2.

STRUCTURE AND A QUALITATIVE PICTURE OF GALAXIES

Then the potential energy is

* + Z
1 X P
− F~i · ~r = ~
~ri · dA (56)
2 i
2

and n = 2. From the divergence theorem

Z Z
~
~ri · dA = ∇ ~ · ~rdV
Z (57)
= 3 dV = 3V .

The virial theorem gives

0 = 2 hKiT − 2 hVtot i
3 P (58)
= 2 N kT − 2 3V
2 2
so
log(ɸ) N kT = P V . (59)

!
2.B Relaxation times
The virial theorem gave us some first insight into the dynamics of galaxies. Now we will
show that stars are collisionless, i.e. that two-body collisions are rare in galaxies. Since this
is true, we can describe the distribution of stars as a smooth density field and gravitational
potential.

Frequency of strong encounters betweenL*stars: log(L)

Goal: estimate the change in velocity δ~v by which the encounter deflects the velocity ~v of
the subject star.

Subject
star m x v
F⊥
r b
"
Field
star m

We assume that |δ~v |/|~v |  1 and that the field star is stationary. This means that δ~v is
perpendicular to ~v since the accelerations parallel to ~v cancel out as the subject star passes
by the field star. We calculate δv = |δ~v | by integrating F⊥ :
"  2 #−3/2
Gm2 Gm2 b Gm2 vt
F⊥ = 2 2
cos θ = 2 2 3/2
= 2 1+ . (60)
b +x (b + x ) b b

16
2. STRUCTURE AND A QUALITATIVE PICTURE OF GALAXIES

Newton’s law m~v˙ = F~ gives us the change in the perpendicular velocity

1 +∞
Z
δv = dtF⊥
m −∞
Gm +∞
Z
dt
= 2
2 i3/2
b
h
−∞
1 + vtb (61)
Gm +∞
Z
ds
=
bv −∞ (1 + s2 )3/2
2Gm
=
bv
using s = vtb . Thus, δv is roughly equal to the acceleration at closest approach, GM
b2
, times
the duration of the acceleration, 2b
v
.

Strong encounters:
An encounter is strong if δv ∼ v (which also causes the calculation to break down). This is
also when a star will have its path deflected by ∼ 90◦ ≡ bstrong .

GM
δv ∼ v ⇔ b . b90 = ≡ bstrong . (62)
v2
The cross section for strong encounters is

σstrong = πb2strong (63)

From the virial theorem, we have

GM GN m
v2 ∼ =
R R (64)
2R
⇒bstrong ≈
N∗
so we get:
4π 2
σstrong ≈ R (65)
N∗2
which is small since N ∼ 1011 . This means that the probability p of a strong encounter over
a single crossing of a star through a galaxy with an average number density of stars n is

p = nσstrong R
N 4πR2
= 4 3 R (66)
3
πR N 2
3
= ∼ 10−11 .
N
This is a tiny probability! So there are likely no strong encounters in a galaxy. For globular
clusters, N ∼ 104 , so strong encounters are more common.

17
 Subject
star m x v
2. STRUCTURE AND A QUALITATIVE PICTURE OF GALAXIES
F⊥
What about weakr encounters?
b
"
We have seen that strong encounters are rare, i.e. they practically never happen. Neverthe-
Field times, it will encounter many weak encounters. Each of
less, if a star crosses a galaxy many
star m until v ≈ v. The time it takes for this to happen is
those will slightly perturb its velocity ⊥
the relaxation time of the system.

Multiple weak encounters

log(ɸ)
Subject
! star m x v
F⊥
r b
"
Field
A star makes a random walk through a galaxy. Its total deviation from
star m
its path is the sum
of each of its encounters with other stars. For N encounters,
L* log(L)
N
X
2
δvtot = (δvi )2 . (67)
i=1

The strength of each encounter depends on the impact parameter b. The number of encoun-
ters N within (b, b + db) is

N = (2πbdb) (v∆t) |{z}

n
| {z } | {z } (68)
area length density .

b+db
b

vΔt

We then have
X Z bmax
2
(δvi ) = (number of encounters in (b, b + db)) × (δv for each encounter with b)
i bmin
Z bmax  2
2Gm
= (2π v ∆t n b db)
bmin bv
bmax
8πG2 m2 n
Z
db
= ∆t .
v bmin b
(69)

18
2. STRUCTURE AND A QUALITATIVE PICTURE OF GALAXIES

Now we determine the limits on the integral:

bmax ≈ R ≈ 10 kpc
2R (70)
bmin ≈ bstrong = = 10−10 kpc (0.01AU)
v∗
so Z bmax  
db bmax
= ln ≡ ln Λ (Coulomb logarithm)
bmin b bmin
 
10 kpc (71)
= ln
10−10 kpc
= ln 1011 ≈ 25 .

Relaxation time:
We define the relaxation time trelax through
X 8πG2 m2 n
(δvi )2 ≈ v 2 ⇒ ln Λtrelax
i
v
(72)
v3
⇒trelax = .
8πG2 m2 n ln Λ
We now compare this to the dynamical time torbit ≈ R/v of the system:

trelax v v4
=trelax = ,. (73)
torbit R 8πG2 m2 n ln ΛR
GM M/m
Using the virial theorem v 2 = R
and number density n = 4π 3
R
gives us:
3

(GM/R)2
=
8πG2 m2 M/m
4π 3 R ln Λ
R3

M
= 3
8πm 4π ln Λ
(74)
N N N
= = ∗  =  ∗ 
6 ln Λ 6 ln bbmax R
6 ln 2R/N
min ∗

N∗
∼
6 ln N∗
which is very large! Thus, stars are orbiting in an unperturbed collective potential (colli-
sionless)!

2.C Collisionless relaxation

Relaxation occurs in two ways within a galaxy: the collisional gas with interactions reaches
a Maxwellian distribution through two-body interactions, but the collisionless systems (stars

19
 particle loses
2. STRUCTURE AND A QUALITATIVE PICTURE OF GALAXIES
energy

and dark matter) must relax through a different process otherwise galaxies and galaxy clus-
ters would not reach a relaxed state within the age of the Universe. We say a system is
relaxed when its coarse grained phase-space distribution function does not change any more.
particle gains
Collisionless relaxation processes: energy
Phase mixing:
The coarse grained phase-space distribution function is distributed over time so doesn’t
change with time.

v v

x x
Changing
distribution function Constant
t=0 distribution function
t>0

Violent relaxation:
Since energy in the stellar and dark matter systems in galaxies can’t be efficiently exchanged
through collisions, we must find another way for energy exchange. The energy of an individ-
ual star (specific energy) is:
1
E = v2 + φ . (75)
2
Then the change in energy over time is
dE ∂E d~v ∂E dφ
= +
dt ∂~v dt ∂φ dt
~ + dφ
= −~v · ∇φ
dt
~ + ∂φ ∂φ d~x (76)
= −~v · ∇φ +
∂t ∂~x dt
~ + ∂φ ~
= −~v · ∇φ + ~v ∇φ
∂t
∂φ
=
∂t
Thus, the only way for a star to change its energy is by having a time-dependent potential.

To think of this intuitively, we can consider an object moving through a potential well. If
the potential is constant with time, the particle will recover the same energy as it comes out

20
 Field
b+db
b log(L)
3. MODELLING GALAXIES
x x
the other side and there is no relaxation. If the potential grows with time, the particle will
Changing
need to expend more energy toDFcross it and will not have enoughConstant
energy to get back out of
DF
the potential well, thus losing energy. If the potential shrinks with time, the particle will
gain energy as it crosses the well.

no relaxation

particle loses
energy

particle gains
energy

As a galaxy or cluster forms, the gravitational potential changes significantly as mass accretes
and collapses into a halo. Averaging over all particles, the timescale for violent relaxation
tvr is
*
2 +−1/2
dE
dt
tvr =
E2
*
+−1/2
∂φ 2
∂t (77)
=
E2
* +−1/2
φ̇2
∼
φ
where in the last step we used the time-dependent virial theorem (see Lynden-Bell 1967).
This occurs on roughly the same timescale as free-fall since this is the timescale at which
the potential changes during collapse. It’s very fast, hence ‘violent’ relaxation!

3 Modelling galaxies
So far, we have looked at the basic dynamical properties of galaxies. Now we discuss the
main ingredients of modelling galaxies:

• potential-density pairs (the common potential)

21
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8.902 Astrophysics II
Fall 2023

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