Biology Olympiad (Notes)

Cell Biology and Biochemistry

Cell Biology
1. Structure and Function of Plant and Animal Cells
Cells are the basic units of life. They can be broadly classified into plant cells and animal cells,
both of which share common features but also have unique differences.

1.1. Common Features of Plant and Animal Cells

●​ Cell Membrane: semi-permeable barrier controlling the movement of substances.

●​ Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA) and regulates cell activities.
●​ Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance where metabolic reactions occur.
●​ Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, generates ATP via cellular respiration.
●​ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Network involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
●​ Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins for transport.
●​ Ribosomes: synthesize proteins for cellular functions.

1.2. Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells

Feature Plant Cells Animal Cells

Cell Wall Present (made of cellulose) Absent

Chloroplasts Present (site of Absent

photosynthesis)

Vacuole Large central vacuole Small or absent

(stores water and nutrients)

Centrioles Absent Present (involved in cell

division)

Shape Regular, rectangular Irregular, round

2. Organelles and Their Functions
Organelles are specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions.

2.1. Nucleus

●​ Enclosed by a nuclear membrane.

●​ Contains chromatin (DNA + proteins) that regulates gene expression.
●​ The nucleolus inside produces ribosomes.

2.2. Mitochondria

●​ Site of cellular respiration.

●​ Produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of the cell.
●​ Contains its own DNA, suggesting an evolutionary origin from bacteria.

2.3. Chloroplasts (Only in Plant Cells)

●​ Site of photosynthesis, converting light energy into glucose.

●​ Contains the pigment chlorophyll.
●​ Has its own DNA and ribosomes.

2.4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

●​ Rough ER (RER): Has ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis.

●​ Smooth ER (SER): No ribosomes, synthesizes lipids, and detoxifies chemicals.

2.5. Golgi Apparatus

●​ Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.

●​ Form vesicles for secretion.

2.6. Vacuoles

●​ Plant Cells: The large central vacuole maintains turgor pressure and stores nutrients.
●​ Animal Cells: Small vacuoles or vesicles, mainly for transport.

3. Cellular Respiration: Role of Mitochondria in ATP

Production
3.1. Overview of Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is a process where glucose is broken down to release ATP.

Equation: C6​H12​O6​+6O2​→6CO2​+6H2​O+ATP

3.2. Stages of Cellular Respiration

1.​ Glycolysis (Cytoplasm):

○​ Glucose → Pyruvate + 2 ATP
2.​ Krebs Cycle (Mitochondria Matrix):
○​ Pyruvate → CO₂ + NADH + 2 ATP
3.​ Electron Transport Chain (Mitochondria Inner Membrane):
○​ Uses NADH to generate 34 ATP

3.3. Importance of ATP

●​ Used for cellular activities such as muscle contraction, active transport, and
biosynthesis.

4. Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Nucleus Absent Present

DNA Circular, in nucleoid Linear, in nucleus

Organelle Few (ribosomes only) Many (mitochondria, ER, Golgi, etc.)

s

Size Small (1-10 µm) Larger (10-100 µm)

Examples Bacteria, Archaea Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists

Microbiology and Biotechnology

Biochemistry
1. Basic Biomolecules and Their Functions
Cells are made up of four main types of biomolecules:

1.1. Carbohydrates

●​ Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)

●​ Function: Main energy source (glucose), structural support (cellulose).
●​ Examples:
○​ Monosaccharides: Glucose, Fructose
○​ Disaccharides: Sucrose, Lactose
○​ Polysaccharides: Starch (plants), Glycogen (animals), Cellulose (cell walls)

1.2. Proteins

●​ Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S)
●​ Function:
○​ Enzymes (catalysts)
○​ Structural support (collagen, keratin)
○​ Transport (hemoglobin)
●​ Building Blocks: Amino acids (20 types).
●​ Structure:
○​ Primary: Amino acid sequence.
○​ Secondary: Alpha helices and beta sheets.
○​ Tertiary: 3D shape.
○​ Quaternary: Multiple polypeptides.

1.3. Lipids

●​ Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)

●​ Function:
○​ Long-term energy storage.
○​ Cell membrane structure (phospholipids).
○​ Hormones (steroids).
●​ Types:
○​ Fats: Saturated (solid) and unsaturated (liquid).
○​ Phospholipids: Form cell membranes.
○​ Steroids: Cholesterol, hormones.

1.4. Nucleic Acids

●​ Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P)
●​ Function: Store and transmit genetic information.
●​ Types:
○​ DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): Carries genetic code.
○​ RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): Helps in protein synthesis.
2. Enzymes: Structure, Function, and Role in Metabolism
2.1. Structure of Enzymes

●​ Made of proteins.
●​ Have an active site where the substrate binds.
●​ Highly specific to their substrate.

2.2. Function of Enzymes

●​ Act as biological catalysts, speeding up reactions by lowering activation energy.

●​ Follow the lock and key model or induced fit model.

2.3. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Factor Effect

Temperature Too high denatures enzymes, too low slows

reaction.

pH Extreme pH denatures enzymes.

Substrate Increases reaction rate until saturation.

Concentration

2.4. Role in Metabolism

●​ Enzymes help in breaking down (catabolism) and building up (anabolism)

molecules.
●​ Example:
○​ Amylase: Breaks down starch into maltose.
○​ DNA Polymerase: Builds DNA strands.
Microbiology and Biotechnology
1. Microorganisms
Microorganisms are microscopic living organisms found in various environments. They can be
beneficial or harmful and play important roles in nature and human applications. The five
major types of microorganisms are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae.

1.1. Bacteria

●​ Structure:
○​ Prokaryotic cells (lack a nucleus).
○​ Contain cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and circular DNA
(nucleoid).
○​ Some have a flagellum for movement.
●​ Shapes:
○​ Cocci (spherical) – e.g., Staphylococcus aureus
○​ Bacilli (rod-shaped) – e.g., Escherichia coli
○​ Spirilla (spiral-shaped) – e.g., Helicobacter pylori
●​ Reproduction:
○​ Binary fission (asexual reproduction).
●​ Importance:
○​ Helpful bacteria: Used in digestion, food production (yogurt, cheese), and
medicine.
○​ Harmful bacteria: Cause diseases like tuberculosis, pneumonia, and food
poisoning.

1.2. Viruses

●​ Structure:
○​ Non-living particles that require a host cell to reproduce.
○​ Contain genetic material (DNA or RNA) inside a protein coat (capsid).
○​ Some viruses have a lipid envelope for protection.
●​ Reproduction:
○​ Attach to a host cell, inject genetic material, take over cell machinery, and
replicate.
●​ Examples of Viral Diseases:
○​ Influenza (Flu)
○​ HIV/AIDS
○​ COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2)

1.3. Fungi
 ●​ Structure:
○​ Eukaryotic organisms with a cell wall (made of chitin).
○​ Can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds, mushrooms).
●​ Reproduction:
○​ Asexual (budding, spore formation) or sexual reproduction.
●​ Importance:
○​ Helpful fungi: Used in antibiotics (penicillin), food production (bread, cheese),
and decomposition.
○​ Harmful fungi: Cause diseases like athlete’s foot and ringworm.

1.4. Protozoa

●​ Structure:
○​ Single-celled eukaryotic organisms.
○​ Lack a cell wall, have a nucleus and organelles.
●​ Movement:
○​ Flagella (whip-like tail) – Trypanosoma
○​ Cilia (hair-like structures) – Paramecium
○​ Pseudopodia (false feet) – Amoeba
●​ Importance:
○​ Some are parasitic, causing diseases like malaria (Plasmodium) and dysentery
(Entamoeba histolytica).

1.5. Algae

●​ Structure:
○​ Eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms.
○​ Can be unicellular (Chlorella) or multicellular (Seaweed).
●​ Importance:
○​ Produce oxygen via photosynthesis.
○​ Used in food supplements, biofuels, and cosmetics.

2. Biotechnology
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms or biological processes to develop useful products
for medicine, agriculture, and industry.

2.1. Uses in Medicine

●​ Genetic Engineering:
○​ Recombinant DNA technology is used to modify genes.
 ○​ Insulin production: Bacteria (E. coli) genetically modified to produce human
insulin for diabetics.
●​ Gene Therapy:
○​ Treating genetic disorders by inserting correct genes into patients.
●​ Stem Cell Therapy:
○​ Used for regenerating damaged tissues.

2.2. Uses in Agriculture

●​ Genetically Modified (GM) Crops:

○​ Crops like Bt cotton, golden rice engineered for pest resistance and higher
yield.
●​ Biofertilizers:
○​ Bacteria like Rhizobium help fix nitrogen in soil, reducing chemical fertilizer use.
●​ Biopesticides:
○​ Microorganisms like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produce natural insecticides.

2.3. Uses in Industry

●​ Fermentation:
○​ Microbes like Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) used in making bread, beer,
and wine.
●​ Biodegradable Plastics:
○​ Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) produced by bacteria.
●​ Biofuels:
○​ Algae and bacteria are used to produce renewable energy sources like
bioethanol and biodiesel.

3. Antibiotics and Vaccines

3.1. Antibiotics

●​ Definition:
○​ Chemical substances produced by microorganisms to kill or inhibit bacterial
growth.
●​ Discovery:
○​ Alexander Fleming (1928) discovered penicillin from Penicillium fungus.
●​ Types:
○​ Broad-spectrum (effective against many bacteria, e.g., tetracycline).
○​ Narrow-spectrum (effective against specific bacteria, e.g., penicillin).
●​ Mechanism of Action:
○​ Inhibit cell wall synthesis (e.g., penicillin).
 ○​ Block protein synthesis (e.g., tetracycline).
○​ Interfere with DNA replication (e.g., ciprofloxacin).
●​ Antibiotic Resistance:
○​ Overuse/misuse of antibiotics leads to resistant bacteria (e.g., MRSA).

3.2. Vaccines

●​ Definition:
○​ A biological preparation that provides immunity against specific diseases.
●​ Types of Vaccines:
○​ Live attenuated vaccines: Contain weakened form of pathogen (e.g., MMR
vaccine).
○​ Inactivated vaccines: Contain killed pathogens (e.g., polio vaccine).
○​ mRNA vaccines: Use genetic instructions to stimulate immune response (e.g.,
COVID-19 vaccine).
●​ How Vaccines Work:
○​ Introduce antigens into the body.
○​ Stimulate immune response without causing disease.
○​ Create memory cells for long-term immunity.
●​ Role in Disease Prevention:
○​ Eradicated diseases like smallpox.
○​ Prevent outbreaks of measles, polio, COVID-19.

Summary Table
Topic Key Points

Microorganism Includes bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae. Some are

s beneficial, others cause diseases.

Biotechnology Used in medicine (insulin, gene therapy), agriculture (GM crops,

biofertilizers), industry (fermentation, biofuels).

Antibiotics Discovered by Alexander Fleming (penicillin), used to treat bacterial

infections, but resistance is an issue.

Vaccines Provide immunity, prevent diseases like polio, measles, COVID-19

through live, inactivated, or mRNA vaccines.
Plant Anatomy and Physiology

Plant Structures
1. Overview of Plant Tissues
Plant tissues are broadly classified into meristematic and permanent tissues based on their
ability to divide.

1.1. Meristematic Tissues

●​ Definition: Actively dividing cells responsible for plant growth.

●​ Types:
1.​ Apical Meristem – Found at root and shoot tips, responsible for primary growth
(lengthening).
2.​ Lateral Meristem – Found in vascular and cork cambium, responsible for
secondary growth (thickening).
3.​ Intercalary Meristem – Present in grasses and stems, helps in regrowth.

1.2. Permanent Tissues

●​ Definition: Mature, non-dividing cells that perform specialized functions.

●​ Types:
1.​ Simple Tissues (made of one type of cell):
■​ Parenchyma: Storage, photosynthesis, and wound healing.
■​ Collenchyma: Provides flexibility and mechanical support (e.g., petiole).
■​ Sclerenchyma: Dead, rigid cells for structural support (e.g., seed coat).
2.​ Complex Tissues (made of different types of cells):
■​ Xylem: Transports water and minerals.
■​ Phloem: Transports food (sugars) throughout the plant.

2. Structure and Functions of Plant Organs

2.1. Root

●​ Function:
○​ Anchors the plant in soil.
○​ Absorbs water and minerals.
○​ Stores food (e.g., carrot, sweet potato).
●​ Types:
○​ Taproot (e.g., dicots like beans).
○​ Fibrous root (e.g., monocots like wheat).

2.2. Stem

●​ Function:
○​ Supports leaves and flowers.
○​ Transports water (xylem) and nutrients (phloem).
○​ Stores food (e.g., potato).
●​ Types:
○​ Herbaceous stem (soft, non-woody).
○​ Woody stem (hard, found in trees).

2.3. Leaf

●​ Function:
○​ Photosynthesis (produces food).
○​ Gas exchange through stomata.
○​ Transpiration (water loss through stomata).
●​ Structure:
○​ Cuticle (waxy layer prevents water loss).
○​ Epidermis (protective outer layer).
○​ Mesophyll (contains chloroplasts for photosynthesis).
○​ Veins (xylem and phloem).

2.4. Flower

●​ Function: Reproduction.
●​ Parts:
○​ Sepals (protect bud).
○​ Petals (attract pollinators).
○​ Stamens (male part: anther + filament).
○​ Carpel/Pistil (female part: stigma, style, ovary).

2.5. Fruit

●​ Function: Protects seeds and helps in seed dispersal.

 ●​ Types:
○​ Fleshy (e.g., mango, apple).
○​ Dry (e.g., peanuts, wheat).

2.6. Seed

●​ Function: Contains embryo for new plant growth.

●​ Parts:
○​ Embryo (baby plant).
○​ Endosperm (food storage).
○​ Seed coat (protection).

3. Vascular System: Xylem and Phloem

Tissue Function Components

Xylem Transports water and minerals upward Tracheids, vessel elements, fibers,
from roots to leaves. parenchyma

Phloem Transports food (sucrose) Sieve tube elements, companion

bidirectionally. cells, fibers, parenchyma

Photosynthesis and the Carbon Cycle

1. Detailed Process of Photosynthesis
1.1. Overview

●​ Converts light energy into chemical energy (glucose).

●​ Occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells.
●​ Equation: 6CO2​+6H2​O+light→C6​H12​O6​+6O2​

1.2. Stages of Photosynthesis

1. Light-Dependent Reactions (Occurs in Thylakoid Membrane)

●​ Uses sunlight to split water (H₂O) and produce ATP and NADPH.
●​ Releases O₂ as a byproduct.
2. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle, Occurs in Stroma)

●​ Uses CO₂, ATP, and NADPH to form glucose.

2. Role of Chloroplasts and Pigments

●​ Chloroplasts: Site of photosynthesis.
●​ Pigments:
○​ Chlorophyll a (main pigment, absorbs red and blue light).
○​ Chlorophyll b, carotenoids (accessory pigments, absorb other wavelengths).

3. Carbon Cycle: Importance of Photosynthesis

●​ Photosynthesis removes CO₂ from the atmosphere.
●​ Plants store carbon as glucose.
●​ Respiration and decomposition release CO₂, maintaining the balance.
●​ Helps reduce global warming by absorbing CO₂.

Growth and Development

1. Role of Plant Hormones
Hormone Function Example

Auxins Cell elongation, root growth, phototropism Indole Acetic Acid (IAA)

Gibberellins Stem elongation, seed germination Used in fruit enlargement

Cytokinins Cell division, delays aging Promotes shoot growth

Ethylene Fruit ripening, leaf abscission Bananas ripening

Abscisic Acid Inhibits growth, closes stomata in drought Dormancy in seeds

(ABA)
2. Stages of Plant Growth
1.​ Germination: Seed absorbs water and begins to grow.
2.​ Vegetative Growth: Roots, stems, and leaves develop.
3.​ Flowering: Reproductive structures form.
4.​ Fruiting and Seed Formation: Pollinated flowers develop into fruits and seeds.
5.​ Senescence: Aging and shedding of leaves.

3. Factors Affecting Growth

Factor Effect

Light Essential for photosynthesis, it affects phototropism.

Water Maintains turgidity, needed for photosynthesis.

Nutrients NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium) is important for plant

health.

Summary Table

Topic Key Points

Plant Includes tissues, organs (root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, seed),
Structures vascular system (xylem, phloem).

Photosynthesis Converts light to chemical energy, occurs in chloroplasts, involves

light-dependent and Calvin cycle.

Carbon Cycle Photosynthesis removes CO₂, plants store carbon, respiration releases it.
Plant Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and ABA regulate growth.
Hormones

Growth Factors Light, water, and nutrients influence development.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

1. Respiration
1.1. Types of Respiration

1.​ Aerobic Respiration​

○​ Definition: Breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to release energy.

○​ Equation: C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATPC_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 →
6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATP
○​ Occurs in: Mitochondria.
○​ Produces: High ATP yield (36-38 ATP per glucose molecule).
2.​ Anaerobic Respiration​

○​ Definition: Breakdown of glucose without oxygen.

○​ Equation (in humans): C6H12O6→2C3H6O3(LacticAcid)+ATPC_6H_{12}O_6
→ 2C_3H_6O_3 (Lactic Acid) + ATP
○​ Occurs in: Cytoplasm.
○​ Produces: Low ATP yield (only 2 ATP per glucose).
○​ Byproducts: Lactic acid in humans, alcohol + CO₂ in yeast.

1.2. Gas Exchange in Animals

 Organism Gas Exchange Mechanism
Organ

Fish Gills Oxygen from water diffuses into blood, CO₂ diffuses
out.

Amphibians Lungs + skin Some breathe through lungs, some through moist
skin.

Mammals Lungs Oxygen diffuses into alveoli, CO₂ diffuses out.

Structure and Function of Lungs

●​ Trachea: Connects the throat to the bronchi.

●​ Bronchi: Two branches leading to the lungs.
●​ Bronchioles: Smaller branches inside the lungs.
●​ Alveoli: Tiny sacs where gas exchange occurs (O₂ enters blood, CO₂ exits).

1.3. Role of Hemoglobin in Oxygen Transport

●​ Hemoglobin (Hb): A protein in red blood cells that binds to oxygen.

●​ Oxygen Transport:
○​ In lungs: Hemoglobin binds to O₂ → Oxyhemoglobin.
○​ In tissues: Oxyhemoglobin releases O₂ for cellular respiration.

1.4. Gas Exchange in Plants

●​ Stomata (on leaves): Open and close to regulate gas exchange.

●​ Lenticels (on stems): Tiny openings for gas exchange.

2. Diet and Growth

2.1. Components of a Balanced Diet

A balanced diet consists of macronutrients and micronutrients.

Nutrient Function Sources

Carbohydrates Energy source Rice, bread, fruits

Proteins Growth and repair Meat, eggs, beans

Lipids (Fats) Energy storage Butter, oil, nuts

Vitamins Various body functions Fruits, vegetables

Minerals Bone health, nerve function Milk, fish, leafy greens

Water Essential for all body Drinking water, fruits

processes

Fiber Aids digestion Whole grains,

vegetables

2.2. Role of Vitamins and Minerals

Nutrient Function Deficiency
Disease

Vitamin A Vision, immune health Night blindness

Vitamin C Tissue repair, immunity Scurvy

Vitamin D Bone health Rickets

Iron Hemoglobin formation Anemia

Calcium Bone and teeth strength Osteoporosis

Iodine Thyroid hormone production Goiter

2.3. Growth Stages in Humans and Animals

1.​ Infancy (0-2 years): Rapid growth, brain development.

2.​ Childhood (2-12 years): Steady growth, learning phase.
3.​ Adolescence (13-19 years): Puberty, hormonal changes.
4.​ Adulthood (20-60 years): Body maintenance, aging starts.
5.​ Old Age (60+ years): Degeneration of body functions.

3. Maintaining Life
3.1. Homeostasis

●​ Definition: The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment.

●​ Examples:
1.​ Body Temperature Regulation
■​ Too hot → Sweat glands release sweat to cool down.
■​ Too cold → Shivering generates heat.
2.​ Blood Sugar Regulation
■​ High glucose → Insulin lowers it.
■​ Low glucose → Glucagon increases it.

Role of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems

●​ Nervous System: Sends fast signals via neurons.

●​ Endocrine System: Sends slow, long-term signals via hormones.

3.2. Body Systems in Maintaining Life

1. Circulatory System

●​ Function: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and hormones.

●​ Main Components:
○​ Heart: Pumps blood.
○​ Blood Vessels:
■​ Arteries (carry oxygenated blood from heart).
■​ Veins (carry deoxygenated blood to heart).
■​ Capillaries (exchange of nutrients and gases).
○​ Blood: Contains red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets,
and plasma.

2. Respiratory System

●​ Function: Supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.

●​ Organs Involved:
○​ Nose: Filters air.
○​ Trachea: Windpipe.
○​ Lungs: Contains alveoli for gas exchange.
○​ Diaphragm: Controls breathing movement.

3. Excretory System
 ●​ Function: Removes waste products like urea, excess salts, and water.​

●​ Main Organ: Kidneys​

●​ Nephron Structure (Basic Unit of Kidney):​

1.​ Glomerulus: Filters blood.

2.​ Bowman’s Capsule: Collects filtered substances.
3.​ Loop of Henle: Reabsorbs water and salts.
4.​ Collecting Duct: Urine is passed into the bladder.
●​ Urine Formation Process:​

1.​ Filtration (Blood filtered in the glomerulus).

2.​ Reabsorption (Essential nutrients reabsorbed).
3.​ Secretion (Waste substances expelled as urine).

Summary Table
Topic Key Points

Respiration Includes aerobic and anaerobic respiration, gas exchange

(lungs, gills), role of hemoglobin.

Gas Exchange in Occurs via stomata (leaves) and lenticels (stems).

Plants

Diet and Growth Balanced diet consists of macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins,

and minerals.

Deficiency Scurvy (Vit C), Rickets (Vit D), Anemia (Iron), Goiter (Iodine).
Diseases

Growth Stages Infancy → Childhood → Adolescence → Adulthood → Old age.

Homeostasis Maintains temperature and blood sugar through nervous and

endocrine systems.

Body Systems Circulatory (heart, blood), Respiratory (lungs), Excretory

(kidneys, nephron, urine formation).
Ecosystem
Definition

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (biotic factors) interacting with their physical
environment (abiotic factors). It includes producers, consumers, and decomposers working
together to maintain ecological balance.

1. Types of Ecosystems
Ecosystems can be broadly classified into terrestrial (land-based) and aquatic (water-based)
ecosystems.

1.1. Terrestrial Ecosystems

These ecosystems exist on land and are influenced by temperature, rainfall, and soil type.

Ecosyste Characteristics Examples of Organisms

m

Forests High biodiversity, dense vegetation, high Trees (oak, pine), deer, tigers,
rainfall. birds, fungi.

Deserts Extreme temperatures, very low rainfall, Cacti, camels, snakes, scorpions.
sandy soil.

Grassland Moderate rainfall, dominated by grasses, Zebras, lions, buffalo, termites.

s few trees.

1.2. Aquatic Ecosystems

These ecosystems exist in water and vary based on salinity, depth, and flow of water.

Ecosystem Characteristics Examples of Organisms

Freshwater Low salt content, includes lakes, rivers, Fish (trout, catfish), frogs, algae,
ponds. insects.

Marine High salt content, includes oceans, seas, Sharks, whales, corals, plankton.
coral reefs.
1.3. Adaptations of Organisms to Different Ecosystems

1.​ Forest Adaptations:​

○​ Tall trees to reach sunlight.

○​ Animals (e.g., monkeys, squirrels) have strong limbs for climbing.
○​ Camouflage for protection (e.g., tigers, chameleons).
2.​ Desert Adaptations:​

○​ Plants (e.g., cacti) store water in stems.

○​ Animals (e.g., camels) have fat-storing humps for energy.
○​ Nocturnal behavior to avoid daytime heat.
3.​ Grassland Adaptations:​

○​ Fast-running animals (e.g., cheetahs, antelopes) to escape predators.

○​ Deep roots in plants to survive drought.
4.​ Freshwater Adaptations:​

○​ Fish have gills to extract oxygen from water.

○​ Frogs have webbed feet for swimming.
5.​ Marine Adaptations:​

○​ Salt-excreting glands in marine birds.

○​ Streamlined body shape in fish for swimming.
○​ Bioluminescence in deep-sea organisms for communication.

2. Food Chains and Food Webs

2.1. Food Chain

A food chain represents a linear flow of energy from one organism to another.

Example:

Grass(Producer)→Grasshopper(PrimaryConsumer)→Frog(SecondaryConsumer)→Snake(Terti
aryConsumer)→Eagle(TopPredator)Grass (Producer) → Grasshopper (Primary Consumer) →
Frog (Secondary Consumer) → Snake (Tertiary Consumer) → Eagle (Top Predator)

2.2. Food Web

A food web consists of multiple interconnected food chains, showing a more realistic flow of
energy in an ecosystem.

Example:

●​ A rabbit may eat grass but also carrots.

●​ A fox may eat rabbits but also frogs.
●​ This creates multiple feeding relationships.

2.3. Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers

Type Function Examples

Producers Convert sunlight into energy via Plants, algae.

photosynthesis.

Primary Consumers Herbivores that eat plants. Deer, rabbits,

grasshoppers.

Secondary Carnivores that eat herbivores. Frogs, foxes, small fish.

Consumers

Tertiary Consumers Carnivores that eat other carnivores. Snakes, hawks, large
fish.

Decomposers Break down dead matter, recycle Bacteria, fungi,

nutrients. earthworms.

2.4. Role of Top Predators in Maintaining Ecological Balance

●​ Control prey population: Prevents overpopulation of herbivores.

●​ Maintain species diversity: Ensures survival of multiple species.
●​ Prevent ecosystem collapse: Keeps food chains stable.

Example:

●​ If wolves are removed from a forest, deer populations increase → Overgrazing leads to
habitat destruction.

3. Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles

3.1. Energy Flow in Ecosystems

●​ Energy enters an ecosystem through sunlight and is converted into chemical energy
by producers (plants).
●​ Only 10% of energy is passed to the next trophic level (energy is lost as heat at each
step).

Trophic Levels:

1.​ Producers (Autotrophs) → Convert sunlight into food.

2.​ Primary Consumers (Herbivores) → Eat producers.
3.​ Secondary Consumers (Carnivores) → Eat herbivores.
4.​ Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators) → Eat other carnivores.

3.2. Nutrient Cycles

1. Carbon Cycle

●​ Carbon exists in the atmosphere as CO₂.

●​ Steps of the carbon cycle:
1.​ Photosynthesis: Plants absorb CO₂ and convert it into glucose.
2.​ Respiration: Animals release CO₂ back into the air.
3.​ Decomposition: Dead organisms release carbon into the soil.
4.​ Combustion: Burning fossil fuels adds CO₂ to the atmosphere.

Importance: Regulates Earth's temperature and supports life.

2. Nitrogen Cycle

●​ Nitrogen (N₂) makes up 78% of the atmosphere but is not directly usable by plants.
●​ Steps of the nitrogen cycle:
1.​ Nitrogen Fixation: Bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia
(NH₃).
2.​ Nitrification: Ammonia is converted into nitrates (NO₃⁻), which plants absorb.
3.​ Assimilation: Plants use nitrates to build proteins.
4.​ Decomposition: Dead organisms release nitrogen back into the soil.
5.​ Denitrification: Bacteria convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N₂).

Importance: Essential for plant growth, proteins, and DNA formation.

3. Water Cycle

●​ The movement of water through the environment.

●​ Steps of the water cycle:
1.​ Evaporation: Water from oceans, rivers, and lakes turns into vapor.
2.​ Condensation: Water vapor forms clouds.
3.​ Precipitation: Rain or snow falls to Earth.
4.​ Runoff/Infiltration: Water returns to oceans, rivers, and underground reservoirs.
5.​ Transpiration: Plants release water vapor through stomata.

Importance: Maintains water availability for living organisms.

Summary Table
Topic Key Points

Types of Ecosystems Terrestrial (forests, deserts, grasslands), Aquatic

(freshwater, marine).

Adaptations Forest (camouflage), Desert (water storage), Marine

(streamlined body).

Food Chains & Webs Linear vs. interconnected energy transfer.

Producers, Consumers, Plants (producers), herbivores (primary consumers),

Decomposers fungi (decomposers).

Top Predators Prevent overpopulation and maintain balance.

Energy Flow 10% energy transfer between trophic levels.

Carbon Cycle CO₂ absorbed by plants, released by respiration &

combustion.

Nitrogen Cycle Bacteria convert nitrogen into usable forms.

Water Cycle Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, transpiration.

V. Applied Biology
1. Photosynthesis and Energy Production
1.1. Importance of Sunlight, Carbon Dioxide, and Water

●​ Sunlight: Provides energy for photosynthesis.

●​ Carbon dioxide (CO₂): Taken from the atmosphere and used to form glucose.
●​ Water (H₂O): Absorbed by roots and split to release oxygen.

1.2. Role of Photosynthesis in Food Production and Oxygen Release

●​ Equation of Photosynthesis: 6CO2+6H2O+Light→C6H12O6+6O26CO₂ + 6H₂O +

Light \rightarrow C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
●​ Food Production: Plants convert solar energy into chemical energy (glucose), which is
used by herbivores and eventually all life forms.
●​ Oxygen Release: Plants release oxygen as a byproduct, essential for respiration in all
living organisms.

2. Human Health and Diseases

2.1. Communicable Diseases

Diseases that spread from person to person, caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi,
parasites).

Disease Cause Symptoms Prevention

Malaria Plasmodium parasite Fever, chills, Mosquito nets, insect

(spread by mosquitoes) sweating repellents, antimalarial
drugs

Tuberculosis Bacteria (Mycobacterium Cough, chest BCG vaccine, early

(TB) tuberculosis) pain, weight loss diagnosis, good hygiene
2.2. Non-Communicable Diseases

Diseases that do not spread between people; often linked to lifestyle and genetics.

Disease Causes Symptoms Prevention

Diabete Lack of insulin production (Type Increased thirst, Healthy diet, regular
s 1) or insulin resistance (Type 2) frequent urination, exercise, medication
fatigue

Obesity Excessive calorie intake, lack of Weight gain, heart Balanced diet, physical
exercise disease risk activity

2.3. Vaccination and Its Role in Public Health

●​ Definition: The process of stimulating the immune system to develop protection against
diseases.
●​ How Vaccines Work:
○​ A weakened or dead pathogen is introduced.
○​ The immune system produces antibodies.
○​ Memory cells remain, ensuring faster response if exposed again.
●​ Examples of Vaccines:
○​ MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella)
○​ BCG (Tuberculosis)
○​ COVID-19 (mRNA and viral vector vaccines)
●​ Role in Public Health:
○​ Reduces disease spread.
○​ Protects vulnerable populations (herd immunity).
○​ Prevents outbreaks and pandemics.

3. Biotechnology Applications
3.1. Genetic Engineering in Agriculture

●​ Definition: Modification of plant genes to improve yield, resistance, or nutrition.

 ●​ Examples:
○​ GM Crops (Genetically Modified Crops):
■​ BT Cotton: Resistant to pests.
■​ Golden Rice: Rich in Vitamin A to prevent blindness.
●​ Benefits:
○​ Increases crop yield.
○​ Reduces pesticide use.
○​ Enhances nutritional value.
●​ Concerns:
○​ Possible long-term health effects.
○​ Risk of reduced genetic diversity.

3.2. Role of Microbes in Medicine and Industry

Microbes in Medicine

Application Example Function

Antibiotics Penicillium fungus (produces Penicillin) Kills or inhibits bacteria.

Vaccines Attenuated viruses (e.g., Polio vaccine) Stimulates immune

response.

Microbes in Industry

Process Microbe Used Product

Fermentation Saccharomyces cerevisiae Bread, beer, wine

(yeast)

Dairy Industry Lactobacillus Yogurt, cheese

Bioremediatio Oil-eating bacteria Cleaning oil spills
n

Summary Table
Topic Key Points

Photosynthesis Uses CO₂, H₂O, and sunlight to produce glucose and

oxygen.

Communicable Diseases Spread by pathogens (e.g., Malaria, TB); prevented by

hygiene and vaccines.

Non-Communicable Linked to lifestyle (e.g., Diabetes, Obesity); managed with

Diseases diet and exercise.

Vaccination Stimulates immune response, prevents outbreaks.

Genetic Engineering in GM crops improve yield, resistance, and nutrition.

Agriculture

Microbes in Medicine Used in antibiotics and vaccines.

Microbes in Industry Used in fermentation, dairy, and bioremediation.