Physiological Responses to the Environment

MODULE 3
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Learning Outcomes:

1. Explain the physiological responses of plant to the environmental

conditions.

2. Explain the physiological responses of livestock to the environmental

conditions.

Content:

Physiological adaptations are important to cope with changing environmental

conditions and are considered to play a major role in determining which species will be
“winners” or “losers” under scenarios of global climate change.

The foods and fibers that we use from plants are the product of complex
physiology and metabolic reactions that occur at a microscopic level within plant cells.
What we cannot see, we often take for granted. Metabolism is the group of vital
biochemical reactions that occurs in the cells of all living organisms including plants.
Plant growth and development require many essential metabolic processes. Metabolic
energy transformations are critical for plants’ survival and are the foundation for the
human food source. In this regard, the processes of photosynthesis and respiration
require special consideration.

Environmental stress is one of the most significant factors affecting livestock

performance and health, and it is only expected to increase with effects of global
warming. Environmental Physiology of Livestock brings together the latest research on
environmental physiology, summarizing progress in the field and providing directions
for future research. Recent developments in estimating heat stress loads are discussed,
as well as key studies in metabolism, reproduction, and genetic expressions.

This chapter discusses the plant and livestock physiological responses to the
environmental conditions.

physiology

➢ study of the normal functioning of animals and plants during life and of the
activities by which life is maintained and transmitted.

Plant physiology

➢ That branch of plant sciences that aims to understand how plants live and func
tion. Its ultimate objective is to explain all life processes of plants by a minima
l number of comprehensive principles founded in chemistry, physics, and math
ematics.

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➢ Plant physiology seeks to understand all the aspects and manifestations of plan
t life. In agreement with the major characteristics of organisms, it is usually di
vided into three major parts: (1) the physiology of nutrition and metabolism, w
hich deals with the uptake, transformations, and release of materials, and also t
heir movement within and between the cells and organs of the plant; (2) the ph
ysiology of growth, development, and reproduction, which is concerned with t
hese aspects of plant function; and (3) environmental physiology, which seek
s to understand the manifold responses of plants to the environment. The part
of environmental physiology which deals with effects of and adaptations to ad
verse conditions—and which is receiving increasing attention—
is called stress physiology.

Animal physiology

➢ Animal physiology is the scientific study of the life-supporting properties,

functions and processes of animals or their parts. The discipline covers key
homeostatic processes, such as the regulation of temperature, blood flow and
hormones.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE

✓ Photosynthesis. the process by which plants convert energy form sunlight to

chemical energy. Plants use this energy for all other metabolic processes.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plant convert energy from sunlight.
✓ Photoperiodism is a response of plant to day length. Short day – Day length is
12 hours (Barley, oat, carrot and cabbage), day neutral – There is no or less
influence on day length (Tomato and maize).
✓ Phototropism –– Response of plants to light direction. Eg. Sunflower
✓ Photosensitive – Season bound varieties depends on quantity of light received.

Solar radiation (without which life will not exist)

From germination to harvest and even post-harvest crops are affected by solar
radiation. Biomass production by photosynthetic processes requires light. All physical
process taking place in the soil, plant and environment are dependent on light. Solar
radiation controls distribution of temperature and there by distribution of crops in a
region. Visible radiation is very important in photosynthetic mechanism of plants.
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR - 0.4 – 0.7µ) is essential for production of
carbohydrates and ultimately biomass. 0.4 to 0.5 µ - Blue – violet – Active. 0.5 to 0.6
µ - Orange – red – Active. 0.5 to 0.6 µ - Green –yellow – low active.

Air temperature

The air temperature range, and diurnal and seasonal fluctuations, play a large
role in determining the local flora and fauna. All organisms have an optimum
temperature for growing, and their minimum and maximum temperature thresholds
vary for different growing stages. For example, maize development is hindered above
35 °C, while rice has maximum temperature threshold between 36 - 40 °C. When these

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are exceeded, growth is delayed or even prevented, which can result in yield losses or
even plant loss, even in cases where sufficient water is present. For shade crops, such
as coffee, the effect is even more strongly pronounced. The optimal range of Arabica is
18 - 21 °C, with reduced photosynthesis between 24 - 34 °C, and no photosynthesis
above that. Extreme heat causes plant processes to shut-down. As the release of
moisture from transpiration is inhibited, and possible further heat stress is caused.
Higher air temperatures also have an influence on the spread and effects of pests and
diseases, as plants become more susceptible to disease.

Air humidity

Air humidity, combined with temperature changes during the diurnal cycle, can
lead to dew formation. Dew can be an important source of moisture for plant growth in
arid and semi-arid environments. Dew is used directly through leaf surface absorption,
reduces transpiration and can kick-start photosynthesis in the early hours due to leaf
water saturation. Air moisture can thus serve as an important addition to the water that
plants require, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Dew also affects the albedo,
both of soils and plant canopies. While it moistens, and darkens the soil, lowering its
albedo, it leaves a reflective surface on leaves, increasing their albedo.

High air humidity slows down transpiration from plants, since humid air does
not absorb water vapor as easily as dry air does. Here, the presence of local wind is
essential to mix the local atmosphere as it transports humid air away from vegetation.
High air humidity, in combination to changes in the air temperature can lead to rainfall
in a landscape, in case circumstances make air humidity reach saturation point. Local
winds also play a role in dew formation. While light wind was found to help dew
formation in unsheltered sites, moderate to strong winds were found to inhibit dew
formation.

When conditions are too humid, it may promote the growth of mold and
bacteria that cause plants to die and crops to fail, as well as conditions like root or
crown rot. Humid conditions also invite the presence of pests, such as fungus gnats,
whose larva feed on plant roots and thrive in moist soil.

Wind direction and speed

Wind can have a cooling effect by removing the boundary layer of warm air
around a plant. This can also increase water consumption by the plant, as removing the
layer and replacing it with drier air will causes increased transpiration. Wind can cause
temperatures to be warmer or cooler depending on the ambient temperature. In addition,
air movement in the canopy of vegetation is essential to maintain good CO2 levels for
growth, remove excess humidity and lower the overall humidity level, thereby reducing
the potential for diseases. Furthermore, many cereal crops are wind pollinated.

Wind can act as a transporter of nutrients like soil particles from other places,
and seeds, but also diseases and pests. As with pollination, bacteria and fungi depend
on wind to spread to a new host, while insects also make use of wind to expand their
range. There are also direct mechanical effects from wind such as possible damage to
leaves and crops. Sediments suspended in the wind hit leaves and stems from plants,
causing structural damage. Another effect is wind erosion, and the loss of top soil that

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reduces soil fertility. This can have a cascading effect on the microclimate through a
loss of vegetation potential and soil moisture storage capacity.

Soil Moisture

Soil moisture is one of the most important microclimate determinants. The

thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the soil is greatly increased when soil
moisture is present. Evapotranspiration is the process of transferring water from the
surface to the atmosphere, which takes a high amount of energy compared to heating
the air. Thus, areas with available soil moisture have a more balanced microclimate
with lower air and soil temperatures. This not only facilitates plant growth, but also
affects weather patterns and local rainfall patterns. On the contrary, when there is only
limited soil moisture more energy is available for sensible heating and near-surface air
temperatures increase.

When a good level of soil moisture is available soil biotic life can prevail.
Micro-organisms break down organic matter and release nutrients, which contributes
to soil fertility. Optimal conditions are met when moisture takes up around 60 percent
of the available water pore space. An excess of water prevents the supply of oxygen,
which can lead microbial activity to slow, stop, or turn anaerobic, which will have
negative effects on plant growth.

Soil Temperature

Soil temperature influences crop growth by providing the warmth necessary for
seeds, plant roots and micro-organisms in the soil. High soil temperatures can
negatively affect plant growth, while extreme temperatures can stall biological
processes of micro-organisms. On the other hand, low soil temperatures inhibit water
uptake by plants, inhibit nitrification and thereby reducing soil fertility, and increase
desiccation when simultaneously air temperatures are higher. Both high and low soil
temperatures play a distinct role by increasing or decreasing evapotranspiration from
plants. Soil moisture plays a key role, as higher soil moisture will lead to evaporation,
taking a higher amount of energy and thus lowering local temperatures during the day,
while increasing surface temperatures during the night.

LIVESTOCK PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE

✓ Thermoneutrality. “Comfort” zone.

✓ Homeothermy. Maintenance of appropriate internal body temperature is an

excellent example of homeostasis, sometimes called homeothermy.

✓ Cold Stress. When environment temperature drops below point of comfort

zone.

✓ Heat Stress. Heat stress begins when rising environmental temperature

reaches point or higher the comfort zone.

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Temperature

Environmental temperature is the integrated total of all temperatures

surrounding the animal. If the walls, ceiling, floor and air temperature are identical,
then the environment temperature is simply the air temperature. However, this is a fairly
rare case. The more usual case is the at surfaces and air are at different temperatures
and adjoining animals at still different temperatures. Measurement techniques for this
situation can illuminate the problem: a blackened sphere is used to obtain an integrated
measurement, taking into account the movement of air past the sphere.

Thus, it is rather difficult to obtain accurate measurement of environmental

temperature; on the other hand, it is very easy to measure air temperature; therefore,
our knowledge of the effects of air temperature is probably more complete that with
respect to any of the other parameters.

Figure 1. Simplified schematic representation of critical environmental temperatures

and the zones embraced by them.

As just mentioned, production of heat and moisture as a function of temperature

represents extremely valuable engineering data. Figure 2 illustrates the effect of
temperature on hourly heat and moisture loss from lactating dairy cattle under stanchion
barn conditions between 10 to 80 °F. The data are adjusted to a scale of Btu/1000lb in
order to permit use for any reasonable size of cow. Note that the latent heat is expressed
in Btu, which can be converted to weight of water vapor by using the latent heat of
vaporization of water, taken at the various temperatures. It will be appreciated that a
prime reason for ventilation is to remove the latent heat (water vapor); in winter the
vapor should not be allowed to condense within the structure; in summer it should be
eliminated in order to prevent undue rise in humidity.

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Figure 2. Barn heat dissipation rates (total, and latent heat in moisture removed by
ventilation) with stanchioned dairy cattle where barn relative humidity was
55-70%. Total barn heat declined rapidly above 80°F (26.7°C).

Figure 3 depicts a somewhat similar situation for dairy calves between 6 and 10
months of age. It is notable that air temperatures above about 97 °F brought the sensible
heat loss to zero and then negative, i.e., heat is added to the animal from the
environment. It is likewise notable that this negative heat is dissipated by the latent (or
evaporative) pathway. For the smaller animal, it appears that heat loss is equally divided
between evaporative and sensible heat at about 80 °F. This contrasts with the mature
cow, where the same condition occurs 10 °F lower, at 70 °F. This illustrates a fact long
known to physiologists; other things being equal, the larger the animal the more
difficult it is to dissipate the metabolic heat, a distinct disadvantage during high
temperatures. In other words, a high surface-to-volume ratio facilitates transfer of heat
to the environment; the smaller the animal the larger this ratio becomes.

Figure 3. Effect of temperature on heat losses of three Ayrshire bull calves between 6
and 10 months of age. Vapor pressure 8 mm Hg (dewpoint of 46°F or 7.8°C).

It was shown previously that heat production is minimal in the thermoneutral

zone (Figure 1) of temperature. This concept is difficult to verify with specific animals
under specific conditions. Research results generally indicate that heat production is
depressed as temperature rises and does not increase on the high-temperature side of

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thermoneutrality, as Fig. 1 suggests. The usual reason for this is that rising temperature
sooner or later will reduce the animal’s appetite; in fact, the appetite functions partially
as a mechanism to help regulate the internal temperature. Reduction in feed input will,
of course, reduce heat production, and this is a very typical pattern.

Figure 4. Effect of air temperature on total and latent heat losses of rhode island red
and white leghorn laying hens

For example, Fig. 4 summarizes research on effect of temperature on heat and

moisture of two breeds of laying hens. The drop in total heat with rising temperature is
plainly seen, as is the shift of heat loss over to evaporative cooling. The drop in feed
consumption, which helps to reduce heat production, will be reflected in production
losses; the Rhode Island Red, for example, produces eggs at a maximum rate when the
temperature is 50 – 60 °F. Note that the total heat curve of Fig. 4 for the Rhode Island
Red is nearly flat at the point, suggesting that this temperature zone is nearly
representative of thermoneutral conditions.

Figure 5 show the total and the sensible fraction of heat loss of broilers as related
to body weight and temperature. The effect of body weight on heat production is here
illustrated quite well; the heavier an animal becomes the less is the metabolism rate per
unit of weight, and likewise the specific heat loss, i.e., heat loss per pound of body
weight. Here again one sees that at higher temperatures the heat loss is depressed.

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Figure 5. Average heat losses from growing broilers at selected temperature with
relative humidity near 75%.

The effect of temperature on total heat loss of hogs is shown in Fig 6 for weights
ranging from 50 to 400lb. For a given weight of animal, particularly the heavier, total
heat loss is diminished with rising air temperature, as might be expected. The curves
are plotted from experimental results obtained at constant air velocity and relative
humidity.

Figure 6. Effect of constant air temperature on total heat loss of growing and mature
swine. Air velocity 20-30ft/min. RH 50%, wall, and air temperature the same.

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Figure 7 is an indication of effect of temperature and wight on latent heat of

swine. The data are referred to the “room,” which means that moisture evaporated from
room surfaces, as well as that from the animal, is being measure. In some respects this
kind of measurement is more realistic for use in design. Constant air velocity and
humidity are also indicated. As we have seen before, for a given weight of animal the
water vapor loss increases with rising temperature. An additional, important aspect of
Fig 7 is that different structural arrangements of the room have an effect on the latent
heat produced. As the legend suggests, water vapor loss from a slotted-floor house with
a lagoon underneath is much less that from a solid-floor house. Also, the effect of
bedding is suggested.

Figure 7. Room latent heat in a hog house with solid concrete floor scraped daily. No
bedding. Air velocity 20-30ft /min, and relative humidity about 50%. Note:
harmon et al. (1966) indicate that water vapor to be remove from a fully
slotted-floor house (waste retention area underneath) is a 0.42 as much as that
from a solid-floor house. Foe partially slotted house, the moisture to be
removed is in proportion to be percentage of floor that is slotted. If bedding is
used on solid floor the value in the graph can increase as much as one-third.

Dairy Cows. Now let us consider the effect of temperature on production. The
dairy cow, for example, is peculiarly susceptible to the production-depressing effects
of high temperature. Figure 8 illustrates this for two breeds, the Holstein and the Jersey.
The points plotted represent numbers of animals tested at a given temperature with all
other factors held constant. The results show that both breeds produce at normal level
between 40 and 75 °F. In effect, this can be considered the thermoneutral zone for these
animals. Above 75°F the production losses are increasingly severe; at 95°F the Holstein
is down to 50% normal, while the Jersey is about 62%. This is a good example of size-
environment interaction, since the heavier animals, the Holstein is down to 50% normal,
while the jersey is about 62%. This is a good example of size-environment interaction,
since the heavier animals, the Holstein, are shown to suffer more from high temperature
than the lighter jersey. Below 40°F, however, the lighter animals are affected by the
cold, whereas the heavier are not.it is worthy of note that the observations plotted in
fig.8 (and fig.9) have been corrected for the normal decline in lactation, which is

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characteristic time function of all dairy cattle. Another variable possibly affecting
production volume is the proportion of fat in the milk.

Fig. 8 has value as a general index of effect of temperature in percentage-of-

normal units. As improvements in breeding and nutrition continue to raise production
averages, the relations depicted in fig.8 will still be valid, while the data of fig.9 will
slowly become obsolete. Nevertheless fig.9 shows the effect of temperature of the yield
of milk for various breeds, and this furnishes concrete numbers for comparison with the
relative data in fig.8.

Figure 8. Percentage of normal milk production at various environmental temperature.

the relative humidity ranged from 55 to 70%.

Figure 9. Air temperature effects on milk yield of cows in a constant -temperature

laboratory. Relative humidity about 50%.
The brahma (Bos indicus) breed is not significant in the united states as
producers of milk; they do not produce enough to compete with the European breeds
(Bos taurus). They are, however, important as beef cattle in the south and southwest,

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either pure or crossed with a European breed. A point of interest in Fig. 9 is to realize
how a low milk producer (Brahman) is relatively unaffected by high temperature,
whereas the high milk producer is severely affected. As said before, high production
means high levels of metabolic heat.

Young Cattle. Growth of young cattle is an important economic consideration.

There is evidence that temperatures below freezing cause an undue amount feed to be
diverted to heat rather than to weight gain, otherwise the low-temperature response does
not seem critical. Comparisons of growth rates at constant 50°F with constant 80°F
have, however, shown important differences. Experiments conducted with Brahman,
Shorthorn, and Santa Gertrudis (a Brahman-Shorthorn cross) indicated that the
Brahman grows more rapidly at 80°F, the Santa Gertrudis equally well at either
temperature, and the Shorthorn grows more rapidly at 50°F. the energy cost for all
breeds per pound of gain was less at 50 than at 80°F. It is apparent that the growth and
the efficiency of growth for calves is optimized in the temperature zone of
approximately 40-75°F, similar to the zone of optimum milk production.

Laying Hens. The effect of temperature on egg production of Rhode Island Red
Hens is suggested in Fig. 10. It appears that the optimal range for eggs per day is 50-
65°F, or possible 60°F. At 65°F the egg size and shell thickness begin to decrease. By
90°F the production is severely reduced. It is noteworthy that these animals will die if
exposed very long to 100°F, a situation created by the limited capacity for evaporative
heat loss possessed by poultry, combined with highly insulative feathers. Recalling that
the smaller animal has a large surface-to-volume ratio, which aids heat loss, it must also
be recalled that the metabolic rate per unit body weight is also greater in the smaller
animal. Thus, the bird is well equipped to survive cold temperatures but less well
equipped to cope with heat. Therefore, heat production at high temperatures is reduced,
partly as a result of depressed appetite.

Figure 10. Effect of temperature on heat and egg production of poultry.

Broilers. A somewhat similar picture is seen in Fig. 11, which illustrates the
effect of temperature on growth of broilers. Starting together at the age of 5 weeks, by
the end of 10 weeks the broilers grown at 100°F weigh less than half those grown at
60°F. the difference between those grown at 60 and 80°F is not as startling but still

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quite appreciable when multiplied by the thousands of birds that are usually involved.
Clearly, the optimum growth temperature is below 80°F.

Figure 11. Effect of air temperature on body weight of male broilers. Relative humidity
was 60% at all temperatures, except that it was 80% at 47°F.

Growth of turkeys is affected by temperature. figure 12 shows that optimum

growth temperature is in the zone 60-70°F, possibly lower for the female.

Figure 12. Effect of constant air temperature on weight gain and feed efficiency of
broad-breasted white and broad-breasted bronze turkeys between 12 and 24weeks of
weeks of age. Relative humidity about 50% with 16hr daylength.

Hogs. A considerable amount of research has been done to determine the effect
of constant temperature on productive capacity of swine. As might be expected, the
heavier animal is more drastically affected, as shown in Fig. 13. For pigs that weigh
from 50 to 200 lb, temperatures above and below about 60°F reduce the daily weight
gain and change the feed efficiency unfavorably; by contrast, 12- to 50-lb animals grow
equally well in the range 45-90°F. It appears that carcass quality of pigs is best when
they are raised between 60 and 70°F.

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Figure 13. Deviation from performance at 60°F in daily gain and feed efficiency of
swine exposed to various average daily temperature.

Another problem with swine relates to the bad effects that result when the
breeding herd is exposed to sustained temperature of 80°F or higher from about three
weeks before to immediately after breeding. It has been discovered that the number of
pigs farrowed may be severely reduced. Since the number of pigs per litter is an
important productive index, it appears that environmental control may be of economic
benefit during and before breeding time.
It is also known that sow condition and litter growth improve and mortality
decreases when lactating sows are cooled in hot weather.

The process of reproduction in domestic animals is unquestionably complicated

by high temperature. Prolonged exposure to temperatures of 85°F or above depress
reproductivity capacity in the male and adversely affect conception rate in the female,
as exemplified above in the case of swine.

It is therefore perhaps worth repeating that all animal physiological processes

of economic value to humans are rendered less efficient by environmental temperatures
outside the thermoneutral zone. The location and range of the zone on the temperature
scale will differ according to species, size, age, plane of nutrition, productive status,
and other factors; however, it is the key for engineers seeking optimized environments.

Cycling Temperatures

The discussion thus far has been principally directed to the effects of constant
temperature. A completely controlled environment will have this characteristic, but the
natural environment will not. Daily cycles of temperature are common, even under
conditions of confinement housing. Such cycles would be especially important, for
example, in a large feedlot where only minimum shelter is provided.
The effects of cycling temperature are complicated by “residual” or long-range
physiological adjustments. Response to stressful conditions may be delayed, for
example, until after the conditions have passed.

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The effect of daily temperature cycles on milk production by cattle is about the
same as the average of the daily variation as at constant temperature. For example, a
daily variation from 60 to 100°F and back to 60°F will have the same effect on
production as a constant temperature of 80°F.

The weight gain and feed conversion rate in swine, however, may respond
differently to cycling as compared to constant temperature. it was found, when the
average of daily cycles was near 70°F, that the daily weight gains and conversion rates
were more favorable at a constant temperature of 70°F than when air temperature cycled
from 50 to 90°F or 40 to 100°F. It appears that fluctuating temperatures require more
feed per pound of gain than does a similar constant temperature.

It is known that high-temperature stress for Leghorn Layers begins at about

80°F but temperatures near 100°F have few undesirable effects providing the night
temperatures drop down 40°F or more from daytime highs.

Very little more than that above known of the effects of daily variation in
temperature. In some species such variation may operate as a productive stimulus; in
others it may cause productive loss.

Seasonal variations in temperature are met by changes in hair coat and

metabolic rate, among others. Many of these changes tend to maintain the internal
temperature balance.

Humidity

Humidity refers to the water vapor that is mixed with the atmospheric gases,
forming an integral part of “air.” Nearly all normal atmospheres contain more or less
water vapor. The water vapor fraction was not specified in some of the foregoing
remarks concerning effects of temperature; however, it is usually present and may have
some effect on production.

In theory, about the only effect humidity could have would be to influence the
rate of evaporation of water vapor from the animal. This is indeed the general case, but
inhibition of the animal evaporation rate could not markedly effect production except
at air temperatures above thermoneutrality. This is because a 100% change in relative
humidity at lower temperatures is only a small change in vapor pressure. At high
temperatures, however, humidity affects production because the animal heat loss
proceeds largely by evaporation in that zone, and evaporative potential is expressed by
the vapor pressure difference between the animal surfaces and the surrounding air.

Light

The seasonal variations in physiology of farm animals are in many cases related
to light, including both duration and quality. It appears that length of day, or rate of
change of daylength, have marked effects on hair coat of cattle, egg production or
chickens and growth of broilers, and wool growth and breeding behavior of sheep.
Swine, on the other hand, are apparently unaffected by daily changes in light duration.
There is no doubt that light is a very important parameter in the case of poultry and
should be considered when measures for environmental control are being planned.

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Air Movement

Animal heat loss is influenced by air velocity, which is important at both low
and high temperatures. Under confinement conditions the air velocity can usually be
regulated by fans. In the case of dairy cattle held at 95°F air temperature, an increase in
air flow rate from 0.5 to 10 mph tended to reduce production losses normally experience
at such high temperatures. However, 10 mph is a rather high velocity inside a building
and would be particularly annoying if conditions happened to be dusty. The favorable
effect of increased air flow at high temperatures is due mostly to the increase in
evaporative heat loss.

The daily weight gains of beef cattle in summer are considerably less at 0.5 mph
compared to 4 mph. Increasing air velocity above the latter figures, however, gives no
further advantage.

The effect of air velocity on swine is not important in general, except that under
cold conditions increasing air velocity will probably be undesirable through increasing
the food required per pound of gain. The effect of air velocity on cooling is presumably
also affected by relative humidity.

There is evidence that increasing air velocity from about 0.25 to 6 mph causes
a significant increase in growth rate of broilers.

Radiation

At high temperatures it appears that shading animals from solar and sky
radiation is of considerable benefit. The weigh gain and feed conversion rate of shaded
beef cattle are much better than when unshaded. Similar results have been found for
hogs.

Much more could be said about the effects of environmental parameters on

animal physiology; however, the basic problem of engineering of animal shelters
reduces to economic maintenance of thermoneutrality.

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Assignment 3
Physiological Responses to the Environment

Name: ________________________________ Rating: ______________

Course & Year: ________ Date Performed: ________ Date Submitted: ________

Direction: Give your comprehensive knowledge of the following.

1. Discuss briefly the physiological responses of plant to the environment.

2. Discuss briefly the physiological responses of livestock to the environment.

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Module 3
Laboratory Exercise 2
Physiological Response to the Environment

Name: ________________________________ Rating: ______________

Course & Year: ________ Date Performed: ________ Date Submitted: ________

Objective:

1. To be able to determine and describe the physiological response of plant to the

environment.

Laboratory Equipment and materials:

1. Laptop or personal computer

2. Digital camera or cellphone
3. WIFI (Internet connection)
4. Cups (styrofoam)
5. Soil
6. Lettuce seeds

Direction:

1. In sowing lettuce seeds, use pots, styrofoam or cups filled with sterilized soil.
Place the seeds in six (6) cups accordingly, 3 cups for treatment 1 and 3 cups
for treatment 2. Take care of your seedlings.

Treatment 1 = Sprayed with cold water (mixed with ice)

Treatment 2 = Sprayed with normal water

2. Observe the difference of two treatments for 2 weeks.

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References

Barre, H.J., Sammet, L.L., Nelson, G.L. (1988). Environmental and Functional
Engineering of Agricultural Buildings. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.
ISBN 0-422-21091-4

Spate Irrigation Network Foundation (2016). Managing the Microclimate.

Sheaffer, C.C., Moncada, K.M. (2012). Introduction to Agronomy, Food, Crops, and
Environment. 2nd Edition. ISBN-13: 978-1-1113-1233-6

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