal on
whether to have Board exam in Class 8 for all
government schools.
• Introduction of two new trains between Dibrugarh
and Kanyakumari.
• The decision to locate a common well in a
particular area of the village.
• Decision to construct a big children’s park in
Patna.
• The decision of the Government of Haryana to
provide free electricity for all farmers.
• Introduction of a new 1000 rupee note.
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the word ‘government’? List five ways in which
you think the government affects your daily life.
2. Why do you think the government needs to make rules for everyone in the
form of laws?
3. Name two essential features of a democratic government.
4. What was the suffrage movement? What did it accomplish?
5. Gandhiji strongly believed that every adult in India should be given the right
to vote. However, a few people don’t share his views. They feel that illiterate
people, who are mainly poor, should not be given the right to vote. What do
you think? Do you think this would be a form of discrimination? Give five
points to support your view and share these with the class.
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Unit_II Ch 3.indd 34 08-10-2021 10:44:42
Chapter 4
Key Elements of a In this chapter you will read
about some of the key elements
Democratic Government that influence the working of a
democratic government. These
include people’s participation,
the resolution of conflict and
equality and justice.
India
South Africa
S outh Africa is a country that has
people of several races. There are
black people who belong to South
He had been shot by the police. Maya
was shocked. “Why?” she asked.
Her mother explained that South
Africa, whites who came there to settle, Africa was earlier governed by
and Indians who came as labourers apartheid laws. Apartheid means
and traders. separation on the basis of race. South
Maya Naidoo, an eleven-year old African people were divided into white,
South African girl living in the town black, Indian and coloured races.
of Johannesburg, was helping her According to the law, these races were
mother clear up her old boxes. She not allowed to mingle with each other,
found a scrapbook full of pictures and to live near each other or even to use
newspaper articles. There were many common facilities.
pictures of a young schoolboy of around Maya could not believe her ears.
fifteen years of age. When she asked Maya’s mother sounded angry when
her mother who the boy was, she was she spoke about life under apartheid.
told that he was called, Hector Pieterson. She told Maya that in those days
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36 / Social and Political Life
whites spoke. Hector and other school
students were being forced to learn this
language but they wanted to learn their
own language, Zulu. The South African
police beat up the protestors mercilessly
and shot at the crowd. One of their
bullets killed Hector. This was on 16
June 1976.
The African National Congress, a group
of people who led the struggle against
apartheid, and their most well known
leader, Nelson Mandela fought the
apartheid system for several years.
Finally, they succeeded and in 1994
South Africa became a democratic
country in which people of all races
were considered equal.
What were Hector and his classmates
hospitals were separate and so were protesting about?
ambulances. An ambulance meant for List five ways in which the non-whites
white people would always be well were discriminated against:
1.
equipped while one meant for black
2.
people was not. There were separate 3.
trains and buses. Even the busstops 4.
were different for black and white 5.
people. Do you think it is important for all
Non-whites were not allowed to persons to be treated equally? Why?
vote. The best land in the country was
reserved for the white people, and non- Let us now try to understand what
whites had to live on the worst available a democratic government means to all
land. Thus blacks and coloured people of us.
were not considered to be equal to PARTICIPATION
whites. Why do we have regular elections?
One black township was the South You’ve already read in the previous
Western Township (Soweto). Hector chapter that people make the decisions
Pieterson lived here and he and his in a democracy. Through voting
classmates joined the protest against in elections people elect leaders to
learning the Afrikaans language in represent them. These representatives
school. This was the language that the take decisions on behalf of the people.
2022-23
Unit_II Ch 4.indd 36 08-10-2021 10:48:05
Key Elements of a Democratic Government / 37
In doing so it is assumed that they will Other ways of participating
keep in mind the voices and interests Elections are usually held once in five
of the people. years. Besides voting there are other
Discuss ways of participating in the process
Look at some newspapers and of government. People participate by
discuss some elections that you taking an interest in the working of
may have read about. Why do you the government and by criticising it
think elections are required after a when required. In August 2005, when
fixed period? a particular government increased the
money people had to pay for electricity,
All governments are elected for fixed people expressed their disapproval
periods. In India this period is five very sharply. They took out rallies and
years. Once elected, governments can
also organised a signature campaign.
stay in power only for that period. If
they want to continue to be in power The government tried to explain and
then they have to be re-elected by the defend its decision but finally listened
people. This is a moment when people to the people’s opinion and withdrew
can sense their power in a democracy. the increase. The government had
In this way the power of the government to change its decision because it is
gets limited by regular elections. responsible to the people.
What approval or disapproval is Take Action
being expressed here? Letters to the editor It is worrying to know that
the tiger population in India is
falling. Tigers are being
hunted and killed by poachers
for their skins. The
government has not taken the
issue of poaching seriously
enough. It must take action
immediately, arrest the
poachers and implement the
laws protecting the tiger. If
this does not happen the tiger
will become an extinct animal
in the next ten years.
Sohan Pal
Guwahati, Assam
Not bad! One of the taps in the nearby
village must be getting water!
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38 / Social and Political Life
There are many ways in which If a country’s people are alert and
people express their views and make interested in how the country is run,
governments understand what actions the democratic character of the
they should take. These include government of that country will be
dharnas, rallies, strikes, signature stronger.
campaigns etc. Things that are unfair
So the next time we see a rally
and unjust are also brought forward.
winding through the streets of our
Newspapers, magazines and TV also
cities and towns or villages we should
play a role in discussing government
pause to find out what the rally is
issues and responsibilities.
about, who is participating in it, and
what they are protesting about. This
will help to give us a sense of how our
government works.
NEED TO RESOLVE CONFLICT
In Maya’s story you read about how
conflicts can often lead to violence
and death because one group decides
that it is all right to use force to
prevent the other group from
protesting.
Read the story again: Do you
think the police shooting
of Hector could have been
avoided? How?
Conflicts occur when people of
different cultures, religions, regions or
economic backgrounds do not get along
While it is true that a democracy
with each other, or when some among
allows people to participate, it is also
them feel they are being discriminated
true that not all sections of people are
against. People may use violent means
actually able to do so. Another way for
to settle their differences. This leads to
people to participate is by organising
fear and tension among others living in
themselves into social movements
an area. The government is responsible
that seek to challenge the government
for helping to resolve conflicts.
and its functioning. Members of the
minority community, dalits, adivasis, Let’s read about some of the
women and others are often able to conflicts in our society and the role of
participate in this manner. the government in resolving them.
2022-23
Unit_II Ch 4.indd 38 08-10-2021 10:48:07
Key Elements of a Democratic Government / 39
The Indian Constitution lays another and end in a third. The
down the basic rules or laws sharing of river water between
that have to be followed by different states that the river goes
everyone. These laws are for both through is becoming an issue of
the government and the people. conflict. For example, you may have
Conflicts and differences have heard about the Cauvery water
to be resolved according to these dispute between Karnataka and
laws. We will read more about Tamil Nadu. The water stored in
this in later classes. Krishna Raja Sagara dam in
Religious processions and Karnataka is used for irrigating a
celebrations can sometimes lead number of districts and for meeting
to conflicts. For example, the route the needs of the city of Bengaluru. The
a procession takes may lead to a water stored in Mettur dam in Tamil
conflict. The government, particularly Nadu is used for crops grown in the
the police, play an important role in delta region of that state.
getting representatives of concerned A conflict arises because both dams
communities to meet and try are on the same river. The downstream
and arrive at a solution. At times there dam in Tamil Nadu can only be filled
is fear that violence may erupt, with up if water is released from the
people throwing stones or trying to upstream one located in Karnataka.
disrupt the procession. The police is Therefore, both states can’t get as
responsible for ensuring that violence much water as they need for people in
does not take place. their states. This leads to conflict. The
Rivers too can become a source central government has to step in and
of conflict between states. A river see that a fair distribution is worked
may begin in one state, flow through out for both states.
Quiet flows the Cauvery despite being at the centre of
heated conflict between two states for the last 30 years.
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40 / Social and Political Life
EQUALITY AND JUSTICE The government also recognises
One of the key ideas of a democratic this and makes special provisions for
government is its commitment to groups within society that are unequal.
equality and justice. Equality and For instance, in our society there is a
justice are inseparable. general tendency to value and care for
the boy child more than the girl child.
Discuss This means that society does not
In Maya’s story did the government value the girl and boy child equally
support the idea that people are and this is unjust. In this context the
equal? government steps in to promote justice
In Dr Ambedkar’s story did the by providing special provisions that can
practice of untouchability support enable girls to overcome the injustice
the idea that people are equal? that they are subjected to. Thus it
is possible that fees for girls might
The earlier practice of untouch- be waived or lowered in government
ability is now banned by law. This schools or colleges.
group of people were denied education, How do you think lowering the school
transport or medical facilities and fees would help girls attend school?
even the chance to offer prayers. Dr
Can you think of any experience from
Ambedkar, whom you have read about your life in which you have helped
earlier in this book, and many others someone out of a situation which you
like him, realised that such practices thought was unfair? Did everyone else
must not continue and that justice see it the same way? What did you have
can only be achieved when people are to say to convince others that what you
treated equally. did was fair?
QUESTIONS
1. How would Maya’s life be different in South Africa today?
2. What are the various ways in which people participate in the process
of government?
3. Why do you think we need the government to find solutions to many
disputes or conflicts?
4. What actions does the government take to ensure that all people are
treated equally?
5. Read through the chapter and discuss some of the key ideas of a
democratic government. Make a list. For example, all people are
equal.
2022-23
Unit_II Ch 4.indd 40 08-10-2021 10:48:07
UNIT - III
Administration
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Local n a t i o n
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Administration
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2022-23
Unit_III Ch 5.indd 41 08-10-2021 10:51:56
Chapter 5
Panchayati Raj What happens after people elect their
representatives? How are decisions made? Let’s
look at how this takes place in rural areas. Here,
we look at the Gram Sabha, which is a meeting
where people directly participate and seek
answers from their elected representatives.
I t’s a special day today! Everyone’s
rushing to get to the Gram Sabha!
Do you know why? Because the Gram
The people of Hardas village are keen
to find out what their new Panchayat
leaders have planned for the village.
Sabha is holding its first meeting after
the election of the new Gram Panchayat. Gram Sabha
The Gram Sabha is a meeting of all The Gram Sabha meeting begins with
adults who live in the area covered by the Panchayat President (who is also
a Panchayat. This could be only one called the Sarpanch) and the members
village or a few villages. In some states, of the Panchayat (the Panchs)
as in the example above, a village presenting a plan on repairing the road
meeting is held for each village. Anyone that connects the village to the main
who is 18 years old or more and who highway. After this, the discussion
has the right to vote is a member of the moves to the subject of water and
Gram Sabha.
water shortages.
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44 / Social and Political Life
We need to do something more
Every village Panchayat is permanent as groundwater levels seem
divided into wards, i.e. smaller to be going down every year. We’re
areas. Each ward elects a
using more water than is seeping into
representative who is known
as the Ward Member (Panch). the ground.”
All the members of the Gram Another member, Anwar then tells
Sabha also elect a Sarpanch everyone that he has seen ways of
who is the Panchayat conserving water and recharging
President. The Ward Panchs (refilling) it in a village in Maharashtra
and the Sarpanch form the
where he’d once gone to visit his brother.
Gram Panchayat. The Gram
Panchayat is elected for five It was called watershed development
years. and he had heard that the government
gave money for this work.
The Gram Panchayat has
a Secretary who is also the In his brother’s village people had
Secretary of the Gram Sabha. planted trees, constructed check-dams
This person is not an elected and tanks. Everyone thought this
person but is appointed by the was an interesting idea and the Gram
government. The Secretary Panchayat was asked to find out about
is responsible for calling it in detail.
the meeting of the Gram
Sabha and Gram Panchayat 1. What is a Gram Sabha?
and keeping a record of the
proceedings. 2. In the meeting of the
Gram Sabha so far what are
the problems that are being
A villager called Tijia begins the discussed? What sort of solutions
meeting by saying, “The water problem are being suggested?
in Hardas has become very acute. The
The next item on the agenda for the
hand pump water has gone well below
the point up to which the ground has Gram Sabha is the finalisation of the list
been drilled. We hardly get any water of people below the poverty line (BPL)
in the taps. Women have to go to the which had to be approved by the Gram
Suru river which is 3 k.m. away to get Sabha. As soon as the list is read out
water.” One of the members suggests people begin to whisper. “Natwar has
piping water from the Suru and making just bought a colour T.V. and his son has
an overhead tank in the village to sent him a new motorcycle. How can he
increase the supply. But the others be below the poverty line?” Soorajmal
think that this will be expensive. mutters to the person sitting next to
It’s better, they feel, to deepen the him. Saroj says to Sukhi bai “How did
handpumps and clean the wells for this Birju’s name get on to the list? He has
season. Tijia says, “This is not enough. so much land. This list should have
2022-23
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Panchayati Raj / 45
The Gram Sabha is a
key factor in making
the Gram Panchayat
play its role and be
responsible. It is the
place where all plans for
the work of the Gram
Panchayat are placed
before the people.
The Gram Sabha
prevents the Panchayat
from doing wrong things
like misusing money
or favouring certain
people. It plays an
important role in keeping
an eye on the elected
representatives and in
only poor people. And Om Prakash is making them responsible
a landless labourer who can barely to the persons who
elected them.
make ends meet, yet his name is not on
the list.” “You know that both Natwar
and Birju are friends of Amirchand. families says, “Om Prakash’s house
Who can counter Amirchand’s power?” was locked when I went there. He may
Sukhi bai says, “Amirchand was the have gone somewhere to look for work.”
earlier Zamindar (landowner) of the The Sarpanch gives instructions that
village and still has control over a lot of Om Prakash’s family income be looked
land. But we should get Om Prakash’s at and if it is less than what has been
name put in.” decided by the government, his name
should be included in the list.
The Sarpanch (Panchayat President)
notices people whispering and asks 1. Was there a problem with the
BPL list that the Gram Sabha was
if anyone has anything to say. Saroj finalising? What was this problem?
tries to provoke Soorajmal to ask 2. Why do you think Soorajmal kept
about Natwar and Birju. But he keeps quiet even though Saroj asked him to
quiet. Amirchand is sitting in the Gram speak?
Sabha keeping an eye on everyone. 3. Have you seen any similar
incidents when people are unable
Then Saroj gets up and says that Om to speak for themselves? Why do
Prakash’s name should be in the BPL you think that happened and what
list. Others agree that he and his family prevented the person from speaking?
are very poor. The Sarpanch asks how 4. How can the Gram Sabha prevent
his name had been missed out. The the Panchayat from doing what it
person who did the survey of BPL likes?
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46 / Social and Political Life
The Gram Panchayat
The work of a Gram Panchayat
The Gram Panchayat meets regularly
includes
and one of its main tasks is to
1. The construction and maintenance
implement development programmes
of water sources, roads, drainage,
for all villages that come under it. As school buildings and other common
you have seen, the work of the Gram property resources.
Panchayat has to be approved by the 2. Levying and collecting local taxes.
Gram Sabha. 3. Executing government schemes
In some states, Gram Sabhas related to generating employment
form committees like construction in the village.
and development committees. These Sources of funds for the Panchayat
committees include some members of
Collection of taxes on houses,
the Gram Sabha and some from the
market places etc.
Gram Panchayat who work together to
Government scheme funds received
carry out specific tasks.
through various departments of the
government – through the Janpad and
Zila Panchayats.
Donations for community works etc.
Let’s see what the Hardas Gram
Panchayat was able to do.
Do you remember the options
that were suggested to solve the
water problem in the Gram Sabha
of Hardas village? When the Hardas
Gram Panchayat held a meeting, this
point was brought up again by some
of the members (Panchs). This meeting
was attended by the Sarpanch, Ward
Members (Panchs) and the Secretary.
Gram Panchayat members first
discussed the suggestion to deepen two
handpumps and clean one well, so that
the village would not go without water.
The Sarpanch (Panchayat President)
Two village Panchs from Maharashtra who were suggested that since the Panchayat had
awarded the Nirmal Gram Puruskar in 2005 for received some money for maintenance
the excellent work done by them in the Panchayat. of handpumps, this could be used
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Unit_III Ch 5.indd 46 08-10-2021 10:51:58
Panchayati Raj / 47
Watershed management has transformed
this barren slope to a green meadow in
just two years.
for completing this work. The
members agreed and the Secretary
recorded their decision.
Three Levels of Panchayats
The members then went on to After reading about what happened
discuss the options for a long-term in the Gram Sabha and the Gram
solution. They were sure that the Gram Panchayat in Hardas village you
Sabha members would ask questions at can understand that the Panchayati
the next meeting. Some Panchs asked Raj System is a process through
whether the watershed programme which people participate in their
would make a substantial difference own government. In rural areas, the
to the water level. A lot of discussion Gram Panchayat is the first tier or
followed. In the end it was decided that level of democratic government. The
the Gram Panchayat would approach Panchs and the Gram Panchayat are
the Block Development Officer and get answerable to the Gram Sabha because
more information on the scheme. it is the members of the Gram Sabha
who elected them.
What decisions were taken by the
Gram panchayat? This idea of people’s participation in
the Panchayati Raj system extends to
Do you think it was necessary
two other levels. One is the Block level,
for them to take these decisions?
Why? which is called the Janpad Panchayat
or the Panchayat Samiti. The Panchayat
From the above description, write Samiti has many Gram Panchayats
down one question that people
under it. Above the Panchayat
could ask of the Panchayat in the
Samiti is the District Panchayat or
next Gram Sabha meeting.
the Zila Parishad. The Zila Parishad
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48 / Social and Political Life
actually makes developmental plans more and more space for people to
at the district level. With the help of participate and raise their voices.
Panchayat Samitis, it also regulates
the money distribution among all the Ask your teacher to invite any of
the elected persons such as the
Gram Panchayats. Panch, Sarpanch (Panchayat
Within the guidelines given in President) or member of the
Janpad or Zila Panchayat and
the Constitution each state in the
interview them on their work and
country has its own laws with regard the projects undertaken by them.
to Panchayats. The idea is to provide
QUESTIONS
1. What problem did the villagers in Hardas village face? What did they
do to solve this problem?
2. What, in your opinion, is the importance of the Gram Sabha? Do you
think all members should attend Gram Sabha meetings? Why?
3. What is the link between a Gram Sabha and a Gram Panchayat?
4. Take an example of any one task done by a Panchayat in your area/
nearby rural area and find out the following:
a. Why it was taken up.
b. Where the money came from.
c. Whether or not the work has been completed.
5. What is the difference between a Gram Sabha and a Gram Panchayat?
6. Read the following news item.
Nimone is a village on the Chauphula-Shirur Road. Like many others, this
village has also been facing a severe water shortage for the last few months
and villagers depend on tankers for all their needs. Bhagvan Mahadeo Lad
(35) of this village was beaten with sticks, iron rods and axes by a group of
seven men. The incident came to light when some villagers brought a badly
injured Lad to hospital for treatment. In the FIR recorded by the police Lad
said that he was attacked when he insisted that the water in the tanker must
be emptied into the storage tanks constructed as part of the water supply
scheme by Nimone Gram Panchayat so that there would be equal distribution
of water. However, he alleged that the upper caste men were against this and
told him that the tanker water was not meant for the lower castes.
Adapted from Indian Express, May 1, 2004
a. Why was Bhagvan beaten?
b. Do you think that the above is a case of discrimination? Why?
7. Find out more about watershed development and how it benefits an area?
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Unit_III Ch 5.indd 48 08-10-2021 10:51:59
Chapter 6
Rural There are more than six lakh villages in India.
Taking care of their needs for water, electricity,
Administration road connections, is not a small task. In addition
to this, land records have to be maintained
and conflicts too need to be dealt with. A large
machinery is in place to deal with all this. In
this chapter we will look at the work of two rural
administrative officers in some detail.
Mohan was angry but also a little
frightened. Raghu’s family owned many
fields and besides, his uncle was also
the Sarpanch of the village. But even
so, he plucked up courage and went to
Raghu’s house.
A heated argument followed. Raghu
refused to accept that he had moved
the bund. He called one of his helpers
and they began shouting at Mohan and
beating him up. The neighbours heard
the commotion and rushed to the spot
where Mohan was being beaten up.
They took him away.
He was badly hurt on his head and
hand. He was given first aid by one of
his neighbours. His friend, who also ran
A Quarrel in the Village the village post-office, suggested that
M ohan is a farmer. His family owns they go to the local police station and
a small agricultural field, which file a report. Others were doubtful if this
they have been farming for many was a good idea because they felt they
years. Next to his field is Raghu’s land would waste a lot of money and nothing
which is separated from his by a small would come out of it. Some people said
boundary called a bund. that Raghu’s family would have already
contacted the police station.
One morning Mohan noticed that
Raghu had shifted the bund by a few After much discussion it was
feet. By doing so, he had managed to decided that Mohan would go to the
take over some of Mohan’s land, and police station along with some of the
increased the size of his own field. neighbours who had seen the incident.
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50 / Social and Political Life
Area of the Police Station
On the way to the police station one of
the neighbours asked, “Why don’t we
spend some more money and go to the
main police station in the town?”
“It is not a question of money. We
can register the case only in this police
station because our village comes in its
area of work,” explained Mohan.
Every police station has an area that
comes under its control. All persons in
that area can report cases or inform the
police about any theft, accident, injury,
fight, etc. It is the responsibility of the
police of that station to enquire, to
investigate and take action on the cases
within its area. then investigating them. Mohan showed
him his injuries but the S.H.O did not
1. If there is a theft in your house
which police station would you go believe him.
to register your complaint? Mohan was puzzled and did not
2. What was the dispute between know what to do. He was not sure why
Mohan and Raghu? his complaint was not being recorded.
3. Why was Mohan worried about He went and called his neighbours into
picking a quarrel with Raghu? the office. They argued strongly that
Mohan had been beaten up in front of
4. Some people said Mohan should
them and had they not rescued him he
report the matter to the police and
others said he should not. What
were the arguments they gave? Show the above situation in the
police station through a skit.
The work at the Police Station Then talk about how you felt
When they reached the police station playing Mohan’s role or that of the
Mohan went to the person in charge S.H.O or the neighbours. Could the
(Station House Officer or S.H.O.) and S.H.O have handled the situation
told him what had happened. He differently?
also said that he wanted to give the
complaint in writing. The S.H.O rudely would have been injured very seriously.
brushed him aside saying that he They insisted that the case be registered.
couldn’t be bothered to waste his time Finally the officer agreed. He asked
writing down minor complaints and Mohan to write down his complaint and
2022-23
Unit_III Ch 6.indd 50 08-10-2021 10:54:39
Rural Administration / 51
also told the people that he would send Karamchari or Village Officer etc. We
a constable the next day to investigate will refer to this officer as Patwari.
the incident. Each Patwari is responsible for a group
of villages. The Patwari maintains and
Maintenance of Land Records updates the records of the village.
You saw that Mohan and Raghu were The map and the corresponding
arguing heatedly whether the common details from the register on the next
boundary of their fields had been page are a small part of the records
shifted. Isn’t there a way by which kept by the Patwari.
they could have settled this dispute in
a peaceful manner? Are there records The Patwari usually has ways of
that show who owns what land in the measuring agricultural fields. In some
village? Let’s find out how this is done. places a long chain is used. In the
above instance the Patwari would have
Measuring land and keeping measured both Mohan’s and Raghu’s
land records is the main work of the fields and compared them with the
Patwari. The Patwari is known by measurements on the map. If they did
different names in different states not match then it would be clear that
- in some villages such officers are the boundary of the fields has been
called Lekhpal, in others Kanungo or changed.
Find out the term used for the Patwari
in your state.
If you live in a rural area find out:
How many villages does the Patwari of
your area maintain land records of?
How do people in the village contact
him/her?
The Patwari is also responsible
for organising the collection of land
revenue from the farmers and providing
information to the government about the
crops grown in this area. This is done
from the records that are kept, and this
is why it’s important for the Patwari to
regularly update these. Farmers may
change the crops grown on their fields
or someone may dig a well somewhere,
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52 / Social and Political Life
The Khasra record of the Patwari gives you information regarding the map given
below. It identifies which plot of land is owned by whom. Look at both the records and
the map and answer the questions given below regarding Mohan and Raghu’s land.
Khasra 5
Area in Name of owner, If it is rented Area cultivated Area
No. this year not Facilities
hectare Father or to some other
husband’s name, farmer, their culti-
Crop Area Sec-
address name and rent vated
grown ond
received fallow
crop
land
grown
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0.75 Mohna, Son of No Soya- 0.75
Raja Ram, Village bean Hectare
Amarpura owner
2 3.00 Raghu Ram, Son No Soya- 2.75 0.25 Well-1
of Ratan Lall, bean, Hectare working
Village Amrapura Wheat, 1.75
owner irriga-
ted
3 6.00 Madhya Pradesh No - Well-1
Government working
Grassland Grazing
VILLAGE - AMARPURA NORTH
1. Who owns the land south of PATWARI RECORD - 16
Mohan’s field?
2. Mark the common boundary
between Mohan’s and Raghu’s lands. 1 4 6
3. Who can use field no 3?
4. What information can one get for 2
field no 2 and field no 3? 5
7
Legand
3
Boundary
8
Well
Grassland
Sketch map – not to scale
Kachcha road
Pakka road
Tree
2022-23
Unit_III Ch 6.indd 52 08-10-2021 10:54:40
Rural Administration / 53
and keeping track of all this is the Farmers often require a copy of their land’s
work of the revenue department record together with a map, as shown in
of the government. Senior people the previous illustration. They have a right
in this department supervise the to this information. They may have to pay a
Patwari’s work. small fee for this.
However, this information is not easily made
All states in India are divided available and farmers sometimes have to
into districts. For managing matters face many problems to get it. In some states,
relating to land these districts are records are now being computerised and also
further sub-divided. These sub- kept at the Panchayat office so that they are
divisions of a district are known more easily available and regularly updated.
by different names such as tehsil, When do you think farmers may require a
taluka, etc. At the head is the copy of this record? Study the following
District Collector and under her are situations and identify the cases in which
the revenue officers, also known these records would be necessary and why.
as tehsildars. They have to hear * A farmer wants to buy a plot of land from
disputes. They also supervise the another.
work of the Patwaris and ensure that * A farmer wants to sell her produce to
records are properly kept and land another.
revenue is collected. They make sure * A farmer wants a loan from the bank to dig
that the farmers can easily obtain a a well in her land.
copy of their record, students can * A farmer wants to purchase fertilizers for
obtain their caste certificates etc. his field.
The Tehsildar’s office is where land * A farmer wants to divide his property
disputes are also heard. among his children.
A daughter’s wish
Father inherited our house
from his father
And everyone says he’ll
leave it to brother
But what about me and my
mother?
To expect a share in my
father’s home,
Is not very womanly, I am
told.
But I really want a place of
my own,
Not dowry of silk and gold.
(Source: Reflections on MY FAMILY,
Anjali Monteiro,TISS)
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54 / Social and Political Life
A New Law This law will benefit a large number
(Hindu Succession Amendment Act, of women. For example Sudha is the
2005) eldest daughter of an agricultural
family. She is married and lives in a
Often when we think of farmers who
neighbouring village. After her father’s
own land, we think of men. Women are
death Sudha often comes to help her
seen as people who work on the fields,
mother with the farming work.
but not as people who own agricultural
land. Till recently in some states Hindu Her mother has asked the Patwari
women did not get a share in the family’s to transfer the land and enter her name
agricultural land. After the death of the along with the names of all the children
father his property was divided equally in his record.
only among his sons. Sudha’s mother confidently
Recently, the law was changed. In organises the farming with the help
the new law sons, daughters and their of the younger brother and sister.
mothers in Hindu families can get an Similarly Sudha also lives with the
equal share in the land. The same assurance that if she ever has a
law will apply to all states and union problem she can always depend upon
territories of the country. her share of the land.
Other Public Services - A survey
This chapter has looked at some of the administrative work of the
government, especially for rural areas. The first example related to
maintaining law and order and the second to maintaining land records.
In the first case we examined the role of the police and in the second that
of the Patwari. This work is supervised by other people in the department,
such as the Tehsildar or the Superintendent of Police. We have also seen
how people use these services, and some of the problems that they face.
These services have to be used and made to function according to the
laws that have been framed for them. You have probably seen many
other public services and facilities provided by various departments of
the government.
Do the following exercise for your village/by visiting a nearby village or
looking at your own area.
List the public services in the village/area such as: the milk society, the
fair price shop, the bank, the police station, the agricultural society for
seeds and fertiliser, the post office or sub post office, the anganwadi,
crèche, government school/s, health centre or government hospital etc.
Collect information on three public services and discuss with your teacher
how improvements can be made in their functioning. One example has
been worked out.
2022-23
Unit_III Ch 6.indd 54 08-10-2021 10:54:41
Chapter 7
Urban A city is much bigger than a village and more
spread out. A city has crowded markets, many
Administration buses and cars, water and electricity facilities,
traffic control and hospitals. Have you ever
wondered who is responsible for running all
this? Do you know how decisions are made?
How the planning is done? Who are the people
who do all the work? Read this chapter and
find some answers.
O ne lazy Sunday afternoon Mala
and her friends Shankar, Jehangir
and Rehana were playing a game of
the street light you are automatically
out.” But Mala, Jehangir and Rehana
were more worried about what had
cricket in the street. happened and they told Shankar he’d
better stop thinking about the wicket.
Shankar had bowled a good over
and although he nearly managed to Last week they had broken Nirmala
get Rehana out, she was still batting. Mausi’s window and had spent their
Frustrated, he bowled a short ball and pocket money to have it replaced. Would
hoped she would hit it for an easy catch. they have to dish out money again from
Instead, Rehana hit the ball so hard their pockets? But who would they pay
and so high that the street light broke. this to? To whom did the lights on the
Rehana screamed, “Oh no, look what streets belong? Who changed them?
I’ve done!” Shankar said, “Yes! we Rehana’s house was the closest and
forgot to make a rule that if you break they ran and told her mother what had
2022-23
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58 / Social and Political Life
happened. Rehana’s mother said, “I
don’t really know these things in great
detail but I do know that it is the Municipal
Corporation of the city that takes care
of replacing lights. The best person to
ask would be Yasmin Khala. She just
retired from the Municipal Corporation.
Go and ask her, and Rehana come back
home soon.”
Yasmin Khala lived in the same
lane and she and Rehana’s mother
were good friends. The children ran to
Khala’s house and when she opened
the door they began to tell her what
had happened all at once! When they
asked about the street light, Yasmin
Khala laughed and said, “There is no
one person that you can pay the money
to. There is a big organisation called the them,” said Yasmin Khala. Then she
Municipal Corporation that takes care of added, “Our city Pune is a big city
street lights, garbage collection, water and so here it is called a Municipal
supply, keeping the streets and the Corporation. In smaller towns it is
market clean.” called a Municipal Council.”
“I’ve heard about the Municipal
The Ward Councillor and
Corporation. They’ve put up signs
Administrative Staff
around the city to inform people about
malaria,” said Mala. “Yasmin Khala, I’m curious. Who decides
where a park should go? Did you have
“Yes, you are quite right. The to make interesting decisions like this
Municipal Corporation is also when you worked in the Municipal
responsible for ensuring that diseases Corporation?” asked Rehana.
do not break out in the city. It also runs
schools, hospitals and dispensaries. “No Rehana, I was working in the
And makes gardens and maintains accounts office of the Corporation so I
just worked on pay slips. Cities are
List at least four different tasks usually quite large so the Municipal
that the Municipality does: Corporation has to make a lot of decisions
1. as well as do a lot of work to keep the
2. city clean. The decisions like where a
park or a new hospital should go are
3.
usually made by the Ward Councillors.”
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Urban Administration / 59
The city is divided into different
Fill in the blanks in the sentences
wards and ward councillors get elected.
below:
The complicated decisions that affect
the entire city are taken by groups of 1. In a panchayat the elected
councillors who form committees to members are called ___________.
2. The city is divided into several
decide and debate issues. For example,
___________.
if bus stands need to be improved, or
3. In a municipal corporation the
a crowded market-place needs to have elected members are called _______.
its garbage cleared more regularly, 4. Groups of councillors deal with
or there is a ‘nala’ or drain that cuts issues that affect the ___________.
through the city that needs cleaning 5. Elections are held once every
etc. It is these committees for water, ___________ years for the panchayat
garbage collection, street lighting etc. as well as for the municipality
that decide on the work to be done. 6. While the councillors make
decisions the administrative
When the problems are within a staff led by the Commissioner
ward then the people who live in the ___________ these.
ward can contact their councillors.
For example, if there are dangerous
electrical wires hanging down then the How does the Municipal
local Councillor can help them get in Corporation get its money?
touch with the electricity authority. Providing and running so many
services requires a lot of money. The
While the Councillor’s Committees
Municipal Corporation collects this in
and the councillors decide on issues, different ways. A tax is a sum of money
the Commissioner and the adminis- that people pay to the government for
trative staff implement these. The the services the government provides.
Commissioner and the administrative People who own homes have to pay a
staff are appointed. Councillors are property tax as well as taxes for water
elected. and other services. The larger the house
the more the tax. Property taxes however
“So how are these decisions made?” form only 25-30 per cent of the money
asked Rehana who never gave up on that a Municipal Corporation earns.
her train of thought.
There are also taxes for education and
“Well, all of the Ward Councillors other amenities. If you own a hotel or
meet and they make a budget and the shop then you have to pay a tax for
money is spent according to this. The this as well. Also the next time you go
Ward Councillors try and ensure that to see a movie look carefully at your
the particular demands of their wards ticket because you pay a tax for this
are placed before the entire council. as well. Thus while rich people account
for property taxes, a much wider
These decisions are then implemented
population pays more general taxes.
by the administrative staff,” said
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Unit_III Ch 7.indd 59 08-10-2021 11:33:22
60 / Social and Political Life
Yasmin Khala,
enjoying the questions
that the children
asked. No adults
asked her about her
job and the children’s
questions provided
her an opportunity
to relive some of her
experiences.
“But the city is so
large. It must take a lot
of people to look after
it. Does the Municipal
Corporation have a lot
of workers?” asked
Shankar curiously. He Recycling is not a new thing. People like the man in the photo
had by now luckily above have been recycling paper, metal, glass and plastic for
forgotten about the a long time. The kabadi wallah plays a major role in recycling
household plastic and paper, including your note books.
cricket match and his
incomplete over.
lying all over the street. Earlier even our
“Yes, the work in the city is divided neighbourhood used to have garbage
into different departments. So there lying all over, and if this remains
is the water department, the garbage uncollected it attracts dogs, rats and
collection department, a department flies. Also, people get ill from the smell.
to look after gardens, another to look At one point things became so bad that
after roads. I worked on accounts in the children even stopped playing cricket in
sanitation department,” said Yasmin the street because their parents were
Khala and then went on to offer the afraid that they’d get sick from staying
children some kababs to eat. on the streets too long.”
Jehangir ate his kababs at top
speed and as he wolfed them down he A Community Protest
asked loudly from the kitchen, “Yasmin Yasmin Khala continued, “The women
Khala where does the garbage that were very unhappy about the situation
the Municipal Corporation collects go and even came to me for advice. I
to?”. The others were still eating when said I could try and speak with some
Yasmin Khala began to answer, “This officer in the department but I wasn’t
question has an interesting answer. As sure how long it would take. Then it
you know you can usually find garbage was Gangabai who said that it is the
2022-23
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Urban Administration / 61
That evening children ran from house
What has changed since Khala to house making sure that as many
retired?
families as possible signed the petition.
What Yasmin Khala did not mention
to the children was that in recent The next morning a large group
times, in order to save money of women and the Ward Councillor
the Commissioners of several and the sanitation engineer went to
municipalities across the country the Municipal Corporation office. The
had hired private contractors to Commissioner met with this large group
collect and process garbage. This is
and began giving excuses saying that
called Sub-Contracting. This means
that the work that was earlier being
the Corporation did not have enough
done by government workers is now trucks. But Gangabai smartly replied,
being done by a private company. “But you seem to have enough trucks to
collect garbage from the rich localities”.
These contract workers get paid
less and their jobs are temporary. “That must have left him lost for
Collecting garbage is also quite words,” quipped Jehangir.
a dangerous job and often these
contract workers do not have any
“Yes, he said that he would take
access to safety measures and are care of it immediately and Gangabai
not taken care of if they are injured threatened that if it was not done in two
while working. days a larger group of women would
protest in front of the Corporation,” said
Ward Councillor who we should go to Yasmin Khala. “So did the streets get
and protest since we are the ones who cleaned?” asked Rehana who never let
elected him. She gathered a small things remain unfinished.
group of women and went to his house. “Well not within two days and then
They began shouting slogans in front of after another larger and more noisy
his house and he came out and asked protest the sanitation service in this
them what was wrong. locality became more regular.”
Gangabai described the situation “Wow this sounds just like a
in the locality to him. He promised to Bollywood film with a happy ending,”
go with them the next day to meet the
Commissioner. He asked Gangabai to
What was Gangabai protesting
get a petition signed by all of the adults
about?
in the locality saying that garbage was
not being collected. He suggested that Why do you think Gangabai decided
taking the local sanitation engineer to approach the Ward Councillor?
with them the next day might be a good What did Gangabai say when the
idea. The sanitation engineer could Commissioner said that there were
also speak with the Commissioner and not enough trucks in the city?
tell him how bad the situation was.
2022-23
Unit_III Ch 7.indd 61 08-10-2021 11:33:22
62 / Social and Political Life
said Mala who already began Khala began laughing. “No, not
imagining herself in the lead role of really. The Municipal Corporation was
Gangabai. the one who suggested that we do this
to help keep our streets clean. When
The children enjoyed hearing
we sort our own garbage it reduces
Gangabai’s story immensely. They
their work.”
had sensed that Gangabai was much
loved and respected and now they The children thanked Khala and
understood why. They got up and walked back down the street together. It
thanked Khala for answering their had become quite late and they needed
questions and then, before they left, to get back home. For some reason the
Rehana said, “Oh, I have one last street seemed darker than usual. They
question Khala. The two dustbins that looked up and then looked at each other
we have at home now, are they also smiling and ran right back to Khala’s
Gangabai’s idea?” house…
The city of Surat had a plague scare in 1994. Surat was one of the
dirtiest cities in India. Houses, hotels and restaurants would dump
their garbage into the nearest drain or street which made it very
difficult for sweepers to collect and transfer the garbage into selected
dumps. In addition to this, the Municipal Corporation did not collect
the garbage as often as it should have and this led to the situation
getting worse. Plague spreads through the air and people who have
the disease have to be isolated. In Surat, several people lost their
lives, and over 300,000 deserted the city. The scare of the plague
ensured that the Municipal Corporation completely cleaned up the
city. Surat continues to remain one of the cleanest cities in India.
Do you know when and how often garbage gets collected in your
neighbourhood? Do you think it is the same for all neighbourhoods
of the city? Why not? Discuss.
Did you know that your taxes enable the government to provide roads, bridges,
parks, and street lights? List three more benefits that the taxes help in funding, after
discussing with your family:
1.
2.
3.
2022-23
Unit_III Ch 7.indd 62 08-10-2021 11:33:22
Urban Administration / 63
QUESTIONS
1. Why did the children go to Yasmin Khala’s house?
2. List four ways in which the work of the Municipal Corporation affects
the life of a city-dweller.
3. Who is a Municipal Councillor?
4. What did Gangabai do and why?
5. How does the Municipal Corporation earn the money to do its work?
Photo 1 Photo 2
6. Discuss
In the two photographs you see different ways of collecting and
disposing garbage.
i) Which way do you think provides safety to the person disposing
garbage?
ii) What are the dangers of collecting garbage in the manner shown
in the first photograph?
iii) Why do you think that proper ways of disposing garbage are not
available to those who work in municipalities?
2022-23
Unit_III Ch 7.indd 63 08-10-2021 11:33:23
64 / Social and Political Life
7. Several poor people in the city work as domestic servants as well as work
for the Corporation, keeping the city clean. Yet the slums in which they live
are quite filthy. This is because these slums seldom have any water and
sanitation facilities. The reason often given by the Municipal Corporation
is that the land in which the poor have set up their homes does not belong
to them and that slum-dwellers do not pay taxes. However people living in
middle class neighbourhoods pay very little in taxes compared to the amount
of money the corporation spends on them in setting up parks, street lighting
facilities, regular garbage collection etc. Also as you read in this chapter,
the property taxes collected by the Municipality makes up only 25-30 per
cent of its money. Why do you think it is important that the Corporation
should spend more money on slum localities? Why is it important that the
Municipal Corporation provide the poor in the city with the same facilities
that the rich get?
8. Look at the image below.
The Government of India launched the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October
2014 to promote cleanliness in both rural and urban areas all over the nation.
Under the “Swachh Bharat, Swachh Vidyalaya” campaign, many activities
are also being carried out in schools to generate awareness on sanitation
and hygiene amongst students. Observe the ways in which “Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan” is being implemented by municipality / panchayat in your locality.
Prepare a poster and display it in your school.
2022-23
Unit_III Ch 7.indd 64 08-10-2021 11:33:23
The
Chapter 1 Indian Constitution
In this chapter, we are going to begin with football, a
game many of you have probably heard of, or even
played. As the name suggests, this is a game that involves
the players’ feet. According to the rules of football, if
the ball touches the arm of any player (except the
goalkeeper), then this is considered a foul. So if players
start holding the football in their hands and passing it
around, then they are not playing football any more.
Similarly other games, such as hockey or cricket, also
have rules according to which they are played. Each of
these rules helps define the game, and helps us
distinguish one game from another. As these are
fundamental to the game, we can also call them the
constitutive rules of the game. Like these games, a
society also has constitutive rules that make it what it
is and differentiate it from other kinds of societies. In
large societies in which different communities of people
live together, these rules are formulated through
consensus, and in modern countries this consensus is
usually available in written form. A written document
in which we find such rules is called a Constitution.
We have looked at the Indian Constitution in Classes VI
and VII in our Social and Political Life textbooks. Have
you ever wondered why we need a Constitution or been
curious about how the Constitution got written, or who
wrote it? In this chapter, we will discuss both these
issues and also look at the key features of the Indian
Constitution. Each of these features is crucial to the
working of democracy in India and some of these will
be the focus of different chapters in this book.
Social and Political Life 4
2022-23
The Indian Constitution
Why Does a Country Need a Constitution?
5 Chapter 1: The Indian Constitution
2022-23
Discuss with your teacher what
you understand by the term
‘constitutive’. Provide one
example of ‘constitutive rules’
from your everyday life.
Why did the people of Nepal
want a new Constitution?
Social and Political Life 6
2022-23
Anil, you will have to
Suresh is the class monitor. He is a When Mrs Rao returns to the class … stay back after school
bully. His classmates are not too fond today and write ‘I will
of him. Mrs Rao, the class teacher, has not disobey the class
to leave the classroom on some urgent monitor’ a 100 times.
work. She asks Suresh to mind the class. Ma’am, while you were away,
Anil kept talking loudly and But … Ma’am … I
Suresh starts picking on Anil.
disturbing the class. He would did not do anything!
not listen to me.
Anil, today I am going to
report you to Mrs Rao.
But what have I done?
1. In what way is the class
monitor misusing his power?
2. In which of the following
situations is a minister
misusing his power:
a) refuses to sanction a project
of his ministry for sound
technical reasons;
b) threatens to send his
security staff to rough up his
neighbour;
c) calls up the police station
asking them not to register a
complaint that is likely to be
filed against his relative.
7 Chapter 1: The Indian Constitution
2022-23
The games period is about to begin.
Let’s play basketball
today, for a change!
No! We will
play cricket.
The teacher decides to settle the
problem with a show of hands. Obviously! There are
more boys in the class.
Hee! Hee!
We’ve won!
We’ve won!
We always have to
do what the boys
want because they
are in a majority.
Ma’am should think of
another way to make
decisions, so that our
wishes are also heard.
Who is in a minority in the
above storyboard? In what way
is this minority being
dominated by the decision
taken by the majority?
Social and Political Life 8
2022-23
Shabnam is in a fix. She has a decision to make.
I have two chapters left to revise for Shabnam, why
tomorrow’s test. But it’s time for my favourite are you looking I want to
TV programme. I’m dying to watch it. But if I do so worried? watch this
that, I won’t have time to finish my revision. TV programme
but I have a
test tomorrow.
If you all
watch TV, I
will also
want to
watch. I have
an idea.
What if no
one watches
TV tonight?
Then I may
not be
tempted.
It’s a good thing I did not
watch TV. There are so many
questions from the last two
chapters.
Why was Shabnam happy that
she had not watched TV? What
would you have done in a
similar situation?
9 Chapter 1: The Indian Constitution
2022-23
Let us recap the reasons why the Constitution plays an important role in democratic societies by
recalling the constitutive rules that you have read about through these examples:
Example Constitutive Rules
The people of Nepal adopted a new It lays down ideals that define the kind of
Constitution after the success of the country that we want to live in.
people’s movement for democracy.
Suresh, the class monitor wrongly picks on
Anil, his classmate.
The girls do not get to play basketball
because the boys are a majority in class.
Shabnam decides to revise her chapters
instead of watching TV.
The Indian Constitution: Key Features
Social and Political Life 10
2022-23
11 Chapter 1: The Indian Constitution
2022-23
Social and Political Life 12
2022-23
The word ‘State’ is often used in this chapter. This does
NOT refer to state governments. Rather when we use
State, we are trying to distinguish it from ‘government’.
‘Government’ is responsible for administering and
enforcing laws. The government can change with
elections. The State on the other hand refers to a
political institution that represents a sovereign people
who occupy a definite territory. We can, thus, speak of
the Indian State, the Nepali State etc. The Indian State
has a democratic form of government. The government (or
the executive) is one part of the State. The State refers to
more than just the government and cannot be used Discuss the difference between
interchangeably with it. State and Government with
your teacher.
13 Chapter 1: The Indian Constitution
2022-23
The Fundamental Rights in
the Indian Constitution
include:
1. Right to Equality: All persons are
equal before the law. This means
that all persons shall be equally
protected by the laws of the country.
It also states that no citizen can be
discriminated against on the basis of
their religion, caste or sex. Every
person has access to all public places
including playgrounds, hotels, shops
etc. The State cannot discriminate
against anyone in matters of
employment. But there are
exceptions to this that you will read
about later in this book. The practice
of untouchability has also been
abolished.
2. Right to Freedom: This includes
the right to freedom of speech and
expression, the right to form
associations, the right to move freely
and reside in any part of the country,
and the right to practise any
profession, occupation or business.
3. Right against Exploitation: The
Constitution prohibits human
trafficking, forced labour, and
employment of children under 14
years of age.
4. Right to Freedom of Religion:
Religious freedom is provided to all
citizens. Every person has the right
to practise, profess and propagate
the religion of their choice.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights:
The Constitution states that all Which Fundamental Rights will the following situations
minorities, religious or linguistic, can violate:
set up their own educational - If a 13-year old child is working in a factory manufacturing
institutions in order to preserve and
carpets.
develop their own culture.
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies: - If a politician in one state decides to not allow labourers
This allows citizens to move the from other states to work in his state.
court if they believe that any of their - If a group of people are not given permission to open a
Fundamental Rights have been
Telugu-medium school in Kerala.
violated by the State.
- If the government decides not to promote an officer of the
armed forces for being a woman.
Social and Political Life 14
2022-23
The Constitution also mentions Fundamental Duties. Find out
with the help of your teacher what these include and why it is
important for citizens in a democracy to observe these.
15 Chapter 1: The Indian Constitution
2022-23
Chapter 2 Understanding Secularism
Imagine yourself as a Hindu or Muslim living in a part
of the United States of America where Christian
fundamentalism is very powerful. Suppose that despite
being a US citizen, no one is willing to rent their house
to you. How would this make you feel? Would it not
make you feel resentful? What if you decided to
complain against this discrimination and were told to
go back to India. Would this not make you feel angry?
Your anger could take two forms. First, you might react
by saying that Christians should get the same treatment
in places where Hindus and Muslims are in a majority.
This is a form of retaliation. Or, you might take the
view that there should be justice for all. You may fight,
stating that no one should be discriminated against
on grounds of their religious practices and beliefs. This
statement rests on the assumption that all forms of
domination related to religion should end. This is the
essence of secularism. In this chapter, you will read
more about what this means in the Indian context.
Social and Political Life 18
2022-23
Understanding Secularism
Re-read the introduction to
this chapter. Why do you
think retaliation is not the
proper response to this
problem? What would
happen if different groups
followed this path?
What is Secularism?
19 Chapter 2: Understanding Secularism
2022-23
Why is it Important to Separate Religion
from the State?
Discuss in class: Can there be
different views within the same
religion?
Social and Political Life 20
2022-23
What is Indian Secularism?
21 Chapter 2: Understanding Secularism
2022-23
In a government school in
Seemapur, students want to
celebrate a religious festival.
Sir, there is a big religious
festival next month. We’ve
never celebrated it in school.
Can we do it this year?
I’m afraid that isn’t possible,
Rekha. This is a government
school. We cannot give
importance to any one religion.
Private schools may do that.
Government schools don’t
celebrate any religious
festivals in the school premises.
Most religious festivals are public
holidays so that we can
celebrate these at home.
I never thought of it this
way. I guess we can always Anyway we were
celebrate it outside school. planning to celebrate it
in our locality.
In the above storyboard,
discuss the answer given
by the teacher.
Social and Political Life 22
2022-23
Government schools often have
students from different
religious backgrounds.
Re-read the three objectives of
a secular State and write two
sentences on why it is
important that government
schools do not promote any
one religion?
A group of friends who’ve recently bought scooters are
meeting to go for a ride together. For Sikhs, wearing
a pugri is a very
important part of
Hey, I hope you have a helmet. our religion. The
You know the law in Delhi requires government cannot
that you wear one. Why aren’t Hey Paramjit! Why force me to wear a
you wearing a helmet? won’t you be fined? helmet.
Do you want to be fined? Don’t worry, I will
not be fined.
23 Chapter 2: Understanding Secularism
2022-23
Social and Political Life 24
2022-23
Can you think of a recent
incident, from any part of
India, in which the secular
ideals of the Constitution
were violated and persons
were persecuted and killed
because of their religious
backgrounds?
In February 2004, France passed a law banning students from wearing any conspicuous
religious or political signs or symbols such as the Islamic headscarf, the Jewish skullcap, or
large Christian crosses. This law has encountered a lot of resistance from immigrants who are
mainly from the former French colonies of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. In the 1960s, France
had faced a shortage of workers and, therefore, had provided visas for these immigrants to come
and work in the country. The daughters of these immigrants often wear headscarves while
attending school. However, with the passing of this new law, they have been expelled from
their school for wearing headscarves.
25 Chapter 2: Understanding Secularism
2022-23
Exercises
1. List the different types of religious practice that you find in your neighbourhood. This could be
different forms of prayer, worship of different gods, sacred sites, different kinds of religious
music and singing etc. Does this indicate freedom of religious practice?
2. Will the government intervene if some religious group says that their religion allows them to
practise infanticide? Give reasons for your answer.
3. Complete the following table:
Objective Why is this important? Example of a violation of this
objective
One religious community
does not dominate another.
The State does not enforce
any particular religion nor
take away the religious
freedom of individuals.
That some members do not
dominate other members
of the same religious
community.
4. Look up the annual calendar of holidays of your school. How many of them pertain to different
religions? What does this indicate?
5. Find out some examples of different views within the same religion.
6. The Indian State both keeps away from religion as well as intervenes in religion. This idea can be
quite confusing. Discuss this once again in class using examples from the chapter as well as
those that you might have come up with.
Social and Political Life 26
2022-23
7. This poster alongside highlights the need for
‘Peace’. It says, “Peace is a never-ending
process....It cannot ignore our differences or
overlook our common interests.” Write in
your own words what you think the above
sentences are trying to convey? How does it
relate to the need for religious tolerance?
This chapter had three drawings on religious
tolerance made by students of your age.
Design your own poster on religious tolerance
for your peers.
GLOSSARY
Coercion: To force someone to do something. In the context of this chapter, it refers
to the force used by a legal authority like the State.
Freedom to interpret: The independence that all persons shall have to understand
things in their own way. In the context of this chapter, it refers to a person’s liberty
to develop their own understanding and meaning of the religion they practice.
Intervene: In the context of this chapter, it refers to the State’s efforts to influence
a particular matter in accordance with the principles of the Constitution.
27 Chapter 2: Understanding Secularism
2022-23
Chapter 3 Why Do We Need a Parliament?
We in India pride ourselves on being a democracy.
Here we will try and understand the relation between
the ideas of participation in decision-making and
the need for all democratic governments to have the
consent of their citizens.
It is these elements that together make us a
democracy and this is best expressed in the institution
of the Parliament. In this chapter, we will try to see
how the Parliament enables citizens of India to
participate in decision making and control the
government, thus making it the most important
symbol of Indian democracy and a key feature of
the Constitution.
Social and Political Life 30
2022-23
Why Do We Need a
Parliament?
Why should People Decide?
What do you think the artist
is trying to convey through
the image of Parliament on
the previous page?
31 Chapter 3: Why Do We Need a Parliament?
2022-23
Give one reason why you think People and their Representatives
there should be universal adult
franchise.
Do you think there would be
any difference if the class
monitor was selected by the
teacher or elected by the
students? Discuss.
Social and Political Life 32
2022-23
1. Use the terms ‘constituency’ and ‘represent’ to explain who an MLA is and how the
person gets elected?
2. Discuss with your teacher the difference between a State Legislative Assembly
(Vidhan Sabha) and the Parliament (Lok Sabha).
3. From the list below, identify the work of a State government and that of a Central
government.
(a) The decision of the Indian government to maintain peaceful relations
with China.
(b) The decision of the Madhya Pradesh government to discontinue Board
exams in Class VIII for all schools under this Board.
(c) Introduction of a new train connection between Ajmer and Mysore.
(d) Introduction of a new 1,000 rupee note.
4. Fill in the blanks with the following words.
universal adult franchise; MLAs; representatives; directly
Democratic governments in our times are usually referred to as representative
democracies. In representative democracies, people do not participate ……...............…
but, instead, choose their ….............……..through an election process. These …….......…..
meet and make decisions for the entire population. These days, a government
cannot call itself democratic unless it allows what is known as ............................................
This means that all adult citizens in the country are allowed to vote.
5. You have read that most elected members whether in the Panchayat, or the Vidhan
Sabha or the Parliament are elected for a fixed period of five years. Why do
we have a system where the representatives are elected for a fixed period and not
for life?
6. You have read that people participate in other ways and not just through elections
to express approval or disapproval of the actions of government. Can you describe
three such ways through a small skit?
33 Chapter 3: Why Do We Need a Parliament?
2022-23
The Role of the Parliament
Social and Political Life 34
2022-23
Results of the 17th Lok Sabha Elections, (May 2019)
Political Party No. of MPs
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 303
Use the table alongside to
Indian National Congress (INC) 52 answer the questions below:
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) 24
Who will form the
All India Trinamool Congress (AITC) 22 government? Why?
Yuvajana Sramika Rythu Congress Party (YSRCP) 22
Who will be present for
Shiv Sena (SS) 18
discussions in the Lok Sabha?
Janata Dal (United) (JD (U)) 16
Is this process similar to what
Biju Janata Dal (BJD) 12
you have read about in
Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) 10 Class VII?
Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) 9
Lok Jan Shakti Party (LJSP) 5
Samajwadi Party (SP) 5
Independents (Ind.) 4
Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) 4
Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI)(M)) 3
Indian Union Muslim League (IUML) 3
Jammu and Kashmir National Conference (J & KNC) 3
Telugu Desam Party (TDP) 3
All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM) 2
Apna Dal (Apna Dal) 2
Communist Party of India (CPI) 2 The photograph on page 28
Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) 2 shows results from the 3rd Lok
Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) 1 Sabha elections held in 1962.
AJSU Party (AJSU) 1 Use the photograph to answer
the following questions:
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) 1
All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF) 1 a. Which state has the highest
Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(s)) 1 number of MPs in the Lok
Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) 1 Sabha? Why do you think this
Kerala Congress (M)(KC(M)) 1
is so?
Mizo National Front (MNF) 1 b. Which state has the least
Naga Peoples Front (NPF) 1 number of MPs in the Lok
National People’s Party (NPP) 1 Sabha?
Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party (PDPP) 1 c. Which political party has
Rashtriya Loktantrik Party (RLP) 1 won the most seats in all
Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP) 1 states?
Sikkim Krantikari Morcha (SKM) 1 d. Which party do you think
Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi (VCK) 1 will form the government? Give
Grand Total 543 reasons why.
Source: http://loksabha.nic.in
35 Chapter 3: Why Do We Need a Parliament?
2022-23
Results of the 15th Lok Sabha Elections,
(May 2009)
Political Party No. of MPs
National Parties
Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) 21
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 116
Communist Party of India (CPI) 4
Communist Party of India (Marxist) 16
(CPM)
Indian National Congress (INC) 206
Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) 9
Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) 4
State Parties (Regional Parties)
All India Anna DMK (AIADMK) 9
All India Forward Bloc 2
All India Trinamool Congress 19
Biju Janata Dal (BJD) 14
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) 18
Jammu & Kashmir National Conference 3
Janata Dal (Secular) 3
Janata Dal (United) 20
Jharkhand Mukti Morcha 2
Muslim League Kerala State Committee 2
Revolutionary Socialist Party 2
Samajwadi Party (SP) 23
Shiromani Akali Dal 4
Shiv Sena 11
Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) 2
Telugu Desam (TDP) 6
Other Regional Parties 6
Registered Unrecognised Parties 12
Independents 9
Grand Total 543
Source: www.eci.nic.in
Social and Political Life 36
2022-23
37 Chapter 3: Why Do We Need a Parliament?
2022-23
Lok Sabha
Unstarred Question No: 48 Answered On: 15.12.2017
Converge of Schemes for Children
Manoj Rajoria
Will the Minister of Women and Child Development be pleased to state:-
(a) whether the Government proposes to converge various schemes and policies for children in
the country;
(b) if so, the details thereof; and;
(c) if not, the reasons therefor?
Answer
Minister of State in the Ministry of Women and Child Development (Dr. Virendra Kumar)
(a) to (c) The Ministry has developed the National Plan of Action for Children 2016 which
largely draws upon the existing programmes and schemes of various Ministries/Departments.
It provides a framework for convergence and co-ordination between Ministries/Departments
and State/UTs Governments and encourages collective action from all stakeholders to address
multi-dimensional vulnerabilities experienced by children. The National Plan of Action for
Children 2016 categorizes children's rights under four key priority areas; (i) Survival, Health
and Nutrition, (ii) Education and Development, (iii) Protection and (iv) Participation. It identifies
key programmes, schemes and policies as well as stakeholders for the implementation of
different strategies.
Source: http://loksabha.nic.in
In the above question, what
information is being sought
from the Minister of Women
and Child Development?
If you were a Member of
Parliament (MP), list two
questions that you would like
to ask.
Social and Political Life 38
2022-23
Who are the People in Parliament?
Lok Sabha Election Years Voter Turnout (%)
1st 1951-52 61.16
4th 1967 61.33
5th 1971 55.29
6th 1977 60.49
8th 1984-85 64.01
10th 1991-92 55.88
14th 2004 57.98
15th 2009 58.19 Looking at this table would
you say that people’s
16th 2014 66.40 participation during the past
17th 2019 67.11 65 years has:
Source: http://eci.nic.in decreased/increased/been
stable after initial increase?
39 Chapter 3: Why Do We Need a Parliament?
2022-23
Why do you think there are so
few women in Parliament?
Discuss.
GLOSSARY
Approval: To give one’s consent to and be favourable towards something. In the
context of this chapter, it refers both to the formal consent (through elected
representatives) that Parliament has as well as the fact that it needs to continue
to enjoy the people’s trust.
Coalition: A temporary alliance of groups or parties. In this chapter, it refers to the
alliance formed by political parties after elections when no party has been able to
get adequate seats to form a clear majority.
Unresolved: Situations in which there are no easy solutions to problems.
Social and Political Life 40
2022-23
Chapter 4 Understanding Laws
You may be familiar with some laws such as those
that specify the age of marriage, the age at which a
person can vote, and perhaps even the laws dealing
with buying and selling of property. We now know
that the Parliament is in charge of making laws. Do
these laws apply to everyone? How do new laws come
into being? Could there be laws that are unpopular
or controversial? What should we as citizens do under
such circumstances?
Social and Political Life 42
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Understanding Laws
Do Laws Apply to All?
Read the following situation and answer the questions
that follow.
A government official helps his son go into hiding because
his son has been given a ten-year jail sentence by a District
Court for a crime that he has committed.
Do you think that the government official’s actions were
right? Should his son be exempt from the law just because
his father is economically and politically powerful?
43 Chapter 4: Understanding Laws
2022-23
Social and Political Life 44
2022-23
The word ‘arbitrary’ has been
used earlier in this book and
you’ve read what the word
means in the Glossary of
Chapter 1. The word ‘sedition’
has been included in the
Glossary of this chapter. Read
the Glossary descriptions of
both words and then answer
the following questions:
State one reason why you think
the Sedition Act of 1870 was
arbitrary? In what ways does
the Sedition Act of 1870
contradict the rule of law?
How Do New Laws Come About?
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
www.in.undp.org
Domestic violence generally refers to the injury or harm or threat of injury or harm
caused by an adult male, usually the husband, against his wife. Injury may be caused by
physically beating up the woman or by emotionally abusing her. Abuse of the woman can
also include verbal, sexual and economic abuse. The Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act 2005 extends the understanding of the term ‘domestic’ to include all
women who ‘live or have lived together in a shared household’ with the male member
who is perpetrating the violence.
45 Chapter 4: Understanding Laws
2022-23
October 2006
Not just women. Violence-free homes
will benefit everyone. Kusum, it’s taken
Shazia, did you read today’s such a long time to get this law passed.
newspapers? Isn’t it a great In fact, it began with establishing the
day for women? need for a new law.
Kusum and Shazia work for a
women's organisation. They
remember the journey of how
the Protection of Women
from Domestic Violence Act
got passed.
April 1991: A typical day at their office...
I do not want to go to Unfortunately
I need advice. My husband beats me the police. I just want the existing law
up. I haven’t told anyone so far. I feel to stop the violence. is a criminal one
I am being
so ashamed. I can’t go on like this I just don’t want to and does not offer
ill-treated by my
anymore. But I have nowhere to go. these options.
son and daughter- be thrown out of the
in-law. They house I am living in.
verbally abuse me. I
have no access to
my bank accounts.
They may even
throw me out.
Throughout the 1990s, the need for a new law was In 1999, Lawyers Collective, a group of lawyers, law students and
raised in different forums. activists, after nation-wide consultations took the lead in
drafting the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Bill.
This draft bill was widely circulated.
We’ve heard testimonies of several women.
We’ve seen that women want protection
against being beaten, the right to continue The definition of The law should cover any women
living in a shared household and often domestic violence living within a shared domestic space.
temporary relief. We need a new civil law to should include They should be protected from being
address this issue. physical, economic, evicted from the shared household.
sexual and verbal and
emotional abuse.
What about some
monetary relief?
Social and Political Life 46
2022-23
Meetings were held with different organisations.
The women’s movement want a
new law on Domestic Violence. Finally, the Bill was introduced in Parliament in 2002 but …
The Government should introduce
it in parliament soon.
Let’s have a press
We must oppose conference … we
This Bill has the Bill in its could also start an
none of what present form. on-line petition.
we have been
suggesting.
Several women’s organisations, National Commission for Women
made submissions to the Parliamentary Standing Committee.
In December 2002, the Standing
Esteemed members of the Parliamentary Committee submitted its
Standing Committee... the present Bill must be
changed. We do not agree with the definition recommendations to the Rajya Sabha and
of domestic violence being proposed … these were also tabled in the Lok Sabha.
The Committee’s report accepted most of
The law needs to provide the demands of the women’s groups.
for temporary custody of Finally a new bill, was reintroduced in
children …
Parliament in 2005. After being passed in
both houses of Parliament, it was sent to
the President for his assent. The
Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act came into effect in 2006.
At a press conference in This law is a first in recognising a
This is a civil law aimed at
woman’s right to a violence-free
October 2006 providing relief to millions of
home and provides a comprehensive
definition of domestic violence. women, including wives,
mothers, daughters and
sisters affected by violence
What is this new law?
in their homes.
The press conference continues...
47 Chapter 4: Understanding Laws
2022-23
This law is a very significant step because it
recognises ... The right of women to live in a
shared household... women can get a Yes, now the government
protection order against any further has to ensure that this
violence... Women can get monetary relief to Now begins another law is implemented and
meet their expenses including medical costs. long journey … enforced.
Why is this an
important law?
What do you understand by ‘domestic violence’? List the
two rights that the new law helped achieve for women who
are survivors of violence.
Can you list one process that was used to make more people
aware of the need for this law?
From the above storyboard, can you list two different ways in
which people lobbied Parliament?
Often women who face
violence or are abused are
seen as victims. But women
struggle in several different
ways to survive these
situations. Therefore, it is
more accurate to refer to
In the following poster, what
them as survivors rather
do you understand by the
than as victims.
phrase ‘Equal Relationships are
Violence Free’?
Social and Political Life 48
2022-23
Unpopular and Controversial Laws As you read in the earlier section
on the rule of law, Indian
nationalists protested and
criticised arbitrary and
repressive laws being enforced
by the British. History provides
us with several examples of
people and communities who
have struggled to end unjust
laws. In your Class VII book, you
read of how Rosa Parks, an
African-American woman,
refused to give up her seat on a
bus to a white man on 1
December 1955. She was
protesting the law on
segregation that divided up all
public spaces, including the
streets, between the whites and
the African-Americans. Her
refusal was a key event that
marked the start of the Civil
Rights Movement, which led to
the Civil Rights Act in 1964,
which prohibited discrimination
on the basis of race, religion or
national origin in the U.S.A.
49 Chapter 4: Understanding Laws
2022-23
Read the newspapers/watch
news on TV for a week and
find out if there are any
unpopular laws that people
in India or around the world
are currently protesting.
List the three forms of protest
that you see in the above
photos.
Social and Political Life 50
2022-23
Chapter 5 Judiciary
A glance at the newspaper provides you a glimpse of
the range of work done by the courts in this country.
But can you think of why we need these courts? As
you have read in Unit 2, in India we have the rule of
law. What this means is that laws apply equally to
all persons and that a certain set of fixed procedures
need to be followed when a law is violated. To enforce
this rule of law, we have a judicial system that
consists of the mechanism of courts that a citizen
can approach when a law is violated. As an organ of
government, the judiciary plays a crucial role in the
functioning of India’s democracy. It can play this
role only because it is independent. What does an
‘independent judiciary’ mean? Is there any connection
between the court in your area and the Supreme
Court in New Delhi? In this chapter, you will find
answers to these questions.
Social and Political Life 54
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Judiciary
What is the Role of the Judiciary?
55 Chapter 5: Judiciary
2022-23
With the help of your teacher, fill in the blank spaces in the table below.
Type of Dispute Example
Dispute between centre and the state
Dispute between two states
Dispute between two citizens
Laws that are in violation of the Constitution
What is an Independent Judiciary?
Do you think that any ordinary
citizen stands a chance against
a politician in this kind of
judicial system? Why not?
Social and Political Life 56
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List two reasons why you
believe an independent
judiciary is essential to
democracy.
What is the Structure of Courts in India?
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
www.in.undp.org
The structure of the courts from the lower to the highest level is such that it
resembles a pyramid. Having read the description above, can you fill out which
type of courts would exist at what level in the following diagram?
57 Chapter 5: Judiciary
2022-23
Social and Political Life 58
2022-23
Write two sentences of what
you understand about the
appellate system from the
given case.
59 Chapter 5: Judiciary
2022-23
What are the Different Branches of the
Legal System?
No. Criminal Law Civil Law
1. Deals with conduct or acts that the Deals with any harm or injury to rights
law defines as offences. For example, of individuals. For example, disputes
theft, harassing a woman to bring more relating to sale of land, purchase of
dowry, murder. goods, rent matters, divorce cases.
2. It usually begins with the lodging of an A petition has to be filed before the
First Information Report (FIR) with the relevant court by the affected party only.
police who investigate the crime after In a rent matter, either the landlord or
which a case is filed in the court. tenant can file a case.
3. If found guilty, the accused can be sent The court gives the specific relief asked
to jail and also fined. for. For instance, in a case between a
landlord and a tenant, the court can
order the flat to be vacated and pending
rent to be paid.
Fill in the table given below based on what you have understood about criminal and civil law.
Description of Violation Branch of Law Procedure to be
Followed
A group of girls are persistently harassed by a
group of boys while walking to school.
A tenant who is being forced to move out
files a case in court against the landlord.
Social and Political Life 60
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Does Everyone Have Access to the Courts?
61 Chapter 5: Judiciary
2022-23
The judgment of the Olga Tellis vs Bombay Municipal Corporation established the Right
to Livelihood as part of the Right to Life. The following excerpts from the judgment point
to the ways in which the judges linked the issue of the Right to Life to that of livelihood:
The sweep of the Right to Life, conferred by Article 21 is wide and far reaching. ‘Life’
means something more than mere animal existence. It does not mean merely that life
cannot be extinguished or taken away as, for example, by the imposition and execution of
the death sentence, except according to procedure established by law. That is but one
aspect of the Right to Life. An equally important facet of that right is the right to
livelihood because no person can live without the means of living, that is, the means
of livelihood.
That the eviction of a person from a pavement or slum will inevitably lead to the
deprivation of his means of livelihood, is a proposition which does not have to be
established in each individual case …. In the present case that facts constituting
empirical evidence justify the conclusion that the petitioners live in slums and on
pavements because they have small jobs to nurse in the city and for them there is
nowhere else to live. They choose a pavement or a slum in the vicinity of their place of
work and to loose the pavement or the slum is to loose the job. The conclusion therefore
is that the eviction of the petitioners will lead to deprivation of their livelihood and
consequently to the deprivation of life.
Olga Tellis vs Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985) 3 SCC 545
Find out about the Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014.
Social and Political Life 62
2022-23
Number of Judges in India
No.* Name of the Court Sanctioned Working Vacancies
strength strength
A Supreme Court 34 34 0
B High Courts 1,079 655 424
C District and 22,644 17,509 5,135
Subordinate Courts
Discuss the impact of the shortage of
judges on the delivery of justice to the
litigants.
63 Chapter 5: Judiciary
2022-23
Exercises
1. You read that one of the main functions of the judiciary is ‘upholding the law and Enforcing
Fundamental Rights’. Why do you think an independent judiciary is necessary to carry out this
important function?
2. Re-read the list of Fundamental Rights provided in Chapter 1. How do you think the Right to
Constitutional Remedies connects to the idea of judicial review?
3. In the following illustration, fill in each tier with the judgments given by the various courts in the
Sudha Goel case. Check your responses with others in class.
Supreme Court
High Court
Lower Court
4. Keeping the Sudha Goel case in mind, tick the sentences that are true and correct the ones that
are false.
(a) The accused took the case to the High Court because they were unhappy with the decision of
the Trial Court.
(b) They went to the High Court after the Supreme Court had given its decision.
(c) If they do not like the Supreme Court verdict, the accused can go back again to the Trial
Court.
5. Why do you think the introduction of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the 1980s is a significant
step in ensuring access to justice for all?
6. Re-read excerpts from the judgment on the Olga Tellis vs Bombay Municipal Corporation case.
Now write in your own words what the judges meant when they said that the Right to Livelihood
was part of the Right to Life.
7. Write a story around the theme, ‘Justice delayed is justice denied’.
8. Make sentences with each of the glossary words given on the next page.
Social and Political Life 64
2022-23
9. The following is a poster made by the Right to Food campaign.
Read this poster and list the duties of
the government to uphold the Right to
Food.
How does the phrase “Hungry
stomachs, overflowing godowns! We
will not accept it!!” used in the poster
relate to the photo essay on the Right
to Food on page 61?
GLOSSARY Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
www.in.undp.org
Acquit: This refers to the court declaring that a person is not guilty of the crime which
he/she was tried for by the court.
To Appeal: In the context of this chapter this refers to a petition filed before a higher
court to hear a case that has already been decided by a lower court.
Compensation: In the context of this chapter this refers to money given to make
amends for an injury or a loss.
Eviction: In the context of this chapter this refers to the removal of persons from land/
homes that they are currently living in.
Violation: In the context of this chapter it refers both to the act of breaking a law as
well as to the breach or infringement of Fundamental Rights.
65 Chapter 5: Judiciary
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Law and Social
Chapter 10 Justice
Do you recall the ‘Story of a shirt’ from your Class VII
book? We saw there that a chain of markets links the
producer of cotton to the buyer of the shirt in the
supermarket. Buying and selling was taking place at
every step in the chain.
Many of the people directly or indirectly involved in
the production of the shirt - the small farmer producing
cotton, the weavers of Erode or the workers in the
garment - exporting factory - faced exploitation or an
unfair situation in the market. Markets everywhere
tend to be exploitative of people – whether as workers,
consumers or producers.
To protect people from such exploitation, the
government makes certain laws. These laws try to
ensure that the unfair practices are kept at a minimum
in the markets.
Social and Political Life 120
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Law and Social Justice
Why do we need a law on
minimum wages?
Find out:
a) What is the minimum
wage for a construction
worker in your state?
b) Do you think the minimum
wage for a construction
worker is adequate, low or
high?
c) Who sets the minimum
wages?
121 Chapter 10: Law and Social Justice
2022-23
Law Why is it necessary? Whose interests does the law protect?
Minimum Wages Act Many workers are denied fair This law is meant to protect the
specifies that wages wages by their employers. interests of all workers; particularly,
should not be below a Because they badly need work, farm labourers, construction workers,
specified minimum. workers have no bargaining factory workers, domestic workers, etc.
power and are paid low wages.
Law specifying that
there be adequate
safety measures in
workplaces. For example,
alarm system, emergency
exits, properly -
functioning machinery.
Law requiring that the Consumers might be put to
quality of goods meet risk by the poor quality of
certain prescribed products such as electrical
standards. For example, appliances, food, medicines.
electrical appliances
have to meet safety
standards.
Law requiring that the The interests of the poor who will
prices of essential otherwise be unable to afford these
goods are not high - goods.
For example, sugar,
kerosene, foodgrains.
Law requiring that
factories do not pollute
air or water.
Laws against child
labour in workplaces.
Law to form workers By organising themselves into
unions/associations unions, workers can use their
combined power to demand fair
wages and better working
conditions.
Social and Political Life 122
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123 Chapter 10: Law and Social Justice
2022-23
Bhopal Gas TTragedy
ragedy
The world’s worst industrial tragedy took place in Bhopal 24 years ago. Union
Carbide (UC) an American company had a factory in the city in which it produced
pesticides. At midnight on 2 December 1984 methyl-isocyanite (MIC) -
a highly poisonous gas - started leaking from this UC plant....
Remembers Aziza Sultan, a survivor: “At
about 12.30 am I woke to the sound of my
baby coughing badly. In the half-light I saw
that the room was filled with a white cloud. I
heard people shouting ‘run, run’. Then I
started coughing, with each breath seeming
as if I was breathing in fire. My eyes were
burning.” The next morning
Within three days, more than
8,000 people were dead.
Hundreds of thousands were
maimed.
Mass cremations
Most of those exposed to the poison gas came from poor, working-class
families, of which nearly 50,000 people are today too sick to work. Among
those who survived, many developed severe respiratory disorders, eye
problems and other disorders. Children developed peculiar abnormalities,
like the girl in the photo. A child severely affected by the gas
2022-23
The disaster was not an accident. UC had
deliberately ignored the essential safety
measures in order to cut costs. Much
before the Bhopal disaster, there had
been incidents of gas leak killing a worker
and injuring several.
Members of UC Employees Union protesting
Despite the overwhelming evidence pointing to
UC as responsible for the disaster, it refused to
accept responsibility.
In the ensuing legal battle, the government
represented the victims in a civil case against UC.
It filed a $3 billion compensation case in 1985,
but accepted a lowly $470 million in 1989.
Survivors appealed against the settlement but
the Supreme Court ruled that the settlement
amount would stand.
Gas victims with the Gas Relief Minister
UC stopped its operations, but left behind tons of
toxic chemicals. These have seeped into the
ground, contaminating water. Dow Chemical, the
company who now owns the plant, refuses to take
responsibility for clean up.
Bags of chemicals lie strewn around the UC plant
24 years later, people are still fighting for justice: for safe
drinking water, for health-care facilities and jobs for the
people poisoned by UC. They also demand that Anderson,
the UC chairman who faces criminal charges, be prosecuted.
The struggle for justice goes on…
2022-23
What is a Worker’s Worth?
Social and Political Life 126
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Enforcement of Safety Laws
Why do you think
enforcement of safety laws is
important in any factory?
Can you point to a few other
situations where laws (or
rules) exist but people do
not follow them because of
poor enforcement? (For
example, over-speeding by
motorists, not wearing
helmet/seat belt and use of
mobile phone while driving).
What are the problems in
enforcement? Can you
suggest some ways in which
enforcement can be
improved?
127 Chapter 10: Law and Social Justice
2022-23
New Laws to Protect the Environment
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
www.in.undp.org
A ‘clean environment is a public
facility.’ Can you explain this
statement?
Why do we need new laws?
Why are companies and
contractors able to violate
environmental laws?
Social and Political Life 128
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Environment as a Public Facility
In recent years, while the courts have come out with
strong orders on environmental issues, these have
sometimes affected people’s livelihoods adversely.
For instance, the courts directed industries in residential
areas in Delhi to close down or shift out of the city.
Several of these industries were polluting the
neighbourhood and discharge from these industries was
polluting the river Yamuna, because they had been set
up without following the rules.
But, while the court’s action solved one problem, it
created another. Because of the closure, many workers
lost their jobs. Others were forced to go to far-away
places where these factories had relocated. And the
same problem now began to come up in these areas –
for now these places became polluted. And the issue of
the safety conditions of workers remained unaddressed.
Recent research on environmental issues in India has
highlighted the fact that the growing concern for the
environment among the middle classes is often at the
expense of the poor. So, for example, slums need to be
cleaned as part of a city’s beautification drive, or as in
the case above, a polluting factory is moved to the
outskirts of the city. And while this awareness
of the need for a clean environment is increasing, there
is little concern for the safety of the
workers themselves.
The challenge is to look for solutions where everyone
can benefit from a clean environment. One way this can
be done is to gradually move to cleaner technologies and
processes in factories. The government has to encourage
and support factories to do this. It will need to fine
those who pollute. This will ensure that the workers
livelihoods are protected and both workers and
communities living around the factories enjoy a safe
environment.
Do you think everyone got justice in the case cited above?
Can you think of other ways in which the environment can be
protected? Discuss in class.
129 Chapter 10: Law and Social Justice
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Conclusion
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
www.in.undp.org
Social and Political Life 130
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The Constitution as a Living Ideal
The Right to Life is a Fundamental Right that the Constitution guarantees to all the
citizens of this country. As you have read in this book, over the years this right, or Article
21, has been used by ordinary citizens to include issues to make this Right more
meaningful and substantial. So for example, you have read of how the case of the
injured farmer Hakim Sheikh established the right to health as part of the Right to Life.
Similarly, you read of how the case of the slum-dwellers being evicted from Mumbai
established the right to livelihood as part of the Right to Life. In this chapter, you have
read about how the court ruled in favour of a person’s Right to the “enjoyment of
pollution free water and air for full enjoyment of life” as part of the Right to Life. In
addition to these cases, the courts have also ruled to include the right to education and
the right to shelter within this expanded understanding of Article 21.
The above expanded understanding of the Right to Life was achieved through the efforts
of ordinary citizens to get justice from the courts when they believed that their
Fundamental Rights were being violated. As you read in several instances in this book,
these Fundamental Rights have also served time and again as the basis for the making
of new laws and establishing certain policies to protect all citizens. All of this is possible
because our Constitution contains certain constitutive rules that work towards protecting
the dignity and self-respect of all citizens of India and guard against all forms of possible
violations. What these should include is spelt out in the various provisions on
Fundamental Rights and the rule of law.
But as the above cases highlight, there is also an intrinsic flexibility to our Constitution
that allows for a continually expanding list of issues to be included within the idea of
dignity and justice that the Constitution guarantees. This flexibility allows for new
interpretations and, therefore, the Constitution can be considered to be a living document.
Thus, the right to health, the right to shelter etc, are issues that were not present in
written form in the Constitution that members of the Constituent Assembly had
presented in 1949. But they were present in spirit, i.e. the democratic ideals that the
Constitution established allowed for persons to use the political process to continually
ensure that these ideals became a reality in the lives of ordinary citizens.
As the chapters in this book discuss, much has been done in this process of making
Constitutional ideals into a reality. But as these chapters also point out, a lot still
remains to be done. Several struggles by people in different parts of the country serve
as a continual reminder that serious issues of equality, dignity and self-respect remain
to be realised in the lives of the majority. These struggles, as you read in your Class VII
book, are often not covered by the media. But this does not in any way diminish the
attention that they deserve.
The various chapters in this book have tried to make clear to you the democratic ideals
that the Constitution contains and the ways in which it affects people’s daily lives. We
have done this with the intent that this might provide you the tools with which you can
critically begin to understand and examine the world around you, and participate in it
as the Constitution prescribes.
2022-23
5 When People Rebel
1857 and After
Fig. 1 – Sepoys and peasants
gather forces for the revolt that
spread across the plains of north
India in 1857
Policies and the People
In the previous chapters you looked at the policies of
the East India Company and the effect they had on
different people. Kings, queens, peasants, landlords,
tribals, soldiers were all affected in different ways. You
have also seen how people resist policies and actions
that harm their interests or go against their sentiments.
Nawabs lose their power
Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas
had seen their power erode. They had gradually lost
their authority and honour. Residents had been
stationed in many courts, the freedom of the rulers
reduced, their armed forces disbanded, and their
revenues and territories taken away by stages.
Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the
Company to protect their interests. For example, Rani
Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the Company to recognise
her adopted son as the heir to the kingdom after the
death of her husband. Nana Saheb, the adopted son of
51
2022-23
Peshwa Baji Rao II, pleaded that he be given his father’s
pension when the latter died. However, the Company,
confident of its superiority and military powers, turned
down these pleas.
Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed.
In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh,
and in 1856 it was taken over. Governor -General
Dalhousie declared that the territory was being
misgoverned and British rule was needed to ensure
proper administration.
The Company even began to plan how to bring the
Mughal dynasty to an end. The name of the Mughal
king was removed from the coins minted by the
Company. In 1849, Gover nor -General Dalhousie
announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar,
the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red
Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in. In
1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur
Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and after
his death none of his descendants would be recognised
as kings – they would just be called princes.
The peasants and the sepoys
In the countryside peasants and zamindars resented
the high taxes and the rigid methods of revenue
collection. Many failed to pay back their loans to the
moneylenders and gradually lost the lands they had
tilled for generations.
The Indian sepoys in the employ of the Company
also had reasons for discontent. They were unhappy
about their pay, allowances and conditions of service.
Some of the new rules, moreover, violated their religious
sensibilities and beliefs. Did you know that in those
days many people in the country believed that if they
crossed the sea they would lose their religion and caste?
So when in 1824 the sepoys were told to go to Burma by
the sea route to fight for the Company, they refused to
follow the order, though they agreed to go by the land
route. They were severely punished, and since the issue
did not die down, in 1856 the Company passed a new
Activity law which stated that every new person who took up
Imagine you are a sepoy
employment in the Company’s army had to agree to
in the Company army,
serve overseas if required.
advising your nephew
not to take employment Sepoys also reacted to what was happening in the
in the army. What reasons countryside. Many of them were peasants and had
would you give? families living in the villages. So the anger of the
peasants quickly spread among the sepoys.
52 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
Responses to reforms
The British believed that Indian society had to
be reformed. Laws were passed to stop the
practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage
of widows. English-language education was
actively promoted. After 1830, the Company
allowed Christian missionaries to function
freely in its domain and even own land and
property. In 1850, a new law was passed to
make conversion to Christianity easier. This
law allowed an Indian who had converted to
Christianity to inherit the property of his
ancestors. Many Indians began to feel that the
British were destroying their religion, their
social customs and their traditional way of life.
There were of course other Indians who
wanted to change existing social practices. You
will read about these reformers and reform
movements in Chapter 7.
Through the Eyes of the People
Fig. 2 – Sepoys exchange news
To get a glimpse of what people were thinking and rumours in the bazaars of
those days about British rule, study Sources 1 and 2. north India
Source 1
The list of eighty-four rules
Given here are excerpts from the book Majha Pravaas, written by Vishnubhatt
Godse, a Brahman from a village in Maharashtra. He and his uncle had set out
to attend a yajna being organised in Mathura. Vishnubhatt writes that they met
some sepoys on the way who told them that they should not proceed on the
journey because a massive upheaval was going to break out in three days.
The sepoys said:
the English were determined to wipe out the religions of the Hindus and the
Muslims … they had made a list of eighty-four rules and announced these
in a gathering of all big kings and princes in Calcutta. They said that the
kings refused to accept these rules and warned the English of dire
consequences and massive upheaval if these are implemented … that the
kings all returned to their capitals in great anger … all the big people
began making plans. A date was fixed for the war of religion and the secret
plan had been circulated from the cantonment in Meerut by letters sent to
different cantonments.
Vishnubhatt Godse, Majha Pravaas, pp. 23-24.
WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 53
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Source 2
“There was soon excitement in every regiment”
Another account we have from those days are the memoirs of Subedar Sitaram
Pande. Sitaram Pande was recruited in 1812 as a sepoy in the Bengal Native
Army. He served the English for 48 years and retired in 1860. He helped the
British to suppress the rebellion though his own son was a rebel and was
killed by the British in front of his eyes. On retirement he was persuaded by
his Commanding Officer, Norgate, to write his memoirs. He completed the
writing in 1861 in Awadhi and Norgate translated it into English and had it
published under the title From Sepoy to Subedar.
Here is an excerpt from what Sitaram Pande wrote:
It is my humble opinion that this seizing of Oudh filled the minds of the
Sepoys with distrust and led them to plot against the Government. Agents
of the Nawab of Oudh and also of the King of Delhi were sent all over
India to discover the temper of the army. They worked upon the feelings
of sepoys, telling them how treacherously the foreigners had behaved
towards their king. They invented ten thousand lies and promises to
persuade the soldiers to mutiny and turn against their masters, the English,
with the object of restoring the Emperor of Delhi to the throne. They
maintained that this was wholly within the army’s powers if the soldiers
would only act together and do as they were advised.
Fig. 3 – Rebel sepoys at Meerut attack officers, enter their homes and set fire to buildings
Source 2 contd.
54 OUR PASTS – III
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Source 2 contd.
It chanced that about this time the Sarkar sent Activity
parties of men from each regiment to different 1 . What were the
garrisons for instructions in the use of the new rifle. important concerns
These men performed the new drill for some time in the minds of the
until a report got about by some means or the other, people according to
that the cartridges used for these new rifles were Sitaram and according
greased with the fat of cows and pigs. The men from to Vishnubhatt?
our regiment wrote to others in the regiment telling
2 . What role did they
them about this, and there was soon excitement in
think the rulers were
every regiment. Some men pointed out that in forty
playing? What role did
years’ service nothing had ever been done by the
the sepoys seem to
Sarkar to insult their religion, but as I have already
mentioned the sepoys’ minds had been inflamed by play?
the seizure of Oudh. Interested parties were quick
to point out that the great aim of the English was to
turn us all into Christians, and they had therefore
introduced the cartridge in order to bring this about,
since both Mahommedans and Hindus would be
defiled by using it.
The Colonel sahib was of the opinion that the
excitement, which even he could not fail to see, would
pass off, as it had done before, and he recommended
me to go to my home.
Sitaram Pande, From Sepoy to Subedar, pp. 162-63.
A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion
Though struggles between rulers and the ruled are not
unusual, sometimes such struggles become quite
widespread as a popular resistance so that the power of
the state breaks down. A very large number of people
begin to believe that they have a common enemy and Mutiny – When soldiers
rise up against the enemy at the same time. For such as a group disobey their
a situation to develop people have to organise, officers in the army
communicate, take initiative and display the confidence
to turn the situation around.
Such a situation developed in the northern parts of
India in 1857. After a hundred years of conquest and
administration, the English East India Company faced
a massive rebellion that started in May 1857 and
threatened the Company’s very presence in India.
Sepoys mutinied in several places beginning from
Meerut and a large number of people from different
sections of society rose up in rebellion. Some regard it
as the biggest armed resistance to colonialism in the
nineteenth century anywhere in the world.
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Fig. 4 – The battle in the
cavalry lines
From Meerut to Delhi
On the evening of 3 July On 8 April 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged
1857, over 3,000 rebels came to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore. Some
from Bareilly, crossed the days later, some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused
river Jamuna, entered Delhi,
to do the army drill using the new cartridges, which were
and attacked the British
cavalry posts. The battle suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs.
continued all through Eighty-five sepoys were dismissed from service and
the night. sentenced to ten years in jail for disobeying their officers.
This happened on 9 May 1857.
The response of the other Indian soldiers in Meerut was
quite extraordinary. On 10 May, the soldiers marched to the
jail in Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys. They
attacked and killed British officers. They captured guns and
ammunition and set fire to the buildings and properties of the
British and declared war on the firangis. The soldiers were
determined to bring an end to their rule in the country. But
who would rule the land instead? The soldiers had an answer
to this question – the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.
The sepoys of Meerut rode all night of 10 May to reach
Delhi in the early hours next morning. As news of their
Fig. 5 – Postal stamp issued in arrival spread, the regiments stationed in Delhi also rose
commemoration of Mangal Pandey
up in rebellion. Again british officers were killed, arms
and ammunition seized, buildings set on fire. Triumphant
soldiers gathered around the walls of the Red Fort where
Firangis – Foreigners the Badshah lived, demanding to meet him. The emperor
The term reflects an was not quite willing to challenge the mighty British power
attitude of contempt. but the soldiers persisted. They forced their way into the
palace and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader.
56 OUR PASTS – III
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The ageing emperor had to accept this demand. He wrote
letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come
forward and organise a confederacy of Indian states to
fight the British. This single step taken by Bahadur Shah
had great implications.
The Mughal dynasty had ruled over a very large part of
the country. Most smaller rulers and chieftains controlled
dif ferent territories on behalf of the Mughal ruler.
Threatened by the expansion of British rule, many of them
felt that if the Mughal emperor could rule again, they too
would be able to rule their own territories once more, under
Mughal authority.
The British had not expected this to happen. They
thought the disturbance caused by the issue of the
Fig. 6 – Bahadur Shah Zafar
cartridges would die down. But Bahadur Shah Zafar’s
decision to bless the rebellion changed the entire situation
dramatically. Often when people see an alternative
possibility they feel inspired and enthused. It gives them
the courage, hope and confidence to act.
The rebellion spreads
After the British were routed from Delhi, there was no
uprising for almost a week. It took that much time for
news to travel. Then, a spurt of mutinies began.
Regiment after regiment mutinied and took off to join
other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur and
Lucknow. After them, the people of the towns and villages
also rose up in rebellion and rallied around local leaders,
zamindars and chiefs who were prepared to establish their Fig. 7 – Rani Laxmibai
authority and fight the British. Nana Saheb, the adopted son
of the late Peshwa Baji Rao who lived near Kanpur, gathered
Fig. 8 – As the mutiny
armed forces and expelled the British garrison from the city. spread, British officers were
He proclaimed himself Peshwa. He declared that he was a killed in the cantonments
governor under Emperor
Bahadur Shah Zafar. In
Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the
son of the deposed Nawab
Wajid Ali Shah, was
proclaimed the new
Nawab. He too
acknowledged the suzerainty
of Bahadur Shah Zafar. His
mother Begum Hazrat
Mahal took an active part
in organising the uprising
against the British. In
Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai
joined the rebel sepoys and
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fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the general of
Activity Nana Saheb. In the Mandla region of Madhya Pradesh, Rani
1 . Why did the Mughal
Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh raised and led an army of four
emperor agree to
thousand against the British who had taken over the
support the rebels?
administration of her state.
2 . Write a paragraph on
the assessment he The British were greatly outnumbered by the rebel forces.
may have made before They were defeated in a number of battles. This convinced
accepting the offer of the people that the rule of the British had collapsed for good
and gave them the confidence to take the plunge and join
the sepoys.
the rebellion. A situation of widespread popular rebellion
developed in the region of Awadh in particular. On 6 August
1857, we find a telegram sent by Lieutenant Colonel Tytler
to his Commander-in-Chief expressing the fear felt by the
British: “Our men are cowed by the numbers opposed to
them and the endless fighting. Every village is held against
us, the zamindars have risen to oppose us.”
Many new leaders came up. For example, Ahmadullah
Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, prophesied that the rule of
the British would come to an end soon. He caught the
imagination of the people and raised a huge force of
supporters. He came to Lucknow to fight the British. In Delhi,
a large number of ghazis or religious warriors came together
Fig. 9 – A portrait of Nana Saheb
to wipe out the white people. Bakht Khan, a soldier from
Bareilly, took charge of a large force of fighters who came to
Delhi. He became a key military leader of the rebellion. In
Bihar, an old zamindar, Kunwar Singh, joined the rebel
sepoys and battled with the British for many months. Leaders
and fighters from across the land joined the fight.
The Company Fights Back
Unnerved by the scale of the upheaval, the Company decided
to repress the revolt with all its might. It brought
Fig. 10 –
A portrait of Vir Kunwar Singh
Fig. 11 – British forces attack
the rebels who had occupied the
Red Fort (on the right ) and
Salimgarh Fort in Delhi (on the
left )
58 OUR PASTS – III
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reinforcements from England, passed new laws so Fig. 12– The siege train reaches
Delhi
that the rebels could be convicted with ease, and then
The British forces initially found it
moved into the storm centres of the revolt. Delhi was
difficult to break through the
recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857. The heavy fortification in Delhi. On 3
last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in September 1857 reinforcements
court and sentenced to life imprisonment. He and his arrived – a 7- mile-long siege train
wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon comprising cartloads of canons
and ammunition pulled by
in October 1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon elephants.
jail in November 1862.
The recapture of Delhi, however, did not mean that the
rebellion died down after that. People continued to resist
and battle the British. The British had to fight for two
years to suppress the massive forces of popular rebellion.
Lucknow was taken in March 1858. Rani Lakshmibai
was defeated and killed in June 1858. A similar fate
awaited Rani Avantibai, who after initial victory in
Kheri, chose to embrace death when surrounded by the
British on all sides. Tantia Tope escaped to the jungles
of central India and continued to fight a guerrilla war
with the support of many tribal and peasant leaders. Fig. 13 – Postal stamp Essued in
commemoration of Tantia Tope
He was captured, tried and killed in April 1859.
Just as victories against the British had earlier
encouraged rebellion, the defeat of rebel forces
encouraged desertions. The British also tried their best
to win back the loyalty of the people. They announced
Activity
Make a list of places
rewards for loyal landholders would be allowed to where the uprising took
continue to enjoy traditional rights over their lands. place in May, June and
Those who had rebelled were told that if they submitted July 1857.
to the British, and if they had not killed any white people,
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Fig. 14 – British troops blow up they would remain safe and their rights and claims to
Kashmere Gate to enter Delhi land would not be denied. Nevertheless, hundreds of
sepoys, rebels, nawabs and rajas were tried and hanged.
Aftermath
The British had regained control
of the country by the end of 1859,
but they could not carry on ruling
the land with the same policies
any more.
Given below are the important
changes that were introduced by
the British.
1. The British Parliament passed
a new Act in 1858 and transferred
the powers of the East India Company
to the British Crown in order to
ensure a more responsible
management of Indian affairs. A
Fig. 15 – British forces capture member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of
the rebels near Kanpur State for India and made responsible for all matters related
Notice the way the artist shows to the governance of India. He was given a council to advise
the British soldiers valiantly him, called the India Council. The Governor-General of India
advancing on the rebel forces.
was given the title of Viceroy, that is, a personal
representative of the Crown. Through these measures the
British government accepted direct responsibility for
ruling India.
60 OUR PASTS – III
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2. All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their
territory would never be annexed in future. They were allowed to
pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons.
However, they were made to acknowledge the British Queen as
their Sovereign Paramount. Thus the Indian rulers were to hold
their kingdoms as subordinates of the British Crown.
3. It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the
army would be reduced and the number of European soldiers would
be increased. It was also decided that instead of recruiting soldiers
from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south India, more soldiers
would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans.
4. The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large
scale and they were treated with suspicion and hostility. The British
believed that they were responsible for the rebellion in a big way.
5. The British decided to respect the customary religious and
social practices of the people in India.
6. Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars
and give them security of rights over their lands.
Thus a new phase of history began after 1857.
• Main centres of the Revolt
• Other centres of the Revolt Fig. 16 – Some
important centres of
the Revolt in North
India
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The Khurda Uprising – A Case Study
Much before the event of 1857, there had taken place another event of a similar nature at
a place called Khurda in 1817. Here, it would be instructive for us to study that event and
reflect on how resentment against the colonial policies of the British had been building up
since the beginning of the 19th century in different parts of the country.
Khurda, a small kingdom built up in the late 16th century in the south-eastern part of
Odisha, was a populous and well-cultivated territory consisting of 105 garhs, 60 large and
1109 small villages at the beginning of the 19th century. Its king, Raja Birakishore Dev had
to earlier give up the possession of four parganas, the superintendence of the Jagannath
Temple and the administration of fourteen garjats (Princely States) to the Marathas under
compulsion. His son and successor, Mukunda Dev II was greatly disturbed with this loss of
fortune. Therefore, sensing an opportunity in the Anglo-Maratha conflict, he had entered
into negotiations with the British to get back his lost territories and the rights over the
Jagannath Temple. But after the occupation of Odisha in 1803, the British showed no
inclination to oblige him on either score. Consequently, in alliance with other feudatory
chiefs of Odisha and secret support of the Marathas, he tried to assert his rights by force.
This led to his deposition and annexation of his territories by the British. As a matter of
consolation, he was only given the rights of management of the Jagannath Temple with a
grant amounting to a mere one-tenth of the revenue of his former estate and his residence
was fixed at Puri. This unfair settlement commenced an era of oppressive foreign rule in
Odisha, which paved the way for a serious armed uprising in 1817.
Soon after taking over Khurda, the British followed a policy of resuming service tenures.
It bitterly affected the lives of the ex-militia of the state, the Paiks. The severity of the
measure was compounded on account of an unreasonable increase in the demand of revenue
and also the oppressive ways of its collection. Consequently, there was large scale desertion
of people from Khurda between 1805 and 1817. Yet, the British went for a series of short-
term settlements, each time increasing the demands, not recognising either the productive
capacity of the land or the paying capacity of the ryots. No leniency was shown even in case
of natural calamities, which Odisha was frequently prone to. Rather, lands of defaulters
were sold off to scheming revenue officials or speculators from Bengal.
The hereditary Military Commander of the deposed king, Jagabandhu Bidyadhar
Mahapatra Bhramarabar Rai or Buxi Jagabandhu as he was popularly known, was one
among the dispossessed land-holders. He had in effect become a beggar, and for nearly two
years survived on voluntary contributions from the people of Khurda before deciding to
fight for their grievances as well as his own. Over the years, what had added to these
grievances were (a) the introduction of sicca rupee (silver currency) in the region, (b) the
insistence on payment of revenue in the new currency, (c) an unprecedented rise in the
prices of food-stuff and salt, which had become far-fetched following the introduction of
salt monopoly because of which the traditional salt makers of Odisha were deprived of
making salt, and (d) the auction of local estates in Calcutta, which brought in absentee
landlords from Bengal to Odisha. Besides, the insensitive and corrupt police system also
made the situation worse for the armed uprising to take a sinister shape.
The uprising was set off on 29 March 1817 as the Paiks attacked the police station and
other government establishments at Banpur killing more than a hundred men and took
away a large amount of government money. Soon its ripples spread in different directions
with Khurda becoming its epicenter. The zamindars and ryots alike joined the Paiks with
enthusiasm. Those who did not, were taken to task. A ‘no-rent campaign’ was also started.
The British tried to dislodge the Paiks from their entrenched position but failed. On 14
62 OUR PASTS – III
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April 1817, Buxi Jagabandhu, leading five to ten thousand Paiks and men of the Kandh
tribe seized Puri and declared the hesitant king, Mukunda Dev II as their ruler. The
priests of the Jagannath Temple also extended the Paiks their full support.
Seeing the situation going out of hand, the British clamped Martial Law. The King was
quickly captured and sent to prison in Cuttack with his son. The Buxi with his close associate,
Krushna Chandra Bhramarabar Rai, tried to cut off all communications between Cuttack
and Khurda as the uprising spread to the southern and the north-western parts of Odisha.
Consequently, the British sent Major-General Martindell to clear off the area from the
clutches of the Paiks while at the same time announcing rewards for the arrest of Buxi
jagabandhu and his associates. In the ensuing operation hundreds of Paiks were killed,
many fled to deep jungles and some returned home under a scheme of amnesty. Thus by
May 1817 the uprising was mostly contained.
However, outside Khurda it was sustained by Buxi Jagabandhu with the help of supporters
like the Raja of Kujung and the unflinching loyalty of the Paiks until his surrender in May
1825. On their part, the British henceforth adopted a policy of ‘leniency, indulgence and
forbearance’ towards the people of Khurda. The price of salt was reduced and necessary
reforms were made in the police and the justice systems. Revenue officials found to be
corrupt were dismissed from service and former land-holders were restored to their lands.
The son of the king of Khurda, Ram Chandra Dev III was allowed to move to Puri and
take charge of the affairs of the Jagannath Temple with a grant of rupees twenty-four
thousand.
In sum, it was the first such popular anti-British armed uprising in Odisha, which had
far reaching effect on the future of British administration in that part of the country. To
merely call it a ‘Paik Rebellion’ will thus be an understatement.
ELSEWHERE
For a Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace
While the revolt was spreading in India
in 1857, a massive popular uprising
was raging in the southern parts of
China. It had started in 1850 and could
be suppressed only by the mid-1860s.
Thousands of labouring, poor people
were led by Hong Xiuquan to fight for
the establishment of the Heavenly
Kingdom of Great Peace. This was known
as the Taiping Rebellion.
Hong Xiuquan was a convert to
Fig. 16 – Taiping army meeting their leader
Christianity and was against the
traditional religions practised in China such as Confucianism and Buddhism. The rebels of
Taiping wanted to establish a kingdom where a form of Christianity was practised, where no
one held any private property, where there was no difference between social classes and between
men and women, where consumption of opium, tobacco, alcohol, and activities like gambling,
prostitution, slavery, were prohibited.
The British and French armed forces operating in China helped the emperor of the Qing
dynasty to put down the Taiping Rebellion.
WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 63
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Let’s imagine Let’s recall
Imagine you are a 1. What was the demand of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi
British officer in that was refused by the British?
Awadh during the
rebellion. What would 2. What did the British do to protect the interests of
you do to keep your those who converted to Christianity?
plans of fighting the
3. What objections did the sepoys have to the new
rebels a top secret.
cartridges that they were asked to use?
4. How did the last Mughal emperor live the last years
of his life?
Let’s discuss
5. What could be the reasons for the
confidence of the British rulers about
their position in India before May
1857?
6. What impact did Bahadur Shah
Zafar’s support to the rebellion have
on the people and the ruling families?
7. How did the British succeed in
securing the submission of the rebel
landowners of Awadh?
8. In what ways did the British change
their policies as a result of the
rebellion of 1857?
Fig. 17 – Ruins of the Residency
in Lucknow
In June 1857, the rebel forces
began the siege of the Residency.
A large number of British women, Let’s do
men and children had taken
shelter in the buildings there.
The rebels surrounded the 9. Find out stories and songs remembered by people
compound and bombarded the in your area or your family about San Sattavan ki
building with shells. Hit by a
shell, Henry Lawrence, the Chief
Ladaai. What memories do people cherish about
Commissioner of Awadh, died in the great uprising?
one of the rooms that you see in
the picture. Notice how buildings 10. Find out more about Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi.
carry the marks of past events. In what ways would she have been an unusual
woman for her times?
64 OUR PASTS – III
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9 The Making of the National
Movement: 1870s--1947
Fig. 1 – Police teargas
In the previous chapters we have looked at: demonstrators during the
¢ The British conquest of territories, and takeover Quit India movement
of kingdoms
¢ Introduction of new laws and administrative
institutions
¢ Changes in the lives of peasants and tribals
¢ Educational changes in the nineteenth century
¢ Debates regarding the condition of women
¢ Challenges to the caste system
¢ Social and religious reform
¢ The revolt of 1857 and its aftermath
¢ The decline of crafts and growth of industries
On the basis of what you have read about these
issues, do you think Indians were discontented with
British rule? If so, how were different groups and classes
dissatisfied?
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 109
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The Emergence of Nationalism
The above-mentioned developments led the people to
ask a crucial question: what is this country of India
and for whom is it meant? The answer that gradually
emerged was: India was the people of India – all the
people irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed, language,
or gender. And the country, its resources and systems,
were meant for all of them. With this answer came the
awareness that the British were exercising control over
the resources of India and the lives of its people, and
until this control was ended India could not be for Indians.
This consciousness began to be clearly stated by the
political associations formed after 1850, especially those
that came into being in the 1870s and 1880s. Most of
these were led by English-educated professionals such
as lawyers. The more important ones were the Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras
Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association,
and of course the Indian National Congress.
Note the name, “Poona Sarvajanik Sabha”. The literal
meaning of “sarvajanik” is “of or for all the people” (sarva =
all + janik = of the people). Though many of these
associations functioned in specific parts of the country,
their goals were stated as the goals of all the people
of India, not those of any one region, community or
Sovereign – The capacity class. They worked with the idea that the people should
to act independently be sovereign – a modern consciousness and a key
without outside feature of nationalism. In other words, they believed
interference that the Indian people should be empowered to take
decisions regarding their affairs.
The dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in
the 1870s and 1880s. The Arms Act was passed in 1878,
disallowing Indians from possessing arms. In the
same year the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted
in an effort to silence those who were critical of the
government. The Act allowed the government to
confiscate the assets of newspapers including their
printing presses if the newspapers published anything
that was found “objectionable”. In 1883, there was a
furore over the attempt by the government to introduce
the Ilbert Bill. The bill provided for the trial of British
or European persons by Indians, and sought equality
between British and Indian judges in the country. But
when white opposition forced the government to
withdraw the bill, Indians were enraged. The event
highlighted the racial attitudes of the British in India.
110 OUR PASTS – III
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The need for an all-India organisation of educated
Publicist – Someone
Indians had been felt since 1880, but the Ilbert Bill
who publicises an idea
controversy deepened this desire. The Indian National
by circulating
Congress was established when 72 delegates from all
information, writing
over the country met at Bombay in December 1885.
reports, speaking at
The early leadership – Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah
meetings
Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath
Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer,
among others – was largely from Bombay and Calcutta.
Naoroji, a businessman and publicist settled in London,
and for a time member of the British Parliament, guided
the younger nationalists. A retired British official,
A.O. Hume, also played a part in bringing Indians from
the various regions together.
Source 1
Who did the Congress
seek to speak for?
A newspaper, The Indian Mirror, wrote in January 1886:
The First National Congress at Bombay … is the nucleus
of a future Parliament for our country, and will lead to
the good of inconceivable magnitude for our countrymen.
Badruddin Tyabji addressed the Congress as President
in 1887 thus:
this Congress is composed of the representatives, not
of any one class or community of India, but of all the
different communities of India.
Fig. 2 – Dadabhai Naoroji
Naoroji’s book Poverty and
A nation in the making Un-British Rule in India offered
a scathing criticism of the
It has often been said that the Congress in the first economic impact of British rule.
twenty years was “moderate” in its objectives and
methods. During this period it demanded a greater voice
for Indians in the government and in administration.
It wanted the Legislative Councils to be made more
representative, given more power, and introduced in
provinces where none existed. It demanded that Indians
Activity
From the beginning the
be placed in high positions in the government. For this
Congress sought to
purpose it called for civil service examinations to be
speak for, and in the
held in India as well, not just in London.
name of, all the Indian
The demand for Indianisation of the administration people. Why did it
was part of a movement against racisim, since most choose to do so?
important jobs at the time were monopolised by white
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 111
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officials, and the British generally assumed that Indians
Repeal – To undo law;
could not be given positions of responsibility. Since
to officially end the
British officers were sending a major part of their large
validity of something
salaries home, Indianisation, it was hoped, would also
such as a law
reduce the drain of wealth to England. Other demands
included the separation of the judiciary from the
executive, the repeal of the Arms Act and the freedom
of speech and expression.
The early Congress also raised a number of economic
issues. It declared that British rule had led to poverty and
famines: increase in the land revenue had impoverished
peasants and zamindars, and exports of grains to Europe
had created food shortages. The Congress demanded
Source 2 reduction of revenue, cut in military expenditure, and
more funds for irrigation. It passed many resolutions
In pursuit of gold on the salt tax, treatment of Indian labourers abroad,
and the sufferings of forest dwellers – caused by an
This is what a Moderate interfering forest administration. All this shows that
leader, Dinshaw Wacha, despite being a body of the educated elite, the Congress
wrote to Naoroji in 1887: did not talk only on behalf of professional groups,
zamindars or industrialists.
Pherozeshah is
nowadays too busy The Moderate leaders wanted to develop public
with his personal awareness about the unjust nature of British rule. They
work … They are published newspapers, wrote articles, and showed
already rich enough how British rule was leading to the economic ruin
… Mr. Telang too of the country. They criticised British rule in their
remains busy. I speeches and sent representatives to different parts
wonder how if all of the country to mobilise public opinion. They felt
remain busy in the that the British had respect for the ideals of freedom
pursuit of gold can and justice, and so they would accept the just demands
the progress of the of Indians. What was necessary, therefore, was to
country be advanced? express these demands, and make the government aware
of the feelings of Indians.
“Freedom is our birthright”
Activity By the 1890s many Indians began to raise questions
What problems
regarding the early about the political style of the Congress. In Bengal,
Congress does this Maharashtra and Punjab, leaders such as Bepin
comment highlight? Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai
were beginning to explore more radical objectives
and methods. They criticised the Moderates for their
“politics of prayers”, and emphasised the importance of
self-reliance and constructive work. They argued that
people must rely on their own strength, not on the “good”
intentions of the government; people must fight for
swaraj. T ilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my
birthright and I shall have it!”
112 OUR PASTS – III
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In 1905 Viceroy Curzon partitioned
Bengal. At that time Bengal was the
biggest province of British India and
included Bihar and parts of Orissa. The
British argued for dividing Bengal for
reasons of administrative convenience. But
what did “administrative convenience”
mean? Whose “convenience” did it represent?
Clearly, it was closely tied to the interests
of British officials and businessmen. Even
so, instead of removing the non-Bengali
areas from the province, the government
separated East Bengal and merged it with
Assam. Perhaps the main British motives were
to curtail the influence of Bengali politicians
and to split the Bengali people.
The partition of Bengal infuriated people
all over India. All sections of the Congress
– the Moderates and the Radicals, as
they may be called – opposed it. Large
public meetings and demonstrations were
organised and novel methods of mass protest developed. Fig. 3 – Balgangadhar Tilak
The struggle that unfolded came to be known as the Notice the name of the newspaper
Swadeshi movement, strongest in Bengal but with that lies on the table. Kesari, a
Marathi newspaper edited by
echoes elsewhere too – in deltaic Andhra for instance, Tilak, became one of the
it was known as the Vandemataram Movement. strongest critics of British rule.
Fig. 4 – Thousands joined the demonstrations during the Swadeshi movement
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 113
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The Swadeshi movement sought to oppose British
rule and encourage the ideas of self-help, swadeshi
enterprise, national education, and use of Indian
languages. To fight for swaraj, the radicals advocated
mass mobilisation and boycott of British institutions
and goods. Some individuals also began to suggest
that “revolutionary violence” would be necessary to
overthrow British rule.
The opening decades of the twentieth century were
marked by other developments as well. A group of Muslim
landlords and nawabs formed the All India Muslim
League at Dacca in 1906. The League supported the
partition of Bengal. It desired separate electorates for
Muslims, a demand conceded by the government in
1909. Some seats in the councils were now reserved
for Muslims who would be elected by Muslim voters.
Fig. 5 – Lala Lajpat Rai This tempted politicians to gather a following by
A nationalist from Punjab, he distributing favours to their own religious groups.
was one of the leading members Meanwhile, the Congress split in 1907. The Moderates
of the Radical group which was
critical of the politics of petitions. were opposed to the use of boycott. They felt that it
He was also an active member of involved the use of force. After the split the Congress
the Arya Samaj. came to be dominated by the Moderates with Tilak’s
followers functioning from outside. The two groups
reunited in December 1915. Next year the Congress
and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow
Pact and decided to work together for representative
Revolutionary violence
government in the country.
The use of violence to
make a radical change
within society The Growth of Mass Nationalism
After 1919 the struggle against British rule gradually
Council – An appointed became a mass movement, involving peasants, tribals,
or elected body of people students and women in large numbers and occasionally
with an administrative, factory workers as well. Certain business groups too
advisory or representative began to actively support the Congress in the 1920s.
function Why was this so?
The First World War altered the economic and
political situation in India. It led to a huge rise in the
defence expenditure of the Government of India. The
government in turn increased taxes on individual
incomes and business profits. Increased military
expenditure and the demands for war supplies led to a
sharp rise in prices which created great difficulties
for the common people. On the other hand, business
Activity groups reaped fabulous profits from the war. As you
Find out which countries
have seen (Chapter 7), the war created a demand for
fought the First World
industrial goods (jute bags, cloth, rails) and caused a
War.
decline of imports from other countries into India. So
114 OUR PASTS – III
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Indian industries expanded during the war, and Indian
business groups began to demand greater opportunities
for development.
The war also lead the British to expand their army.
Villages were pressurised to supply soldiers for an alien
cause. A large number of soldiers were sent to serve
abroad. Many returned after the war with an
understanding of the ways in which imperialist powers
were exploiting the peoples of Asia and Africa and with
a desire to oppose colonial rule in India.
Furthermore, in 1917 there was a revolution in
Russia. News about peasants’ and workers’ struggles
and ideas of socialism circulated widely, inspiring
Indian nationalists.
The advent of Mahatma Gandhi
It is in these circumstances that Mahatma Gandhi
emerged as a mass leader. As you may know, Gandhiji,
aged 46, arrived in India in 1915 from South Africa.
Having led Indians in that country in non-violent
marches against racist restrictions, he was already Fig. 6 – Founders of the Natal
Congress, Durban, South Africa,
a respected leader, known internationally. His South 1895
African campaigns had brought him in contact with
In 1895, along with other
various types of Indians: Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Indians, Mahatma Gandhi
Christians; Gujaratis, Tamils and north Indians; established the Natal Congress
and upper-class merchants, lawyers and workers. to fight against racial
discrimination. Can you identify
Mahatma Gandhi spent his first year in India Gandhiji? He is standing at the
travelling throughout the country, understanding the centre in the row at the back,
people, their needs and the overall situation. His earliest wearing a coat and tie.
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 115
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interventions were in local movements in Champaran,
Kheda and Ahmedabad where he came into contact with
Rajendra Prasad and Vallabhbhai Patel. In Ahmedabad
he led a successful millworkers’ strike in 1918.
Let us now focus in some detail on the movements
organised between 1919 and 1922.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha
In 1919 Gandhiji gave a call for a satyagraha against
the Rowlatt Act that the British had just passed. The
Activity Act curbed fundamental rights such as the freedom of
Find out about the expression and strengthened police powers. Mahatma
Jallianwala Bagh Gandhi, Mohammad Ali Jinnah and others felt that the
massacre. What is government had no right to restrict people’s basic
Jallianwala Bagh? freedoms. They criticised the Act as “devilish” and
What atrocities were tyrannical. Gandhiji asked the Indian people to observe
committed there? How 6 April 1919 as a day of non-violent opposition to this Act,
were they committed? as a day of “humiliation and prayer” and hartal (strike).
Satyagraha Sabhas were set up to launch the movement.
Fig. 7 – The walled compound in
which General Dyer opened fire on
The Rowlatt Satyagraha turned out to be the first
a gathering of people all-India struggle against the British government
The people are pointing to the although it was largely restricted to cities. In April 1919
bullet marks on the wall. there were a number of demonstrations and hartals in
the country and the government used brutal measures
to suppress them. The Jallianwala Bagh atrocities,
Knighthood – An honour
inflicted by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day
granted by the British
(13 April), were a part of this repression. On learning
Crown for exceptional
about the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore expressed
personal achievement or
the pain and anger of the country by renouncing his
public service
knighthood.
116 OUR PASTS – III
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Source 3
During the Rowlatt Satyagraha the participants tried
to ensure that Hindus and Muslims were united in the The eternal law
fight against British rule. This was also the call of
Mahatma Gandhi who always saw India as a land of all of suffering
the people who lived in the country – Hindus, Muslims
and those of other religions. He was keen that Hindus What did Mahatma
and Muslims support each other in any just cause. Gandhi mean by ahimsa
(non-violence)? How
Khilafat agitation and the Non-Cooperation could ahimsa become
Movement the basis of struggle?
The Khilafat issue was one such cause. In 1920 the This is what Gandhiji
British imposed a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan said:
or Khalifa. People were furious about this as they had Non-violence comes
been about the Jallianwala massacre. Also, Indian to us through doing
Muslims were keen that the Khalifa be allowed to retain good continually
control over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile without the slightest
Ottoman Empire. The leaders of the Khilafat agitation, expectation of return.
Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, now wished to initiate … That is the
a full-fledged Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhiji indispensable lesson
supported their call and urged the Congress to campaign in non-violence … In
against “Punjab wrongs” (Jallianwala massacre), the South Africa … I
Khilafat wrong and demand swaraj. succeeded in learning
the eternal law of
The Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum suffering as the only
through 1921-22. Thousands of students left government- remedy for undoing
controlled schools and colleges. Many lawyers such wrong and injustice.
as Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and It means positively the
Asaf Ali gave up their practices. British titles were law of non-violence.
surrendered and legislatures boycotted. People lit public You have to be
bonfires of foreign cloth. The imports of foreign cloth prepared to suffer
fell drastically between 1920 and 1922. But all this cheerfully at the hands
was merely the tip of the iceberg. Large parts of the of all and sundry
country were on the brink of a formidable revolt. and you will wish ill
to no one, not even to
People’s initiatives those who may have
In many cases people resisted British rule non-violently. wronged you.
In others, different classes and groups, interpreting Mahatma Gandhi,
Gandhiji’s call in their own manner, protested in ways 12 March 1938
that were not in accordance with his ideas. In either
case, people linked their movements to local grievances.
Let us look at a few examples.
In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organised non-
violent campaigns against the high land revenue
demand of the British. In coastal Andhra and interior
Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed. In the Guntur Picket – People protesting
district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants outside a building or
staged a number of “forest satyagrahas”, sometimes shop to prevent others
sending their cattle into forests without paying grazing from entering
fee. They were protesting because the colonial state
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 117
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had restricted their use of forest resources in various
Mahants – Religious
ways. They believed that Gandhiji would get their taxes
functionaries of Sikh
reduced and have the forest regulations abolished. In
gurdwaras
many forest villages, peasants proclaimed swaraj and
believed that “Gandhi Raj” was about to be established.
Illegal eviction – Forcible
In Sind (now in Pakistan), Muslim traders and
and unlawful throwing
peasants were very enthusiastic about the Khilafat call.
out of tenants from the
In Bengal too, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance
land they rent
gave enormous communal unity and strength to the
national movement.
In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to
remove corrupt mahants – supported by the British –
from their gurdwaras. This movement got closely
identified with the Non-Cooperation Movement. In
Assam, tea garden labourers, shouting “Gandhi Maharaj
ki Jai”, demanded a big increase in their wages. They
left the British-owned plantations amidst declarations
that they were following Gandhiji’s wish. Interestingly,
in the Assamese Vaishnava songs of the period the
reference to Krishna was substituted by “Gandhi Raja”.
Fig. 8 – A popular representation
of Mahatma Gandhi
The people’s Mahatma
In popular images too Mahatma We can see from the above that sometimes people
Gandhi is often shown as a divine thought of Gandhiji as a kind of messiah, as someone
being occupying a place within who could help them overcome their misery and poverty.
the pantheon of Indian gods.
In this image he is driving
Gandhiji wished to build class unity, not class conflict,
Krishna’s chariot, guiding other yet peasants could imagine that he would help them
nationalist leaders in the battle in their fight against zamindars, and agricultural
against the British. labourers believed he would provide them land. At
times, ordinary people
credited Gandhiji with
their own achievements.
For instance, at the end
of a powerful movement,
peasants of Pratapgarh
in the United Provinces
(now Uttar Pradesh)
managed to stop illegal
eviction of tenants;
but they felt it was
Gandhiji who had won
this demand for them.
At other times, using
Gandhiji’s name, tribals
and peasants undertook
actions that did not
conform to Gandhian
ideals.
118 OUR PASTS – III
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Source 4
“It was he who got bedakhli
stopped in Pratapgarh”
The following is an extract from a CID report on the
kisan movement in Allahabad district, January 1921:
The currency which Mr. Gandhi’s name has
acquired even in the remotest villages is astonishing.
No one seems to know quite who or what he is,
Activity
but it is an accepted fact that what he says is so, Read Source 4.
and what he orders must be done. He is a Mahatma According to this report,
or sadhu, a Pundit, a Brahmin who lives at how did people view
Allahabad, even a deota … the real power of his Mahatma Gandhi? Why
name is to be traced back to the idea that it was he do you think they felt
who got bedakhli [illegal eviction] stopped in that he was opposed to
Pratapgarh … as a general rule, Gandhi is not zamindars but not to
thought of as being antagonistic to Government, the government? Why
but only to the zamindars … We are for Gandhiji do you think they were
and the Sarkar. in favour of Gandhiji?
The happenings of 1922 -1929
Mahatma Gandhi, as you know, was against violent
movements. He abruptly called off the Non-Cooperation
Movement when in February 1922 a crowd of peasants
set fire to a police station in Chauri Chaura. Twenty-
two policemen were killed on that day. The peasants
were provoked because the police had fired on their
peaceful demonstration.
Once the Non-Cooperation movement was over,
Gandhiji’s followers stressed that the Congress must
undertake constructive work in the rural areas. Other
leaders such as Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru
argued that the party should fight elections to the
councils and enter them in order to influence
government policies. Through sincere social work in
villages in the mid-1920s, the Gandhians were able to
extend their support base. This proved to be very useful
in launching the Civil Disobedience movement in 1930.
Two important developments of the mid-1920s were
the formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
(RSS), a Hindu organisation, and the Communist Party of Fig. 9 – Chitta Ranjan Das
India. These parties have held very different ideas about A major figure in the freedom
movement, Das was a lawyer
the kind of country India should be. Find out about their from East Bengal. He was
ideas with the help of your teacher. The revolutionary especially active in the Non-
nationalist Bhagat Singh too was active in this period. Cooperation Movement.
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 119
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Fig. 10 – Demonstrators oppose the Simon Commission
In 1927 the British government in England decided to send a commission headed by Lord Simon to
decide India’s political future. The Commission had no Indian representative. The decison created an
outrage in India. All political groups decided to boycott the Commission. When the Commission
arrived it was met with demonstrations with banners saying “Simon Go Back”.
The decade closed with the Congress resolving
to fight for P u rna Swaraj (complete independence)
in 1929 under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Consequently, “Independence Day” was observed on
26 January 1930 all over the country.
“It takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear.
Inquilab Zindabad !”
Revolutionary nationalists such as Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar
Azad, Sukhdev and others wanted to fight against the colonial rule
and the rich exploiting classes through a revolution of workers
and peasants. For this purpose they founded the Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928 at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi.
On 17 December, 1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru
assassinated Saunders, a police officer who was involved in the
lathi-charge that had caused the death of Lala Lajpat Rai.
On 8 April, 1929, Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw a bomb in
the Central Legislative Assembly. The aim, as their leaflet explained,
was not to kill but “to make the deaf hear”, and to remind the
Fig. 11 – Bhagat Singh foreign government of its callous exploitation.
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were executed on March
23, 1931. Bhagat Singh’s age at that time was only 23.
120 OUR PASTS – III
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The March to Dandi
Purna Swaraj would never come on its
own. It had to be fought for. In 1930,
Gandhiji declared that he would lead a
march to break the salt law. According
to this law, the state had a monopoly
on the manufacture and sale of salt.
Mahatma Gandhi along with other
nationalists reasoned that it was sinful
to tax salt since it is such an essential
item of our food. The Salt March related
the general desire of freedom to a specific
grievance shared by everybody, and thus
did not divide the rich and the poor.
Gandhiji and his followers marched
for over 240 miles from Sabarmati to
the coastal town of Dandi where they
broke the government law by gathering
natural salt found on the seashore,
and boiling sea water to produce salt.
Fig. 12 – Mahatma Gandhi breaking the
salt law by picking up a lump of natural salt,
Dandi, 6 April 1930
Women in the freedom struggle: Ambabai from Karnataka
Women from diverse backgrounds participated in the national movement. Young
and old, single and married, they came from rural and urban areas, from both
conservative and liberal homes. Their involvement was significant for the freedom
struggle, for the women’s movement, and for themselves personally.
Both British officials and Indian nationalists felt that women’s participation gave
the national struggle an immense force. Participation in the freedom movement
brought women out of their homes. It gave them a place in the professions, in the
governance of India, and it could pave the way for equality with men.
What such participation meant for women is best recounted by them. Ambabai
of Karnataka had been married at age twelve. Widowed at sixteen, she picketed
foreign cloth and liquor shops in Udipi. She was arrested, served a sentence and
was rearrested. Between prison terms she made speeches, taught spinning, and
organised prabhat pheris. Ambabai regarded these as the happiest days of her life
because they gave it a new purpose and commitment.
Women, however, had to fight for their right to participate in the movement.
During the Salt Satyagraha, for instance, even Mahatma Gandhi was initially opposed
to women’s participation. Sarojini Naidu had to persuade him to allow women to
join the movement.
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 121
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Peasants, tribals and women participated
in large numbers. A business federation
published a pamphlet on the salt issue.
The government tried to crush the
movement through brutal action against
peaceful satyagrahis. Thousands were
sent to jail.
The combined struggles of the Indian
people bore fruit when the Government
of India Act of 1935 prescribed
provincial autonomy and the
government announced elections to the
provincial legislatures in 1937. The
Congress formed governments in 7 out
of 11 provinces.
In September 1939, after two years
of Congress rule in the provinces, the
Second World War broke out. Critical of
Hitler, Congress leaders were ready to
Fig. 13 – Sarojini Naidu with support the British war effort. But in return they wanted
Mahatma Gandhi, Paris, 1931 that India be granted independence after the war.
Active in the national movement The British refused to concede the demand. The Congress
since the early 1920s, Naidu was
ministries resigned in protest.
a significant leader of the Dandi
March. She was the first Indian
Source 5
woman to become President of
the Indian National Congress
(1925).
Veer Lakhan Nayak was hanged
Baji Mohammed, President of the Nabrangpur
Congress, Orissa in the 1930s, reports:
On August 25, 1942 … nineteen people died on
the spot in police firing at Paparandi in
Nabarangpur. Many died thereafter from their
wounds. Over 300 were injured. More than a
thousand were jailed in Koraput district. Several
were shot or executed. Veer Lakhan Nayak
(a legendary tribal leader who defied the British)
was hanged.
Nayak, Baji tells us, was not worried about being
executed, only sad that he would not live to see
freedom’s dawn.
Provincial autonomy
Baji Mohammad mobilised 20,000 people to join
Capacity of the provinces
the national struggle. He offered satyagraha many
to make relatively
times over. He participated in protests against the
independent decisions
Second World War and in the Quit India movement,
while remaining within
and served long jail terms.
a federation
122 OUR PASTS – III
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Fig. 14 – Quit India movement,
August 1942
Demonstrators clashed with
the police everywhere. Many
thousands were arrested, over
a thousand killed, many more
were injured.
Bose and the INA
Quit India and Later
Mahatma Gandhi decided to initiate a new phase of
movement against the British in the middle of the
Second World War. The British must quit India
immediately, he told them. To the people he said, “do or
die” in your effort to fight the British – but you must
Fig. 15 – Subhas Chandra Bose
fight non-violently. Gandhiji and other leaders were
jailed at once but the movement spread. It specially A radical nationalist, with
attracted peasants and the youth who gave up their socialist leanings, Bose did
studies to join it. Communications and symbols of not share Gandhiji’s ideal
state authority were attacked all over the country. In of ahimsa, though he
many areas the people set up their own governments. respected him as the
The first response of the British was severe repression. “Father of the Nation”. In
By the end of 1943 over 90,000 people were arrested, and January 1941, he secretly
around 1,000 killed in police firing. In many areas orders left his Calcutta home, went
were given to machine-gun crowds from airplanes. The to Singapore, via Germany,
rebellion, however, ultimately brought the Raj to its knees. and raised the Azad Hind
Fauj or the Indian National
Towards Independence and Partition Army (INA). To free India
from British control, in 1944,
Meanwhile, in 1940 the Muslim League had moved a
the INA tried to enter
resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims
India through Imphal and
in the north-western and eastern areas of the country. Kohima but the campaign
The resolution did not mention partition or Pakistan. failed. The INA members
Why did the League ask for an autonomous arrangement were imprisoned and
for the Muslims of the subcontinent? tried. People across the
From the late 1930s, the League began viewing country, from all walks of
the Muslims as a separate “nation” from the Hindus. life, participated in the
In developing this notion it may have been influenced movement against the
by the history of tension between some Hindu and INA trials.
Muslim groups in the 1920s and 1930s. More
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 123
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Fig. 16 – Maulana Azad with
other members at the Congress
Working Committee, Sevagram,
1942
Azad was born in Mecca to a
Bengali father and an Arab
mother. Well-versed in many
languages, Azad was a scholar
of Islam and an exponent of
the notion of wahadat-i-deen,
the essential oneness of all
religions. An active participant
in Gandhian movements and a
staunch advocate of Hindu-
Muslim unity, he was opposed
to Jinnah’s two-nation theory.
Fig. 17 – Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
speaking to Gandhiji before the Gandhi-
Jinnah talks, 1944
A veteran nationalist and leader of
the Salt Satyagraha in the south,
C. Rajagopalachari, popularly known as
Rajaji, served as member of the Interim
Government of 1946 and as free India’s
first Indian Governor-General.
Fig. 18 – Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel played
an important role in the
negotiations for
independence during
1945- 47
Patel hailed from an
impoverished peasant-
proprietor family of
Fig. 19 – Mohammad Ali
Nadiad, Gujarat.
Jinnah with Mahatma Gandhi,
A foremost organiser of
Bombay, September 1944
the freedom movement
from 1918 onwards, Patel An ambassador of Hindu-
served as President of Muslim unity until 1920,
the Congress in 1931. Jinnah played an important
role in the making of the
Lucknow Pact. He reorganised
the Muslim League after 1934,
and became the major
spokesperson for the demand
for Pakistan.
124 OUR PASTS – III
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Fig. 20 – Jawaharlal Nehru
listens to Mahatma Gandhi before
the Bombay session of the
Congress, July 1946
Gandhiji’s disciple, a Congress
Socialist, and an internationalist,
Nehru was a leading architect of
the national movement and of
free India’s economy and polity.
“General”constituencies
Election districts with
no reservations for any
religious or other
community
importantly, the provincial elections of 1937 seemed to
have convinced the League that Muslims were a
minority, and they would always have to play second
fiddle in any democratic structure. It feared that
Muslims may even go unrepresented. The Congress’s
rejection of the League’s desire to form a joint Congress-
League government in the United Provinces in 1937
also annoyed the League.
The Congress’s failure to mobilise the Muslim masses
in the 1930s allowed the League to widen its social
support. It sought to enlarge its support in the early
1940s when most Congress leaders were in jail. At the
end of the war in 1945, the British opened negotiations
between the Congress, the League and themselves for
the independence of India. The talks failed because the
League saw itself as the sole spokesperson of India’s
Muslims. The Congress could not accept this claim since Fig. 21 – Khan Abdul Ghaffar
a large number of Muslims still supported it. Khan, the Pashtun leader from
Elections to the provinces were again held in 1946. the North West Frontier
Province, with his colleagues
The Congress did well in the “General” constituencies
at a peace march through
but the League’s success in the seats reserved for Muslims Bihar, March 1947
was spectacular. It persisted with its demand for “Pakistan”. Also known as Badshah
In March 1946 the British cabinet sent a three-member Khan, he was the founder
mission to Delhi to examine this demand and to suggest of the Khudai Khidmatgars,
a suitable political framework for a free India. This a powerful non-violent
movement among the Pathans
mission suggested that India should remain united and of his province. Badshah
constitute itself as a loose confederation with some Khan was strongly opposed
autonomy for Muslim-majority areas. But it could not to the Partition of India.
get the Congress and the Muslim League to agree to He criticised his Congress
specific details of the proposal. Partition now became colleagues for agreeing to
the 1947 division.
more or less inevitable.
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 125
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After the failure of
the Cabinet Mission, the
Muslim League decided
on mass agitation for
winning its Pakistan
demand. It announced
16 August 1946 as
“Direct Action Day”. On
this day riots broke
out in Calcutta, lasting
several days and
resulting in the death
of thousands of people.
By March 1947 violence
spread to different parts
of northern India.
Fig. 22 – Refugees from Many hundred thousand people were killed and
riot-torn Punjab gather in numerous women had to face untold brutalities during
New Delhi, in search of
the Partition. Millions of people were forced to flee their
shelter and food
homes. Torn asunder from their homelands, they were
reduced to being refugees in alien lands. Partition also
meant that India changed, many of its cities changed, and
a new country – Pakistan – was born. So, the joy of our
country’s independence from British rule came mixed with
the pain and violence of Partition.
ELSEWHERE
Nationalism in Africa: The case of Ghana
The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed the rise of nationalism
in many Afro-Asian countries. In many of these, nationalism arose as a part of the
anti-colonial struggles for independence.
Colonial rule in Africa was dictatorial. Only the “Chiefs” were allowed to rule on behalf
of the foreign powers. Alternately, laws affecting Africans were created in all-white
legislatures. Africans had no decision-making powers or representation, not until after
the Second World War at least. The forcible takeover of land from local owners or users,
increased taxation and poor working conditions led to many African protests.
In 1957, Ghana, known until then as the Gold Coast, became the first sub-Saharan
African country to gain independence. The freedom movement was led by Kwame
Nkrumah’s Convention People’s Party through strikes, boycotts and mass rallies. In 1951
this party won a huge electoral victory. It opposed the existing system in which the
British rulers had allowed the Chiefs to nominate representatives to the legislature.
It pressed the British to grant a legislature that contained no nominated or special
members and won this demand in 1954. Elections to the new Legislative Council were
held in 1956. The Convention People’s Party won these, thus paving the way for the
proclamation of an independent nation under the name “Ghana”.
126 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
Let’s recall Let’s imagine
1. Why were people dissatisfied with British rule in Imagine that you are
the 1870s and 1880s? involved in the Indian
national movement.
2. Who did the Indian National Congress wish to Based on your reading
speak for? of this chapter, briefly
3. What economic impact did the First World War discuss your preferred
methods of struggle
have on India?
and your vision of a
4. What did the Muslim League resolution of 1940 free India.
ask for?
Let’s discuss
5. Who were the Moderates? How did they propose to
struggle against British rule?
6. How was the politics of the Radicals within the
Congress different from that of the Moderates?
7. Discuss the various forms that the Non-Cooperation
Movement took in different parts of India. How did
the people understand Gandhiji?
8. Why did Gandhiji choose to break the salt law?
9. Discuss those developments of the 1937-47 period
that led to the creation of Pakistan.
Let’s do
10. Find out how the national movement was organised
in your city, district, area or state. Who participated
in it and who led it? What did the movement in
your area achieve?
11. Find out more about the life and work of any two
participants or leaders of the national movement
and write a short essay about them. You may
choose a person not mentioned in this chapter.
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870 S-1947 127
2022-23
10 India After Independence
A New and Divided Nation
When India became independent in August 1947, it
faced a series of very great challenges. As a result of
Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country
from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be
found homes and jobs. Then there was the problem
of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled
by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be
persuaded to join the new nation. The problems of the
refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed
immediately. In the longer term, the new nation had to
adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes
and expectations of its population.
Fig. 1 – Mahatma Gandhi's ashes being immersed in Allahabad, February 1948
Less than six months after independence the nation was in mourning. On 30 January 1948, Mahatma
Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji’s conviction
that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony. That evening, a stunned nation heard Jawaharlal
Nehru’s moving statement over All India Radio: “Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives
and there is darkness everywhere … our beloved leader … the Father of the Nation is no more.”
128 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345
million. It was also divided. There were divisions
Activity
Imagine that you are a
between high castes and low castes, between the
British administrator
majority Hindu community and Indians who practised
leaving India in 1947.
other faiths. The citizens of this vast land spoke many
You are writing a letter
different languages, wore many different kinds of dress,
home where you discuss
ate different kinds of food and practised different
what is likely to happen
professions. How could they be made to live together in
to India without the
one nation-state?
British. What would be
To the problem of unity was added the problem of your views about the
development. At Independence, the vast majority of future of India?
Indians lived in the villages. Farmers and peasants
depended on the monsoon for their survival. So did the
non-farm sector of the rural economy, for if the crops
failed, barbers, carpenters, weavers and other service
groups would not get paid for their services either. In
the cities, factory workers lived in crowded slums with
little access to education or health care. Clearly, the
new nation had to lift its masses out of poverty by
increasing the productivity of agriculture and by
promoting new, job-creating industries.
Unity and development had to go hand in hand. If
the divisions between different sections of India were
not healed, they could result in violent and costly
conflicts – high castes fighting with low castes, Hindus
with Muslims and so on. At the same time, if the fruits
of economic development did not reach the broad masses
of the population, it could create fresh divisions – for
example, between the rich and the poor, between cities
and the countryside, between regions of India that were
prosperous and regions that lagged behind.
A Constitution is Written
Between December 1946 and November 1949, some
three hundred Indians had a series of meetings on
the country’s political future. The meetings of this
“Constituent Assembly” were held in New Delhi, but
the participants came from all over India, and from
different political parties. These discussions resulted
in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came
into effect on 26 January 1950.
One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of
universal adult franchise. All Indians above the age of
21 would be allowed to vote in state and national
elections. This was a revolutionary step – for never before
Franchise – The right to
had Indians been allowed to choose their own leaders.
vote
In other countries, such as the United Kingdom and
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE 129
2022-23
Fig. 2 – Jawaharlal Nehru the United States, this right had been granted in stages.
introducing the resolution that First only men of property had the vote. Then men who
outlined the objectives of the
Constitution
were educated were also added on. Working-class men
got the vote only after a long struggle. Finally, after a
bitter struggle of their own, American and British women
were granted the vote. On the other hand, soon after
Independence, India chose to grant this right to all its
citizens regardless of gender, class or education.
A second feature of the Constitution was that it
guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens,
regardless of their caste or religious affiliation. There
were some Indians who wished that the political system
of the new nation be based on Hindu ideals, and that
India itself be run as a Hindu state. They pointed to the
example of Pakistan, a country created explicitly to
protect and further the interests of a particular religious
community – the Muslims. However, the Indian Prime
Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was of the opinion that India
could not and must not become a “Hindu Pakistan”.
Besides Muslims, India also had large populations
of Sikhs and Christians, as well as many Parsis and
Jains. Under the new Constitution, they would have
the same rights as Hindus – the same opportunities
when it came to seeking jobs in government or the
private sector, the same rights before the law.
A third feature of the Constitution was that it offered
special privileges for the poorest and most disadvantaged
130 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
Source 1
Indians. The practice of untouchability, described
as a “slur and a blot” on the “fair name of India”,
was abolished. Hindu temples, previously open to
We must give them
only the higher castes, were thrown open to security and rights
all, including the former untouchables. After a
long debate, the Constituent Assembly also Nehru wrote in a letter to
recommended that a certain percentage of seats the Chief Ministers of states:
in legislatures as well as jobs in government be
reserved for members of the lowest castes. It had ... we have a Muslim
been argued by some that Untouchable or as they minority who are so large
in numbers that they
were now known, Harijan, candidates did not have
cannot, even if they want,
good enough grades to get into the prestigious
go anywhere else. That is a
Indian Administrative Service. But, as one member
basic fact about which
of the Constituent Assembly, H.J. Khandekar, there can be no argument.
argued, it was the upper castes who were Whatever the provocation
responsible for the Harijans “being unfit today”. from Pakistan and
Addressing his more privileged colleagues, whatever the indignities
Khandekar said: and horrors inflicted on
We were suppressed for thousands of years. non-Muslims there, we
You engaged us in your service to serve your have got to deal with this
own ends and suppressed us to such an minority in a civilised
extent that neither our minds nor our bodies manner. We must give
and nor even our hearts work, nor are we them security and the
able to march forward. rights of citizens in a
democratic State.
Along with the former Untouchables, the
adivasis or Scheduled Tribes were also granted
reservation in seats and jobs. Like the Scheduled
Castes, these Indians too had been deprived and
discriminated against. The tribals had been
deprived of modern health care and education,
while their lands and forests had been taken away
by more powerful outsiders. The new privileges
granted them by the Constitution were meant to
make amends for this.
The Constituent Assembly spent many days
Activity
Imagine a conversation
discussing the powers of the central government between a father and son
versus those of the state governments. Some in a Muslim family. After
members thought that the Centre’s interests Partition, the son thinks it
should be foremost. Only a strong Centre, it was would be wiser for them to
argued, “would be in a position to think and plan move to Pakistan while the
for the well-being of the country as a whole”. Other father believes that they
members felt that the provinces should have should continue to live in
greater autonomy and freedom. A member from India. Taking information
Mysore feared that under the present system from the chapter so far
“democracy is centred in Delhi and it is not allowed (and Chapter 11), act out
to work in the same sense and spirit in the rest of what each would say.
the country”. A member from Madras insisted that
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE 131
2022-23
“the initial responsibility for the
well-being of the people of the
provinces should rest with the
Provincial Governments”.
The Constitution sought to
balance these competing claims by
providing three lists of subjects: a
Union List, with subjects such as
taxes, defence and foreign affairs,
which would be the exclusive
responsibility of the Centre; a
State List of subjects, such as
education and health, which
would be taken care of principally
by the states; a Concurrent List,
under which would come subjects
such as forests and agriculture,
in which the Centre and the states
would have joint responsibility.
Another major debate in the
Fig. 3 – Dr B.R. Ambedkar Constituent Assembly concerned language. Many
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956), members believed that the English language should
respectfully referred to as leave India with the British rulers. Its place, they
Babasaheb, belonged to a
argued, should be taken by Hindi. However, those who
Marathi-speaking dalit family.
A lawyer and economist, he is did not speak Hindi were of a different opinion. Speaking
best known as a revered leader in the Assembly, T.T. Krishnamachari conveyed “a
of the Dalits and the father of warning on behalf of people of the South”, some of whom
the Indian Constitution threatened to separate from India if Hindi was imposed
on them. A compromise was finally arrived at: namely,
that while Hindi would be the “official language” of India,
English would be used in the courts, the services, and
communications between one state and another.
Many Indians contributed to the framing of the
Constitution. But perhaps the most important role was
played by Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who was Chairman of
the Drafting Committee, and under whose supervision
the document was finalised. In his final speech to the
Constituent Assembly, Dr Ambedkar pointed out that
political democracy had to be accompanied by economic
and social democracy. Giving the right to vote would
Activity not automatically lead to the removal of other
Discuss in your class, inequalities such as between rich and poor, or between
one advantage and one upper and lower castes. With the new Constitution, he
disadvantage today of said, India was
the decision to keep
going to enter into a life of contradictions. In
English as a language
politics we will have equality and in social and
of India.
economic life we will have inequality. In politics
132 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
we will be recognising the principle of one
man one vote and one value. In our social and
economic life, we shall, by reason of our social
and economic structure, continue to deny the
principle of one man one value.
How were States to be Formed?
Back in the 1920s, the Indian National Congress – the
main party of the freedom struggle – had promised that
once the country won independence, each major
linguistic group would have its own province. However,
after independence the Congress did not take any steps Linguistic – Relating to
to honour this promise. For India had been divided on language
the basis of religion: despite the wishes and efforts of
Mahatma Gandhi, freedom had come not to one nation
but to two. As a result of the partition of India, more
than a million people had been killed in riots between
Hindus and Muslims. Could the country afford further
divisions on the basis of language?
Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime
Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were against the creation
of linguistic states. After the Partition, Nehru said,
“disruptionist tendencies had come to the fore”; to check
them, the nation had to be strong and united. Or, as
Patel put it:
... the first and last need of India at the present
moment is that it should be made a nation …
Everything which helps the growth of nationalism
has to go forward and everything which throws
obstacles in its way has to be rejected … We
have applied this test to linguistic provinces also,
and by this test, in our opinion [they] cannot
be supported. Fig. 4 – Potti Sriramulu, the
Gandhian leader who died
That the Congress leaders would now go back on fasting for a separate state for
their promise created great disappointment. The Kannada Telugu speakers
speakers, Malayalam speakers, the Marathi speakers, had
all looked forward to having their own state. The strongest
protests, however, came from the Telugu-speaking districts
of what was the Madras Presidency. When Nehru went
to campaign there during the general elections of 1952,
he was met with black flags and slogans demanding
“We want Andhra”. In October of that year, a veteran
Gandhian named Potti Sriramulu went on a hunger
strike demanding the formation of Andhra state to
protect the interests of Telugu speakers. As the fast
went on, it attracted much support. Hartals and bandhs
were observed in many towns.
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE 133
2022-23
On 15 December 1952, fifty-eight days into his fast,
Potti Sriramulu died. As a newspaper put it, “the news of
the passing away of Sriramulu engulfed entire Andhra in
chaos”. The protests were so widespread and intense that
the central government was forced to give in to the demand.
Thus, on 1 October 1953, the new state of Andhra came into
being, which subsequently became Andhra Pradesh.
After the creation of Andhra, other linguistic communities
also demanded their own separate states. A States
Reorganisation Commission was set up, which submitted
its report in 1956, recommending the redrawing of district
and provincial boundaries to form compact provinces of
Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and
Telugu speakers respectively. The large Hindi-speaking
region of north India was also to be broken up into several
states. A little later, in 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay
was divided into separate states for Marathi and Gujarati
speakers. In 1966, the state of Punjab was also divided
into Punjab and Haryana, the former for the Punjabi speakers
(who were also mostly Sikhs), the latter for the rest (who
spoke not Punjabi but versions of Haryanvi or Hindi).
The making of Linguistic
States
Fig. 5 (a)
Indian Provinces and Princely
States before 14 August 1947
Princely States
British India
134 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
Erstwhile
Princely States*
Other States
*A state ceased to be a
“princely state” as and
when its prince agreed to
merger with India or
Pakistan or was defeated.
But many of these states
were retained as
administrative units until
31 October 1956. Hence
the category, “erstwhile
princely states” for the
period 1947-48 to 31
October 1956.
Fig. 5 (b) – Indian States before 1 November 1956
Activity
Look at Figs. 5 (a),
5 (b) and 5 (c).
Notice how the
Princely States
disappear in 5 (b).
Identify the new
states that were
formed in 1956 and
later and the
languages of these
states.
Fig. 5 (c) – Indian States in 1975
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE 135
2022-23
Fig. 6 – The bridge on the
Mahanadi river constructed to
control the flow of water
Bridges and dams became the
symbol of development in
independent India.
State – Concerned with Planning for Development
the government. (Note
Lifting India and Indians out of poverty, and building a
that used in this sense,
modern technical and industrial base were among the
the word does not refer
major objectives of the new nation. In 1950, the
to the different states
government set up a Planning Commission to help design
which are found in a
and execute suitable policies for economic development.
country.)
There was a broad agreement on what was called a
“mixed economy” model. Here, both the State and the
Fig. 7 – Work going on at the
private sector would play important and complementary
Gandhi Sagar bandh roles in increasing production and generating jobs.
This was the first of the four What, specifically, these roles were to be – which industries
dams built on the Chambal river should be initiated by the state and which by the
in Madhya Pradesh. It was market, how to achieve a balance between the different
completed in 1960. regions and states – was to be defined by the Planning
Commission.
In 1956, the Second Five
Year Plan was formulated.
This focused strongly on
the development of heavy
industries such as steel,
and on the building of large
dams. These sectors would
be under the control of
the State. This focus on
heavy industry, and the
effort at state regulation of
the economy was to guide
economic policy for the next
few decades. This approach
had many strong supporters,
but also some vocal critics.
136 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
Source 2
Nehru on the Five Year Plans
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was a great supporter of
the planning process. He explained the ideals and purposes
of planning in a series of letters he wrote to the chief
ministers of the different states. In a letter of 22 December
1952, he said that:
... behind the First Five Year Plan lies the conception of
India’s unity and of a mighty co-operative effort of all
the peoples of India … We have to remember always
that it is not merely the governmental machinery that
counts in all this, but even more so the enthusiasm and
co-operation of the people. Our people must have the
sensation of partnership in a mighty enterprise, of being Fig. 8
8– Jawaharlal
fellow-travellers towards the next goal that they and Nehru at the Bhilai Steel
we have set before us. The Plan may be, and has to be, Plant
based on the calculations of economists, statisticians and The Bhilai steel plant
the like, but figures and statistics, very important as was set up with the help
of the former Soviet
they are, do not give life to the scheme. That breath of Union in 1959. Located
life comes in other ways, and it is for us now to make in the backward rural
this Plan, which is enshrined in cold print, something area of Chhattisgarh,
living, vital and dynamic, which captures the it came to be seen as an
imagination of the people. important sign of the
development of modern
India after Independence.
Some felt that it had put inadequate emphasis
on agriculture. Others argued that it had
neglected primary education. Still others believed
that it had not taken account of the
environmental implications of economic policies.
As Mahatma Gandhi’s follower Mira Behn wrote
in 1949, by “science and machinery he [mankind]
may get huge returns for a time, but ultimately
will come desolation. We have got to study
Nature’s balance, and develop our lives within
her laws, if we are to survive as a physically
healthy and morally decent species.”
Activity
Discuss in your class whether Mira Behn was
right in her view that science and machinery
would create problems for human beings.
You may like to think about examples of
the effects of industrial pollution and
de-forestation on the world today.
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE 137
2022-23
The search for an independent foreign policy
India gained freedom soon
after the devastations of the
Fig. 9 – Jawaharlal Second World War. At that
Nehru and Krishna
time a new international body
Menon arriving at the
United Nations – the United Nations – formed
Krishna Menon led in 1945 was in its infancy.
the Indian delegation The 1950s and 1960s saw the
to the UN between emergence of the Cold War,
1952 and 1962 and that is, power rivalries and
argued for a policy of
ideological conflicts between
non-alignment.
the USA and the USSR, with
both countries creating military alliances. This was also the period
when colonial empires were collapsing and many countries were
attaining independence. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who was
also the foreign minister of newly independent India, developed
free India’s foreign policy in this context. Non-alignment formed
the bedrock of this foreign policy.
Led by statesmen from Egypt, Yugoslavia, Indonesia, Ghana
and India, the non-aligned movement urged countries not to
join either of the two major alliances. But this policy of staying
away from alliances was not a matter of remaining “isolated” or
“neutral”. The former means remaining aloof from world affairs
whereas non-aligned countries such as India played an active
role in mediating between the American and Soviet alliances.
They tried to prevent war — often taking a humanitarian and
moral stand against war. However, for one reason or another,
many non-aligned countries including India got involved in wars.
By the 1970s, a large number of countries had joined the
non-aligned movement.
Fig. 10 – Leaders of
Asian and African
countries meet at
Bandung, Indonesia
1955
Over 29 newly
independent states
participated in this
famous conference
to discuss how
Afro-Asian nations
could continue to
oppose colonialism
and Western
domination.
138 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
The Nation, Sixty Years On
On 15 August 2007, India celebrated sixty years of its
existence as a free nation. How well has the country
done in this time? And to what extent has it fulfilled
the ideals set out in its Constitution?
That India is still united, and that it is still democratic,
are achievements that we might justly be proud of. Many
foreign observers had felt that India could not survive
as a single country, that it would break up into many
parts, with each region or linguistic group seeking to
form a nation of its own. Others believed that it would
come under military rule. However, as many as thirteen
general elections have been held since Independence,
as well as hundreds of state and local elections. There
is a free press, as well as an independent judiciary.
Finally, the fact that people speak different languages
or practise different faiths has not come in the way of
national unity.
On the other hand, deep divisions
persist. Despite constitutional
guarantees, the Untouchables or, as
they are now referred to, the Dalits,
face violence and discrimination.
In many parts of rural India they
are not allowed access to water
sources, temples, parks and other
public places. And despite the secular
ideals enshrined in the Constitution,
there have been clashes between
different religious groups in many
states. Above all, as many observers
have noted, the gulf between the
rich and the poor has grown over the years. Some parts Fig. 11 – Dharavi in Bombay is
of India and some groups of Indians have benefited a one of the world’s largest slums
great deal from economic development. They live in large Notice the high-rise buildings in
the background.
houses and dine in expensive restaurants, send their
children to expensive private schools and take expensive
foreign holidays. At the same time many others continue
to live below the poverty line. Housed in urban slums,
or living in remote villages on lands that yield little,
they cannot afford to send their children to school.
The Constitution recognises equality before the law,
but in real life some Indians are more equal than others.
Judged by the standards it set itself at Independence,
the Republic of India has not been a great success.
But it has not been a failure either.
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE 139
2022-23
ELSEWHERE
What happened in Sri Lanka
In 1956, the year the states of India were reorganised on the basis of language, the
Parliament of Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) introduced an Act recognising Sinhala as the sole
official language of the country. This made Sinhala the medium of instruction in all state
schools and colleges, in public examinations, and in the courts. The new Act was opposed
by the Tamil-speaking minority who lived in the north of the island. “When you deny me
my language,” said one Tamil MP, “you deny me everything.” “You are hoping for a divided
Ceylon,” warned another, adding: “Do not fear, I assure you [that you] will have a divided
Ceylon.” An Opposition member, himself Sinhala speaking, predicted that if the
government did not change its mind and insisted on the Act being passed, “two torn little
bleeding states might yet arise out of one little state”.
For several decades now, a civil war has raged in
Sri Lanka, whose roots lie in the imposition of the
Sinhala language on the Tamil-speaking minority.
And another South Asian country, Pakistan, was
divided into two when the Bengali speakers of the
east felt that their language was being suppressed.
By contrast, India has managed to survive as a single
nation, in part because the many regional languages
were given freedom to flourish. Had Hindi been
imposed on South India, in the way that Urdu was
Fig. 12 – Gun-carrying Tamil militant – imposed on East Pakistan or Sinhala on northern
a symbol of the civil war in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, India too might have seen civil war and
fragmentation. Contrary to the fears of Jawahalal
Nehru and Sardar Patel, linguistic states have not threatened the unity of India. Rather,
they have deepened this unity. Once the fear of one’s language being suppressed has
gone, the different linguistic groups have been content to live as part of the larger nation
called India.
Let’s recall
Let’s imagine
1. Name three problems that the newly independent
You are witness to an
nation of India faced.
argument between an
adivasi and a person 2. What was the role of the Planning Commission?
who is opposed to the
reservation of seats 3. Fill in the blanks:
and jobs. What might
be the arguments you (a) Subjects that were placed on the Union
heard each of them List were _________, _________
put forward? Act out and _________.
the conversation.
(b) Subjects on the Concurrent List were
_________ and _________.
140 OUR PASTS – III
2022-23
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