SELF LEARNING MODULE SEM I SESSION 2024/ 2025

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TOPIC 2: CELL STRUCTURE &

FUNCTIONS
SUBTOPIC 2.1: PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) State the three principals of cell theory. (CLO 1)
b) Explain structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (CLO 2)
c) Illustrate and compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (plant
and animal cells) (CLO 2)

2.1 (A) THREE PRINCIPAL OF CELL THEORY:

i. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of every organism.
ii. The cell derived from other cells by division.
iii. The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which controls their activities
(example for growth, development and cell functioning) and passed from cell to
daughter cell during cell division.

2.1 (B) THE STRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS.

Structure of prokaryotic cell

Figure 2.1.1: Structure of prokaryotic cell

• Prokaryotic means “before nucleus” (Greek pro – before).

• More primitive than eukaryotic cells.
• Small and structurally simple – 1.0 to 10 µm in diameter.
• Organisms made of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes.

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• Prokaryotic cells lacking true nucleus (they do not have membrane bounded
nucleus).
• Prokaryotic DNA is circular. DNA is not associated with histone protein; it is not
formed into chromosomes.
• DNA was located in an unbound region called the nucleoid.
• Prokaryotic cells also do not have membrane-enclosed organelles such as
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body/apparatus, vacuoles and
lysosomes.
• Prokaryotes reproduce asexually generally by binary fission without spindle
formation, a process in which one cell divides into two similar cells.
• The ribosomes are composed of a 50S large subunit and 30S small subunit
forming a 70S ribosome. (S = Svedberg unit)
• Some prokaryotes are photoautotroph even though do not have chloroplast.
Photosynthesis (certain bacteria) usually takes place in infolding or extensions
derived from the plasma membrane.
• The mesosomes is inward fold (finger like projection) of the cell plasma
membrane for cellular respiration.

Figure 2.1.2: Mesosomes, infolding of plasma membrane where cellular respiration take place
and infolding of plasma membrane for photosynthesis

• Some bacteria may have other small rings of DNA that carrying a few genes
called plasmid that replicate separately from the bacterial circular DNA.
• Most bacteria have a rigid cell wall outside the plasma membrane which
contain peptidoglycan. It provides support and maintain the cell shape, protects
the cells and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment.
• Some bacteria have flagellum (plural; flagella) for locomotion that made up of
flagellin, simple microtubule without 9+2 microtubule pattern.
• Some prokaryotes stick to their substrate or to another by hairlike appendages
called fimbriae (singular, fimbria).
• Sex pili are longer than fimbriae and allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA during
conjugation.

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Figure 2.1.3: Conjugation process that involve sex pili

• The cell wall of many prokaryotes is surrounded by a dense and well define sticky
layer of polysaccharide or protein known as capsule. But known as slime layer if
it is not well organized. The function is to protect against dehydration and some
capsule shield pathogenic prokaryote from attack by their host’s immune
system.

The structure of eukaryotic cells.

Figure 2.1.4: Structure of animal cell

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Figure 2.1.5: Structure of plant cell

• Unicellular, filamentous or multicellular organism with large (10 – 100 µm in

diameter) cell compared to prokaryote.
• Based on structure, 2 types: animal cell and plant cell
• Organisms made of eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes.
• The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells is presence of membrane-enclosed
organelles; Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body/apparatus,
lysosomes and vacuoles.
• Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus / distinct membrane-enclosed nucleus.
• Eukaryote has linear DNA associated with histone protein contained within a
nucleus.
• Flagella or cilia when present, constructed from a system of complex
arrangement 9+2 microtubules and flagella are made of tubulin.
• Plant cells and algae have cell walls. Plant cell wall composed of cellulose while
for fungi cell wall compose of chitin.

2.1 (C) COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL.

Similarities of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

• Both cells are surrounded by plasma membrane.
• Both cells have semi fluid, jellylike substance called cytosol in which subcellular
component are suspended.
• Both cells are containing chromosomes which carry gene in the form of DNA.
• Both cells have ribosomes.

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Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

• Prokaryotic cell is smaller in the range of 1.0 µm to 10.0 µm in diameter while
eukaryotic cell is larger in the range of 10 µm to 100 µm in diameter

• Prokaryotic cell lack of membrane-enclosed organelles while eukaryotic cell has

membrane-enclosed organelles.

• DNA in prokaryotic cell is single circular DNA and not associated with histone
protein while DNA in eukaryotic cell is several to many linear DNA that associated
with histone protein.

• Typical prokaryotic cell contain plasmid while eukaryotic cell the plasmid is
absent.

• Cellular respiration in prokaryotic cell occur in mesosome while cellular

respiration in eukaryotic cell occur in mitochondria.

• Prokaryotic cells move by a simple flagellum that made up by flagellin without

9+2 arrangement of microtubule while eukaryotic cell move by complex flagella
made up of tubulin with complex arrangement 9+2 of microtubules.

• Cell wall in prokaryotic cell made up of peptidoglycan while in eukaryotic cell,

for plant cell is made up of cellulose and chitin for fungi.

• Prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission while eukaryotic cell can reproduce
both asexually through mitosis and sexually through meiosis and fusion of
gamete.

• Prokaryotic cell does not have chloroplast, photosynthesis take place at

infolding of plasma membrane while eukaryotic cell has chloroplast as a site for
photosynthesis.

• Some prokaryotic cells have enzymes that can fix atmospheric nitrogen for use
in amino acid synthesis during nitrogen fixation while eukaryotic cells do not
contain enzymes that can fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Comparison between animal cell and plant cell

Figure 2.1.6: Diagram of comparison between animal and plant cell

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Similarities of animal and plant cell

• Both are eukaryotic cell.
• Both have membrane-enclosed organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi body
• Both has true nucleus that enclosed by nuclear envelope
• Both has linear DNA that associated with histone protein.

Differences between animal and plant cell

• Animal cell does not have cell wall, the cell is surrounded by plasma membrane
while plant cell surrounded by cell wall made up by cellulose.
• Animal cell has irregular shape and can be altered while plant cell has fixed,
regular shape.
• Animal cell does not have chloroplast so cannot undergo photosynthesis while
plant cell has chloroplast as a site for photosynthesis.
• Food storage in animal cell in the form of glycogen while food storage in plant
cell in the form of starch.
• Animal cell has a pair of centrioles while plant cell has no centriole except for
lower plant.
• In animal cell, cytoplasm, organelles and nucleus are not pushed to the
periphery while in plant cell, cytoplasm, organelles and nucleus are usually
pushed to the periphery due to the presence of the large central vacuole.
• Animal cell has small vacuole while plant cell has a large central vacuole that
surrounded by tonoplast.
• Lysosomes almost always present in animal cell while in plant cell lysosomes not
normally present except for Nepenthes sp.

SUBTOPIC 2.2: STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS: CELL MEMBRANE AND

ORGANELLES

LEARNING OUTCOME S:
a) State the structures and functions of the following organelles: nucleus, rough
endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, lysosome,
ribosome, mitochondria, chloroplast and centriole. (CLO 1)
b) Explain the structures and functions of endomembrane system which includes
nuclear envelope, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicle and vacuoles and the plasma membrane.
(CLO 2)
c) Show the structure of plasma membrane based on Fluid Mosaic Model (CLO 1)
d) Explain the structure of the plasma membrane and the functions of each of its
components. (CLO 2)

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2.2 (A) STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANELLES.

NUCLEUS

Figure 2.2.1: Nucleus

Structures:
• The largest organelle in the cell (average 5 µm in diameters).
• Nuclear membrane/ nuclear envelope.
o Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane,
outer and inner membrane.
o The two membrane, each a lipid bilayer with associated protein are
separated by space.
o The nuclear envelope is covered with numerous pores.
o At the lip of each pore, the inner and outer membrane of nuclear
envelope are continuous.
• Chromatin
o DNA that associated with histone protein known as chromatin.
o Visible in a dividing cell as an individual condense chromosome
o Located at the nucleoplasm
• Nucleoplasm
o Semi-fluid, gel -like substances present within the nucleus fills the
space between nuclear envelope and chromatin.
• Nucleolus
o Prominent structure within non dividing nucleus.
o Sometimes, there are two or more nucleoli depends on species and
stage in the cell reproductive cycle.
o Dense mass of granules/ fibres, non-membranous structure.

Functions:
• Nucleus acts as the centre to control the activities of the cell and cell
division.
• Nucleolus play role in controlling cell division and life span of the cell
• Nucleolus involved in the production of ribosomes (rRNA).

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• DNA is organized into genes, which are templates used in protein synthesis.
• The pores control the exchange of material between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.
• Production of mRNA occur in nucleus.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• Endoplasmic reticulum, single membrane bounded organelle consists of a

network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae.
• It originates from the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
• Because of endoplasmic reticulum membrane is continuous with the
nuclear envelope, the space between the two membrane of the nuclear
envelope is continuous with the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum

Organelle: Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Figure 2.2.2: Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Structures:
• Studded with ribosome on the outer surface of the membrane and does
appear rough through the electron microscope.
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum consists of an interconnected system of
membrane-bound flattened sacs called cisternae.

Functions:
• To package and intracellular transport proteins made by the ribosomes.

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Organelle: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Figure 2.2.3: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Structures:
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum lack of ribosomes at the outer surface
the membrane
• Consist of interconnected system of membrane-bound tubules called
cisternae.

Functions:
• Synthesis of lipid
• Metabolisme of carbohydrate in liver cell
• Detoxifies drugs and poisons in liver cell
• Modified into sarcoplasmic reticulum to stores calcium ions which are
necessary for muscles contraction.

GOLGI BODY

Figure 2.2.4: Golgi body

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Structures:
• Single membrane-bounded organelle that consists of a stack of associated,
flattened membrane-bound sacs called cisternae.
• Each stack contains about 4 – 7 cisternae.
• Golgi body has two faces, the cis face and the trans face.
• The cis face is located near the endoplasmic reticulum and is the receiving
side of the Golgi body.
• The trans face is located near to the cell surface membrane.
• The trans face give rise to vesicle that pinch off and travel to other site

Functions:
• The main functions of the Golgi body are to modify, sort, stores and ship
(transport) cell products.
• Transporting and storing lipids.
• Forming lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes.
• Production of digestive enzymes.
• In plant cells, secretion of polysaccharides to form cell plates and cell walls.

LYSOSOME

Figure 2.2.5: Lysosome

Structures:
• Small vesicle rise from budding of trans face of Golgi body
• Single membrane-bounded organelle which contains a variety of active
hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules within the cell.

Functions
• Autophagy – lysosome fused with the vesicle with damage organelle and
release the hydrolytic enzymes to digest the organelle and their component
are recycled.

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Figure 2.2.6: Autophagy

• Autolysis/ cell apoptosis/ programmed cell death - The lysosome’s

membrane breaks down, releasing its enzymes and digesting the entire cell;
self-destruct.
• Digest material that has been taken into the cell via phagocytosis.
o Amoeba and many unicellular eukaryotes engulf small organism and
food particle through phagocytosis, forming food vacuole. Food
vacuole fuse with lysosome for digestion using hydrolytic enzyme.
o Macrophages ingest bacteria and viruses and destroy them using
lysosome for body defend.

Figure 2.2.7: Phagocytosis

• Release enzymes to the outside of the cell by exocytosis to digest other cells

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RIBOSOME

Figure 2.2.8: Ribosomes

Structures:
• Small and lack of membrane, dense particle found in huge numbers in all
cells.
• Made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein.
• Composed of two subunits: large and small subunits.
• Free ribosomes can be found suspended freely in the cytosol, or bound
ribosomes attach to the outside of endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear
envelope.
• Bound ribosomes and free ribosomes are structurally identical and can play
either role at different time.

Functions:
• Sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
• Most of the proteins made on free ribosomes function within cytosol while
bound ribosomes generally make protein that are destined for insertion into
membrane, for packaging within certain organelles such as lysosomes or for
export from the cell (secretion).

MITOCHONDRIA

Figure 2.2.9: Mitochondria

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Structures:
• Rod-shaped structures that vary in size and shape.
• Have their own DNA.
• Two membranes enclosing mitochondria is a phospholipid bilayer with a
unique collection embedded protein
• The outer membrane is smooth
• The inner membrane is convoluted with infolding called cristae.
• The highly folded cristae increase the surface area for the Electron Transport
Chain (ETC) reactions.
• Intermembrane space is the narrow region between outer and inner
membrane.
• The inner membrane encloses the mitochondrial matrix, a fluid-filled space
with DNA, ribosomes and enzymes.

Functions:
• Site of cellular respiration

CHLOROPLAST

Figure 2.2.10: Chloroplast

Structures:
• Lenses-shape, size about 3-6 µm in length.
• Enclosed by a double membrane separated by a narrow inter membrane
space.
• Innermost membrane is a fluid-filled space, the stroma.
• A series of interconnecting flattened membrane-bounded sacs, the
thylakoids, are found in the stroma.
• Thylakoid are stack into granum (plural, grana)
• Stroma contains DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes for part of photosynthesis.

Functions:
• Site of photosynthesis.
• Store starch (starch granule)

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CENTRIOLE

Figure 2.2.11: Centrioles

Structures:
• Found in animal cells.
• Within the centrosome is a pair of centriole, each composed of nine set of
triplet microtubules arrange in a ring positioned at right angles to each other.

Functions:
• Assist in microtubule arrangement to form spindle fibres and are involved in
the separation of chromosomes/ chromatids during cell division.
• Form the basal body in the formation of clia and flagella in moving cells.

2.2 (B) STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM.

• The collection of membranes inside and surrounding a eukaryotic cell, related

either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous
vesicles; includes the plasma membrane, the nuclear envelope, the smooth
and rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles,
and vacuoles (Campbell,2021, G11)
• This system carries out variety of task in the cell including
o synthesis of proteins
o transport of proteins into membrane and organelles or out of the cell,
o metabolism and movement of lipid
o detoxification of poisons.
• The membranes of this system are related either through direct physical
continuity or by the transfer of membrane system as tiny vesicles.
• Despite this relationship, the various membrane is not identical in structure and
function.

Role of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum in the Endomembrane System.

• As a polypeptide chain grows from a bound ribosome, it is threaded into the ER

lumen through a pore.
• Polypeptide chains synthesized by ribosomes on the surface of the rough ER are
modified to form glycoproteins, which are secretory proteins.

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• Secretory proteins are packaged into transport

vesicles.
• Transport vesicles containing secretory proteins bud
off from the rough ER and are transported to the
Golgi apparatus.

Role of the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum in

the Endomembrane System.

• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum

synthesizes lipids, which are then modified to
form glycolipids and packaged into transport
vesicles.
• These vesicles containing glycolipids bud off
from the smooth ER and are transported to the
Golgi apparatus

Role of the Golgi Apparatus in the Endomembrane System.

• Transport vesicles from the ER travel to the cis face, fuse with it, and empty their
contents into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus.
• As proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further
modifications. Short chains of sugar molecules might be added or removed, or
phosphate groups attached as tags.
• Finally, the modified proteins are sorted (based on markers such as amino acid
sequences and chemical tags) and packaged into secretory vesicles that bud
from the trans face of the Golgi.

Role of the Secretory Vesicles in the Endomembrane System.

• Secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, delivering membrane-
anchored proteins that function there and releasing secreted proteins outside
the cell by exocytosis.
• Some secretory vesicles deliver their contents to other parts of the cell where
they will be used, such as forming lysosome or vacuole.

Role of Vesicles and Vacuoles in the Endomembrane System.

• Vesicles & vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and
transport.

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• Lysosomes are formed by the fusion of vesicles that have budded off from the
trans face of Golgi apparatus.
• Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus. For example, food vacuole, contractile vacuole and central
vacuole of plant cell.

Figure 2.2.12: Functions of endomembrane system

2.2 (C) STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE BASED ON FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

Figure 2.2.13: Structure of plasma membrane

• In 1972, S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model.

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• Cell membrane consisting of a bilayer of phospholipids with various protein

molecules embedded and attached to it.
• The other component is carbohydrate and cholesterol.
• This structure is ‘selectively permeable’ meaning that it allows the passage of
some molecules (especially of water), but not of others.
• According to this model, it is called a:
o Mosaic because the proteins are bobbing/embedded in or attached to
the phospholipid bilayer. (Campbell 12th ed, page 197)
o Fluid because the proteins and phospholipids are free to move. They can
only move from side to side (lateral movement) or flip-flop across the
membrane, switching from one lipid layer to the other.
• Factors that affect the membrane fluidity:

Figure 2.2.14: Factors affect membrane fluidity

2.2 (D) FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENTS IN PLASMA MEMBRANE

STRUCTURE: PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER

Figure 2.2.15: Phospholipid bilayer

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• A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule meaning it has both hydrophilic

region and hydrophobic region.
• The polar hydrophilic (“water- loving”) head of phospholipids facing
outwards.
• The non-polar hydrophobic (“water-fearing”) tails facing in towards the
middle of the bilayer.
Functions:
• Forms boundary to isolate cell contents from environment.
• Phospholipid bilayer is only one aspect of the gatekeeper system responsible
for a cell’s selective permeability. (Campbell 12th, page 202)
• Restricts passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane (selective
permeable membrane).
• The type of hydrocarbon tails in phospholipids affects the fluidity of the
plasma membrane.
• Kink influences packing and movement in the lateral plane of the
membrane.

STRUCTURE: GLOBULAR PROTEIN

Figure 2.2.16: Globular protein in plasma membrane

• Two types of globular proteins:

• Integral/ intrinsic proteins penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid
bilayer
• Consist of 3 types:
o Carrier protein that involves in active & passive transport of
molecules across membrane)
o Channels protein that involves in passively transport molecules
across membrane
o Receptor protein that transmits information into cell chemical
messages

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• The majority are transmembrane protein, which span the membrane

(Refer A in the diagram)
• The other integral proteins extend part-way into the hydrophobic interior
(refer B in the diagram).
• Peripheral/ extrinsic proteins are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all,
they are loosely bound to the surface of the membrane, often to
exposed parts of integral proteins.
• On the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane, some membrane proteins
are held in place by attachment to the cyctoskeleton.
• On the extracellular side, certain membrane protein may attach to the
materials outside the cell.

Functions:
• Transport: A protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic
channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute.
• Enzymatic activity: Some membrane proteins act as enzyme that ordered as
a team that carries out sequential steps in metabolic pathway.
• Signal transduction: A membrane protein may have a binding site with
specific shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone.
• Intercellular joining: Membrane proteins of adjacent cell may be hooked
together in various kinds of junction such as tight junction and gap junction.
• Cell – cell recognition: some glycoprotein serve as identification tags that are
specifically recognized by other cells.
• Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM): helps
maintain cell shape and fixes the location of certain membrane proteins.

STRUCTURE: CARBOHYDRATE

Figure 2.2.17: Glycoprotein and glycolipid

• Membrane carbohydrates are usually short, branched chains of fewer than

15 sugar units.

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• Glycoproteins are formed when proteins on the outer phospholipid layer

covalently bonded with carbohydrate.
• Glycolipids are formed when short carbohydrate chain covalently bonded
to phospholipid. This is exposed on the outer surface of the cell.

Functions:
• Glycoprotein: “self” recognition - serve as identification tags that are
specifically recognized by other cells (cell – cell recognition), protection
and the immune response,and cell adhesion. Ex: Major histocompatibility
complex protein recognized by immune system
• Glycolipid: Tissue recognition - Cell recognition and provide stability and
help cells join to other cells to form tissues. Ex: A, B, O blood group markers

STRUCTURE: CHOLESTEROL

Figure 2.2.18: Cholesterol in plasma membrane

• Located between hydrophobic tail of phospholipid molecules in plasma

membrane of animal cells.

Functions:
• Maintain fluidity of membrane at different temperature.
• At moderate temperature, it reduces membrane fluidity by reducing
phospholipid movements, but at low temperature, it prevents solidification of
phospholipids by disrupting the regular packing of phospholipid. (Campbell
12th, page 198)

*Plant have very low level of cholesterol; rather related steroid lipids buffer
membrane fluidity in plant cell (Campbell 12th, page 198)

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SUBTOPIC 2.3:CELLS ARE GROUPED INTO TISSUES

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Describe animal tissues and plant tissues. (CLO 1)
b) Explain the following types of cells and tissues: (CLO 2)
i. Animal cells and tissues:
Epithelial cells (simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, stratified
squamous), nerve cell (motor neuron), muscle cells (smooth, striated and
cardiac muscle), connective tissues (compact bone, hyaline cartilage and
blood)
ii. Plant cells and tissues:
Meristem, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem.

2.3 (A) ANIMAL AND PLANT TISSUES.

• Cells as basic units of living organisms are grouped into tissues and organs.
• Cells in multicellular organisms do not function in isolation.
• Groups of cells of the same type (performing similar functions) form tissues and
act as a unit.
• An organ consists of several types of tissues that work together to perform
specific functions.

2.3 (B) ANIMAL TISSUES

Figure 2.3.1: Overview of animal tissues

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EPITHELIAL TISSUES

• Cover the outside of the body and line organs and cavities within the body.
• Epithelial cells are closely packed, often with tight junction, they function as
a barrier againts mechanical injury, pathogens and fluid loss.
• Based on number of cell layers, epithelial tissue can be divide into simple
and stratified while based on cell shape it can be divide into squamous,
cuboidal and columnar.

Type of tissue: Structures:

Simple squamous epithelial tissue • Single layer of cells attached to
the basement membrane.
• Cells are flattened and thin,
irregular shape with central
nucleus.
• View from the surface, they are
polygonal-shape.
Figure 2.3.2: Simple squamous
Distribution:
• Lining of the blood vessel.
• Lining of the alveoli of the lungs.

Function:
• Exchange of gaseous and nutrient
across the membrane by diffusion.

Type of tissue: Structures:

Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue • Single layer of cuboidal shape
cells.
• Central spherical nucleus.

Distributions:
• Lining of salivary glands,
pancreatic duct, thyroid gland,
kidney tubules.

Figure 2.3.3: Simple cuboidal Functions:

• Secretion, excretion and
absorption.

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Type of tissue: Structures:

Simple columnar epithelial tissue • Columnar shape with oval
nucleus near its basal end.
• Apical surface may have cilia/
microvilli.
• Ciliated type – to move
substance, filtering of foreign
particles in trachea
• Microvilli types – increase surface
area for reabsorption
• Cells are usually associated with
goblet cells (are modified
columnar cells that secrete
mucus).

Distributions:
• Lining of digestive tract, small
intestine, upper respiratory tract
and oviducts.

Functions:
Figure 2.3.4: Simple columnar • Absorption of nutrient and
secretion.
• Protection - The secreted mucus
serves as a lubricant for the linings
of the digestive and upper
respiratory tracts.
• Provides mechanical support

Type of tissue: Structures:

Stratified squamous epithelial tissue • Made up by multilayered of cells
and regenerates rapidly.
• Only the cells of deepest layer
attached to basement
membrane.
• New cells formed by division near
the basal surface push outward,
replacing cells that are sloughed
off.
Figure 2.3.5: Stratified squamous
Distributions:
• Lining of the oesophagus, outer
skin, vagina, anus, mouth

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Functions:
• Resists abrasion and mechanical
damages.
• Acts as a barrier (prevent water
loss through skin).

NERVOUS TISSUE

Structures:

Figure 2.3.6: Motor neuron

• The functional unit of nervous tissue is the nerve cell called neuron.
• Each neuron is composed of 3 main parts:
o Cell body - contains nucleus and most of the neuron organelles.
o Dendrites - Highly branched extention studded of the cell body.
o Axon – an extention that transmit signal to the other cell and much
longer than dendrites. Contain axoplasm surrounded by plasma
membrane (axolemma)
• Three types of neurons:
o Afferent (sensory neurons)
o Efferent (motor neurons)
o Interneuron/ Intermediary (relay neurons)
• Myelin sheath – wrap around axon of the neuron and insulating coat of cell
membrane from Schwann cell or oligodendrocytes.
• Nodes of Ranvier – gap in myelin sheath of certain axon where an action
potential may be generated.

Distributions:
• Brain and spinal cord.

Functions:
• Motor neuron - Conduct impulses out of central nervous system toward
muscles and glands (effector).

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MUSCLE TISSUES

• The tissue responsible for nearly all types of body movement.

• All muscle cells consist of filaments containing the proteins actin and myosin,
which together enable muscles to contract.

Type of muscle tissue: Structures:

Smooth muscle • Each muscle fibre consists of a
single, elongated spindle-shaped
cell containing one centrally
located nucleus.
• The muscle fibres lack striations.
• The contractile protein filaments
are not arranged in the same
patterns.

Distributions:
• Lining the walls of arteries and
Figure 2.3.7: Smooth muscle veins, the digestive tract, the
urinary bladder, the stomach and
the uterus.

Function:
• Responsible for involuntary
movement of the body.
• Contraction slower than skeletal
muscle but their energy efficient
(can contract for long period
without fatigue)

Type of muscle tissue: Structures:

Striated/ skeletal muscle • Long, cylindrical shape and are
arranged parallel to one another.
• Each muscle fibre is
multinucleated with the nuclei at
the periphery and located just
beneath the cell surface
membrane.
• The arrangement of contractile
units, or sarcomeres, along the
fibers gives the cells a striped
(striated) appearance.

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Distribution:
• Attached to bones by tendons

Function:
• Responsible for voluntary
movement of the body.
• Powerful, rapid contractions (not
sustained)

Figure 2.3.8: Striated muscle

Type of muscle tissue: Structures:

Cardiac muscle • Long, branches and cylindrical
shape.
• Have one or two nuclei per fibre
with many mitochondria.
• Muscle cells are connected to
one another by intercalated
discs.
• Intercalated disk relay signal from
cell to cell and help synchronize
heart contraction.
• The muscle fibres striated, branch
Figure 2.3.9: Cardiac muscle and form bridges with one
another to form a netlike
arrangement.

Distribution:
• Lining at the wall of heart.

Function:
• Responsible for involuntary
movement of the heart by form
continuous, rhythmic
contractions and allow heart
pump blood throughout the
body.
• Myogenic – able to initiate
contraction without stimulation
from nerve

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Consisting of a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular

matrix, hold many tissues and organ together and in place.
• Matrix generally consist of a web of fibers embedded in a liquid, jellylike or
solid foundation.

Type of connective tissue: Structures:

Compact bone • Compact bone consists of a
Haversian system (osteon) of
cylindrical shape with a
Haversian canal in the center.
• Each Haversian system is made
up of concentric circle called
lamellae around a Haversian
canal containing an artery, a
vein, lymph vessels and nerve
fibers
• Bone-forming cells called
osteoblasts are found in the
spaces between the lamellae
called lacunae.
• Fine channels called canaliculi
contain cytoplasmic strands
which connect the lacunae to
each other.
• Osteoblasts is active bone cell
functions to secrets matrix that
consists of mainly calcium
Figure 2.3.10:Compact bone phosphate, calcium carbonate
and protein
• Osteoblasts become less active
when the bone matures and are
known as osteocytes.
• The combination of hard mineral
and flexible collagen makes
bone harder than cartilage
•

Distribution:
• Skeleton

Function:
• Give body shape and provide
framework for support.
• Protect the internal organs

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• Provide surfaces for attachment

of striated muscles to enable
movement.
• Act as a reservoir for calcium and
phosphorus.
• Site for blood cell production in
the bone marrow

Type of connective tissue: Structures:

Hyaline cartilage • The composite of collagenous
fibers and chondroitin sulfate
make cartilage a strong yet
flexible support material.
• No blood vessels, nerve or lymph
vessels but remain alive by
• receiving oxygen & nutrients by
diffusion through the cartilage
ground substances from
surrounding blood vessels.
• Perichondrium - Protect the
cartilage (outer layer), Produce
new chondroblast
• The matrix – chondrin - Secreted
by chondroblast cell, Consist of
chondroitin sulfate
• Chondroblast an immature
cartilage cell; later becomes
chondrocytes
• Chondrocyte mature cartilage
cell; located in lacunae

Distributions:
• Trachea and bronchi.
• It forms the embryonic skeleton in
many bony vertebrates.
Figure 2.3.11: Hyaline cartilage • It covers the end of bones and
reduces friction between joints
during movement.
• It forms the skeleton of
cartilaginous fish rays.

Function:
• Give flexible support.

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Figure 2.3.12: Components of blood

B LOOD
• Blood has a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma
• Plasma consists of 90% water & 10% of a variety of substances in suspension
or dissolved in solution.
• Suspended in plasma are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white
blood cells) and cell fragments called platelets.

Type of blood component: Structures:

Erythrocytes • Small disk biconcave shape –
thinner at the center than at the
edge to increase the surface area
for difussion of gaseous
• Covered by a thin and elastic
plasma membrane (allow it to
pass through small blood
capillary).
• Lose their nucleus during
maturation – give more space for
haemoglobin
• Lack of mitochondria and
generate ATP exclusively by
anaerobic metabolism
• Contain pigment haemoglobin.
2.3.13: Red blood cell
Functions:
• Transport O2 and CO2

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Type of blood component: Structures:

Leukocytes • Contain five major types of white
blood cell.
• Contain nucleus and organelles
• Lack of pigment haemoglobin.
• Irregular in shape.
• Some are phagocytic, engulfing
and digesting microorganisms
and debris from the body’s own
dead cells.
• Also found outside of the
circulatory system, patrolling
interstitial fluid and lymphatic
Figure 2.3.14: system.
Types of white blood cell • The number of white blood cell
increase temporarily whenever
the body is fighting an infection.
• There are 2 types of leukocytes
o Granulocytes (72%)
▪ Neutrophils,
Eosinophils,
Basophils
o Agranulocytes (28%)
▪ Lymphocytes,
Monocytes
Function:
• Fight infection/ immune system
• Monocytes (Macrophage) and
Neutrophils are phagocytes
- engulf and digest bacteria
and debris from our own
dead cells.
• Lymphocytes become
specialized as B cells and T cells
- produce the immune
response against foreign
substances
• Eosinophil
- plays roles in allergy
responses and overcome
the parasitic worm
infections
• Basophil

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- release chemicals that

cause inflammation

Type of blood component: Structures:

Platelet • Originate as pinched – off
cytoplasmic fragments of
specialized bone marrow cells.
• Fragments cells, about 2-3 μm in
diameter.
• No nuclei
• Serve as both structural and
molecular function in blood
clotting

Figure 2.3.15: Platelet

2.3 (B) PLANT TISSUES

Figure 2.3.16: Classification of plant tissues.

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MERISTEM TISSUES

• In plant, growth occur throughout the life because they have

undifferentiated tissues called meristems.
• Composed of young and immature cells which are in a state of division and
growth cells.
• Small, thin cellulose cell wall with large nucleus located in the centre and
dense cytoplasm.
• Cells are closely packed and without intercellular air spaces.
• Shape of the cell may be spherical, oval, polygonal or rectangular.
• Contain small vacuoles or no vacuoles at all.
• Have ability to divide by mitosis and differentiate into specialized cells.

APICAL MERISTEM

Figure 2.3.17: Apical meristem

Structures:
• Consist of shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem.
• When they divide, some daughter cells remain in the apical meristem,
ensuring continuing population of undifferentiated cells.

Distributions:
• Root and shoot tips

Functions:
• Involve in primary growth, growth in length.
• Primary growth allows roots to extend throughout the soil and shoot to
increase exposure to light.

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LATERAL MERISTEM

Figure 2.3.18: Lateral meristem (cork cambium and vascular cambium)

Structures:
• 2 types, vascular cambium and cork cambium
• Cylinders of dividing cells that are one cell thick

Distribution:
• Vascular cambium extend along the length of roots and stems within
vascular bundle between xylem and phloem.
• Cork cambium found in the bark of root and stems of woody plant.

Function:
• Involve in secondary growth
• Vascular cambium add vascular tissue called secondary xylem and
secondary phloem.
• Cork cambium replaced the epidermis with the thicker, tougher periderm.

GROUND TISSUES

• Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular are part of the ground tissue
system.
• Ground tissue that is internal to the vascular tissue is known as pith.
• Ground tissue that is external to the vascular tissue is known as cortex.

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Figure 2.3.19: Plant tissues

PARENCHYMA TISSUE

Figure 2.3.20: Parenchyma

Structures:
• Consist of unspecialized living cells, with nucleus present in the cells.
• Usually isodiametric or elongated cells.
• When mature, have a large central vacuole with the cytoplasm pushed to
the cell periphery.
• Have primary cell walls that are thin and flexible and most lack secondary
walls.
• Cell wall containing cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.

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• Cells are loosely packed together/ large intercellular space.

Distributions:
• Cortex and pith of stem.

Functions:
• Perform most of the metabolic functions of plants, synthesizing and storing
various organic products.
• Retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other types of plants cell
under particular condition.
• Large intercellular air space for gaseous exchange.
• Contain chloroplast for photosynthesis
• Form secondary tissue such as cambium.
• Support in herbaceous plant

COLLENCHYMA TISSUES

Figure 2.3.21: Collenchyma

Structures:
• Nucleus present, consist of living cells at maturity.
• Polygon-shaped and elongated.
• Cells are closely packed together with very small or no intercellular spaces.
• Have unevenly thickened primary cell wall with deposits of cellulose,
pectin and hemicellulose
• The thickenings usually occur at the corners of the cell walls.
• Pits are present between cell wall

Distributions:
• Along midrib of leaves. Just under stem epidermis.
• Below the epidermis in the outer region of the cortex and gradually merges
into parenchyma towards inside.

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Functions:
• Giving mechanical strength and flexibility.
• Elastic support.
• To provide supporting tissue for the herbaceous plants (non woody plants).

SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE

Figure 2.3.22: Sclerenchyma

Structures:
• 2 types of cell; sclereids and fibers
• Have primary and secondary cell wall.
• Have thick (secondary) cell wall containing lignin.
• Cell walls are evenly thickened.
• No nucleus when mature, these cells usually die after maturity.
• Fibers - Elongated, slender with tapering ends.
• Sclereids – irregular in shape and very thick lignified secondary walls.
• Cells have no protoplasm with narrow empty lumen.
• Pits are present in the cell walls.
• Cells are closely packed together/no intercellular air space.

Distributions:
• Xylem and phloem
• Cortex below the epidermis of stems and roots.

Functions:
• Provide strength and mechanical support to woody plants.
• Sclereids and fibers are non-conducting tissues that add hardness or
rigidity to tissues
• Sclereids are responsible for the hardness of seeds and shell of walnut
• Starch granules are stored in the young, living fiber cells.

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Fibers

• Characteristics
o Elongated & polygonal
o Dead cell
o Thick wall with small lumen
• Distributions
o Outer region of cortex, pericycle of stems,
xylem & phloem
• Function in providing mechanical support

Sclereid
• Characteristics
✓ Shorter than fibers and irregular in shape,
impart the hardness to nutshells.
✓ Dead cell
• Distributions
✓ distributed in a variety of tissues but
particularly in stems, leaves and fruits /
seeds.
• Function in providing support & mechanical
protection

VASCULAR TISSUE

Figure 2.3.23: Vascular bundle in monocot and dicot

• Vascular tissue system are to facilitate the transport materials through the plant
and to provide mechanical support.
• Two types of vascular tissue are xylem and phloem.
• The vascular tissue of a root or stem is collectively called the stele.

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• In angiosperm, the root stele is a solid central vascular cylinder of xylem and
phloem whereas the stele of stem and leaves consist of vascular bundles,
separate strand containing xylem and phloem.

XYLEM

Structures:
• Consist of two cell type: tracheids and vessel element
• Tubular, elongated cell that are dead and lignified at functional maturity

i. Tracheids
o Long, thin, tapered cells having lignin-hardened secondary wall with
pits
o All vascular plants possess tracheids.
o Water flow from cell to cell through pits (water transport) and also
function in mechanical support.

ii. Vessel element

o Wider, shorter, thinner-walled and less tapered than tracheids.
o End walls of the vessel elements have perforation plates that enable
water to flow freely through the vessels
o Have larger diameter and specialized for water transport and fibers for
mechanical strength.

Functions:
• Function in transporting water and dissolved mineral salts to the upper part of
the plant.
• Mechanical support

PHLOEM

Structures:
• Consist of two cell type: Sieve tube elements and Companion cells
• Alive at maturity, but usually with a much reduced cell contents and no
nucleus.

i. Sieve tubes elements

o Consists of sieve tube element joined together to form a long tube.
o Their end walls are perforated forming sieve plates with sieve pores.
o The sieve tube element does not have lignin in their walls (has
cellulose).
o Their nuclei degenerate and are absent as they mature.

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ii. Companion cells

o Have nucleus, dense cytoplasm with a small vacuole.
o They are metabolically active and have numerous mitochondria and
ribosomes.
o Linked by numerous plasmodesmata to sieve tube elements

Functions:
• Specialized to transport organic substances from leaves to storage organs
and growing parts of plant body.

SUBTOPIC 2.4: CELL TRANSPORT

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Overview the various transport mechanisms across the membrane. (CLO 1)
b) Explain the various transport mechanisms across the membrane. (CLO 2)
iii. Passive transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis
iv. Active transport: Sodium – potassium pump and
v. Bulk transport: endocytosis and exocytosis

2.4 (A): OVERVIEW OF TRANSPORT MECHANISM ACROSS MEMBRANE

Simple diffusion

Passive transport Facilitated diffusion

Osmosis
Transport mechanism across
membrane Sodium - Potassium
Active transport
pump

Endocytosis
Bulk transport
Exocytosis

Figure 2.4.1: Overview of transport mechanism across membrane

2.4 (B) TRANSPORT MECHANISM (PASSIVE TRANSPORT)

• Movement of molecule, ion and atoms across cell membrane from a region of
higher concentration of substances to a region of lower concentration of
substances.
• The process does not require energy.
• Occur in both living and non-living organisms.

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SIMPLE DIFFUSION

Definition:
• The random movement of solute /the substances (molecule, ion and atoms)
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
• Through selectively permeable membrane until equilibrium is achieved
• Does not require energy.

Figure 2.4.2: Simple diffusion

Figure 2.4.3: Movement of water molecule based on concentration.

Examples of diffusion in living organism:

i. Gaseous exchange
• Oxygen diffuses out from alveoli into blood
capillaries
• Carbon dioxide diffuses into alveoli from
blood capillaries
ii. Some digested food diffuses across the gut wall into blood

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FACILITATED DIFFUSION

Definition:
• Movement of ions or polar molecules from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration
• with the help of transport protein (channel OR carrier proteins)
• without using energy/requiring no energy expenditure.

Figure 2.4.4: Facillitated diffusion

• A specific solute can be transported from the outside to inside or inside to

outside but always from higher [solute] to a region of lower [solute]

• Two major groups of transmembrane transport membrane proteins are

involved in facilitated diffusion:
• Carrier Proteins
• Channel proteins

• Mode of facilitated diffusion depends on the type of transport protein

Channel proteins Carrier proteins

Figure 2.4.5: Mode of facilitated diffusion

Channel proteins Carrier proteins

• Provide a corridor • Specific binding site
• Allow specific polar • Protein change conformation to
molecules/ions to across translocate the solute
membrane • E.g. Glucose, amino acids
• Fast transport
• E.g. Ions,water

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OSMOSIS

Definition:
• Osmosis is the net movement of free water molecules by diffusion from a region
of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential through a
selectively permeable membrane and does not required energy.

Concept of water potential

• Water potential (Ψ) is the term given to the tendency for water molecules to
enter or leave the solution by osmosis.
• Pure water therefore has the highest water potential, ψ = 0 kPa
• If two systems containing water are in contact, the random movements of
water molecules occur.
• Result in the net movement of water molecules from the system with the higher
water potential to the system with lower water potential until the
concentration of water molecules in both system is EQUAL

Figure 2.4.6:
Net movement of water molecules in system with different concentration

• Water potential, Ψ predict/ measure the DIRECTION of water molecule in an

osmotic system.
• Water molecule move:
▪ From hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution.
▪ From high Ψ to low Ψ
• Direction of water movement depends on: Solute potential (Ψs) and Pressure
potential (ΨP)
• The greater the water potential, Ψ , the less negative (-ve) water potential, Ψ value

• The formula to calculate the water potential is:

Water potential, Ψ = solute potential, ψS + pressure potential, ψP

Ψ : water potential : tendency for water molecules to enter or leave a

solution
ψS: solute potential: force of attraction between dissolved substances &

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water molecules in solution

ψP :pressure potential:an inward pressure developed by cell wall (to limit
further water uptake)

• Water diffuses from region of high water potential (less negative or zero value) to
a region of lower water potential (more negative value).

Solute potential, Ψs
• Solute affect the direction of osmosis.
• When solutes are added, they bind to water molecules. As a result there are fewer
free water molecules, reducing the capacity of water to move.
• Ψs value is always negative. The greater solute concentration, the more negative
its Ψs value. Ψs predict/ measure the change in Ψ with the presence of solute
molecules.
• All solutions therefore have lower water potential than pure water.
• The amount of this lowering is known as the solute potential (solute potential was
previously referred to as osmotic potential).

Figure 2.4.7: Movement of water based on water potential

Pressure potential, ψP

• Pressure potential (ψP) is a component of water potential that consist of the

physical pressure on a solution, which can
be positive, zero or negative.
• Pressure potential occur due to the
presence of cell wall.
• Hydrostatic pressure to which water is
subjected is called pressure potential or
refer to the component of water potential
due to the hydrostatic pressure that is
exerted on water in a cell
• For example, if solute potential inside the plant cell is higher than the outside of
cell, water will enter the cell.

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• Water enters plant cells by osmosis, pressure may build up inside the cell making
the cell turgid and increasing the pressure potential.
• In turgid plant cells is usually has a positive value as the entry of water causes
the protoplast to push against the cell wall.
• The cell content expand and pushes against the cell wall - TURGOR PRESSURE.
• Cell wall starts develop pressure, called the pressure potential.
• The cell wall in turn pushes back on the cell contents.

Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution

A solution in which
A solution in which A solution in which
the concentration
concentration concentration of
of solute outside
of solute outside the solute outside
the cell is lower
Definition cell is equal the cell is greater than
than the
with the solute
concentration of
solute inside concentration of concentration inside
solute inside the cell. the cell
the cell.
Direction of No net water
Water enters the
water movement across the Water leaves the cell
cell plasma membrane
movement
• Cell swells &
bursts
• Cell becomes
Effect animal Cell in normal Cell shrinks & becomes
lysed
cell condition crenated
• **RBC
becomes
haemolysed
• Protoplast
• Protoplast shrinks
expands
• Membrane pulls
Effect plant developing a Cell becomes away from cell wall
cell turgor pressure flaccid
• Cell becomes
• Cell becomes
plasmolysed
turgid (firm)

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Figure 2.4.8: The water balance in living cells

Water movement:

Value of water potential Direction of water movement

0 kPa HIGHEST
(solutian A) A B
-500 kPa LESS -VE A C
(solutian B) B C
-1000kPa MORE -VE
(solutian C) (LOWEST)

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• Movement of large polar/ionic molecules againts its concentration/

electrochemical gradient mediated by specific transport/carrier protein and
requiring an expenditure of energy.

• Protein pump has 2 specific binding sites

Na+ binding site
K+ binding site

• Outside cell : HIGH [Na+ ] and LOW [K+]

• Inside cell : LOW [Na+ ] and HIGH [K+]
o Pumped out : 3 Na+
o Pumped in : 2 K+

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Figure 2.4.9: Na+-K+ pump

SODIUM – POTASSIUM PUMP

Figure 2.4.10: Steps involve in Na+-K+ pump

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BULK TRANSPORT

• Certain particles are either too large to pass through the small pores in the
membrane or too hydrophilic to diffuse the phospholipids bilayer of the
plasma membrane.
• These materials are transported into or out of cells by bulk transport especially
in animal cells.
• Bulk transport is defined as the transport of material into or out of a cell by
enclosing it within a vacuole or vesicle.
• Requires energy
• Two types of bulk transport:
1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytosis

ENDOCYTOSIS

• Influx of material into cell through invagination of plasma membrane from

outside of the cell to the cytoplasm/Cellular uptake of macromolecules and
particulate substances by localized regions of the plasma membrane that
surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.
• Two types of Endocytosis:
1. Phagocytosis
2. Pinocytosis

Phagocytosis Pinocytosis

Figure 2.4.11: Two types of endocytosis

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Phagocytosis
• Solid substances are taken into cell by invagination of plasma membrane
and formation of pseudopodium.
• Solid particles enclosed in vesicle forming food vacuole/ phagosome/
phagocytic vacuole.
• The vacuole fuse with lysosome.
• Intracellular digestion occur. The digested materials are absorbed by cells.

Pinocytosis
• Cell engulf and absorbs droplets of liquids
• e.g. taking in dissolved solutes by absorptive cells of the kidney and intestines

Figure 2.4.12: Pinocytosis

Similarities between phagocytosis and pinocytosis
• Both processes involve the taking of substances into a cell through infolding
of the cell membrane and the formation of vesicles
• Both processes require ATP

Differences between phagocytosis and pinocytosis:

Phagocytosis Pinocytosis

Material taken in is large particulate /

Material taken in is liquids/ fluids/ small
bacteria /large fragments / solid
particulate/ solutes.
substance.

Involves formation of vacuoles//

Involves formation of (small) vesicles //
pseudopodium// invagination of
grooves.
membrane

Material are digested and absorbed Material // dissolved substances / fluids

into cytoplasm absorbed directly into cytoplasm and
Involve lysosome. not involve lysosomes.

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- The membrane folds inward

- Plasma membrane projects itself (invaginate) to form pinocytic vesicle
outward to form pseudopods. and breaks off from the plasma
membrane. No pseudopods formed.

EXOCYTOSIS

• Cell secrete substances from cytoplasm of the cell by the fusion of vesicle
with the plasma membrane to the outside
• The cell secrete certain molecules such as waste product or specific product
of secretion such as hormone by the fussion of the vesicles with the plasma
membrane.
• As the contents of the vesicle are released from the cell, the membrane of the
secretory vesicle is incorporated into the plasma membrane.
• This process is the primary mechanism by which plasma membranes grow larger

Figure 2.4.13: Process involve in exocytosis

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Figure 2.4.14: Exocytosis

• Eg: β- cell of the pancreas (secretory cell) that make insulin secrete it into
extracellular fluid by exocytosis

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