UNIT CODE: TFD 200

UNIT NAME: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION

LECTURE: Dr. KITHUNGU ROSE

PEDAGOGICAL MODELS OF COMPETENCY-BASED EDUCATION (CBE)

Competency-Based Education (CBE) emphasizes the development of skills, knowledge, and
attitudes required for real-world applications. Its pedagogical models are designed to foster
engagement, critical thinking, and practical application of learning. Below are detailed
explanations of various pedagogical models employed in CBE:

1. Collaborative Learning
 Description: Students work in groups to achieve common goals, sharing knowledge,
skills, and experiences.
 Benefits:
o Encourages teamwork and communication.
o Promotes peer-to-peer learning.
o Develops interpersonal skills and leadership qualities.
 Implementation:
o Group projects, discussions, and problem-solving tasks.
o Activities like case studies or debates.

2. Student-Centered Approach

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  Description: The learning process focuses on the needs, interests, and abilities of the
learner, empowering them to take ownership of their education.
 Benefits:
o Enhances motivation and engagement.
o Encourages self-directed learning.
 Implementation:
o Individualized learning plans.
o Opportunities for students to choose topics or methods of learning

3. Active/Participatory/Interactive Teaching
 Description: Students actively engage in the learning process through discussion,
experimentation, and hands-on activities.
 Benefits:
o Improves retention of knowledge.
o Encourages deeper understanding and critical analysis.
 Implementation:
o Role-plays, simulations, and experiments.
o Question-and-answer sessions.

4. Digital/Technology-Based Approaches
 Description: The use of digital tools and technologies to enhance teaching and learning.
 Benefits:
o Provides access to diverse resources.
o Encourages self-paced learning.
 Implementation:
o E-learning platforms, gamified learning apps, and virtual simulations.
o Use of smartboards, tablets, or laptops in classrooms.

5. Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Approaches

 Description: Encourages students to analyse information, evaluate evidence, and find
solutions to real-world problems.
 Benefits:

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 o Develops logical reasoning and decision-making skills.
o Prepares students for complex challenges.
 Implementation:
o Case studies, brainstorming sessions, and problem-based learning (PBL).
o Activities requiring students to propose and test hypotheses.

6. Discovery Learning Approach

 Description: Learners explore and investigate concepts on their own, fostering curiosity
and understanding through experience.
 Benefits:
o Promotes independence and self-motivation.
o Encourages a deeper grasp of subject matter.
 Implementation:
o Hands-on experiments and field trips.
o Allowing students to derive conclusions from guided explorations.

7. Innovative/Creative Approaches
 Description: Encourages learners to think outside the box and apply creativity to solve
problems or create new ideas.
 Benefits:
o Fosters innovation and adaptability.
o Prepares students for dynamic and evolving environments.
 Implementation:
o Design projects, arts integration, and creative writing tasks.
o Hackathons and innovation challenges.

8. Constructive Learning Approaches

 Description: Based on constructivist theory, this model emphasizes building new
knowledge by connecting it with prior experiences.
 Benefits:
o Makes learning more meaningful and relevant.

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 o Encourages active participation and critical engagement.
 Implementation:
o Inquiry-based projects and discussions.
o Activities linking classroom learning to real-life contexts.

9. Reflective Learning
 Description: Students think about their learning experiences to gain deeper insights and
improve future performance.
 Benefits:
o Develops self-awareness and self-regulation.
o Encourages continuous improvement.
 Implementation:
o Journaling, self-assessment, and peer reviews.
o Reflection sessions at the end of lessons or projects.

10. Contextual Learning

 Description: Learning is tied to real-world contexts and applications, making it relevant
to students’ lives.
 Benefits:
o Enhances understanding and retention.
o Encourages practical application of knowledge.
 Implementation:
o Community-based projects and internships.
o Examples from students' cultural or local environment in lessons.

Integration of Pedagogical Models in CBE

These pedagogical models often overlap and complement each other, creating a holistic learning
environment. For example:
 A student-centered approach may integrate collaborative learning and digital tools.
 Critical thinking can be combined with reflective learning to enhance decision-making
and self-awareness.

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The goal is to create an engaging, practical, and relevant learning experience that equips learners
with the competencies needed for success in life and work.

PEDAGOGICAL PARADIGM SHIFTS IN COMPETENCY-BASED EDUCATION

(CBE)
Competency-Based Education represents a significant shift from traditional knowledge-based
models of education. Below are the key paradigm shifts that define this transition:
1. Knowledge-Based Education to Competency-Based Education
 Knowledge-Based Education: Focused on the acquisition of facts, theories, and rote
memorization. Success was often measured by how much content a student could recall.
 Competency-Based Education: Prioritizes the application of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes in real-life contexts. The focus is on learners demonstrating mastery of specific
competencies relevant to personal, academic, and professional success.

2. From Content-Focused Curriculum to Focus on Competencies

 Content-Focused Curriculum:
o Overemphasis on covering extensive subject matter.
o Knowledge was often fragmented and disconnected from practical applications.
 Focus on Competencies:
o Emphasis on skill development, critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving.
o Learners are guided to apply knowledge in meaningful ways, promoting lifelong
learning and adaptability.

3. From Rigid and Prescriptive Curriculum to Flexible Curriculum with Opportunities

for Specialization and Pathways
 Rigid and Prescriptive Curriculum:
o Uniform and standardized for all learners.
o Limited room for personalization or addressing diverse needs and interests.
 Flexible Curriculum:
o Provides opportunities for learners to explore specialized pathways aligned with
their talents, interests, and career aspirations.

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 o Encourages adaptability and supports inclusion for diverse learners, including
those with special needs.

4. From Focus on Summative Assessment and Competition to a Balance Between

Formative and Summative Assessment
 Focus on Summative Assessment:
o High-stakes exams were used to rank learners, creating a competitive
environment.
o Neglected ongoing assessments of learning progress.
 Balanced Assessment:
o Combines formative (continuous) and summative (final) assessments to provide a
comprehensive view of learner progress.
o Reduces exam pressure while emphasizing skill acquisition and improvement
over time.

5. From Emphasis on Schooling and Teaching to Emphasis on Education and Learning

 Schooling and Teaching:
o Teacher-centered approaches focused on content delivery.
o Learning was confined to classrooms and driven by rigid schedules.
 Education and Learning:
o Learner-centered approaches encourage active participation, exploration, and
discovery.
o Education becomes a lifelong process, integrating formal, informal, and non-
formal learning contexts.

Summary of the Transition

Traditional Approach Competency-Based Approach

Knowledge-focused Competency-focused
Content-heavy and rigid curriculum Flexible curriculum with pathways

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 Balanced assessment (formative +
High-stakes exams (summative focus)
summative)
Teacher-centered Learner-centered
Emphasis on schooling Emphasis on lifelong learning

Implications of the Shift

 Learners: Become active participants in their education, focusing on acquiring skills and
knowledge applicable in real-world situations.
 Teachers: Transition to facilitators and mentors, guiding learners through personalized
and competency-focused activities.
 Assessment: Focuses on mastery and progress, providing ongoing feedback to ensure all
learners achieve desired competencies.
 Education System: Becomes more inclusive, flexible, and aligned with the dynamic
needs of society and the global workforce.

PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT FOR COMPETENCY-BASED EDUCATION (CBC)

In the Competency-Based Education (CBE) system, assessment plays a central role in evaluating
learners' mastery of skills, knowledge, and attitudes. The focus is on evaluating students' ability
to demonstrate competencies in real-world contexts, ensuring that they are well-prepared for the
future. Here is a detailed breakdown of the key principles of assessment in CBC:
1. Purposes/Importance of Assessment
Assessment in CBC is integral to the learning process, and its purposes include:
 Measuring Mastery: To assess whether learners have attained the competencies required
at each stage.
 Guiding Learning: Provides ongoing feedback to help learners improve their skills and
understanding.
 Informing Instruction: Teachers use assessment data to adjust teaching methods and
strategies to address learning needs.
 Providing Evidence: Assessment helps document learners' progress and achievement of
competencies, ensuring accountability.

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  Supporting Learner Motivation: Encourages continuous improvement through
formative feedback.
 Ensuring Equity: Identifies areas where learners may need additional support or
resources.
2. Competency-Based Assessment: Nature at Different Education Levels
 Primary Level:
o Focuses on basic foundational skills like literacy, numeracy, and life skills.
o Assessment includes practical demonstrations and application of skills in real-life
scenarios.
o Formative assessments are commonly used to monitor learner progress.
 Secondary Level:
o Emphasizes deeper exploration of subjects and competencies in various fields
(e.g., sciences, humanities, technical skills).
o Learners demonstrate their understanding through projects, practical work, and
discussions.
o Both formative and summative assessments are used to ensure mastery of more
complex skills.
 Tertiary Level:
o Competencies focus on specialized skills and knowledge required for careers or
further academic pursuits.
o Assessments include research, presentations, internships, and other professional
tasks.
o The balance between formative and summative assessments is critical at this level
to ensure that learners are job-ready.
3. Guiding Principles of Competency-Based Assessment
 Learner-Centered: Assessment focuses on the learner’s progress and their ability to
apply competencies.
 Continuous and Ongoing: Assessment is not limited to one final exam but includes
regular evaluations that track progress over time.
 Transparent: Assessment criteria and methods are clearly communicated to learners, so
they understand what is expected.

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  Authentic: Assessment reflects real-world tasks and situations that learners are likely to
encounter.
 Inclusive: Ensures that assessments cater to the diverse needs of learners, including those
with disabilities or special needs.
 Reflective: Encourages learners to reflect on their learning, helping them understand their
strengths and areas for improvement.
 Feedback-Oriented: Provides constructive feedback that helps learners understand how
to improve and grow.
4. The New Bloom’s Taxonomy (Create, Evaluate, Analyze, Apply, Understand,
Remember)
The revised Bloom’s Taxonomy reflects the hierarchical nature of cognitive skills, moving from
lower-order to higher-order thinking skills. In the context of CBC, this framework guides the
design of assessments:
 Remember: Recall facts, terms, or basic concepts.
 Understand: Explain ideas or concepts.
 Apply: Use information in new situations (e.g., solve problems or complete tasks).
 Analyze: Break down information into components and understand relationships.
 Evaluate: Make judgments based on criteria or standards.
 Create: Put elements together to form a new pattern or structure.
These levels of cognition guide teachers in creating assessments that evaluate a range of skills,
from foundational knowledge to complex problem-solving and creativity.
5. Formative Assessment (Assessment for Learning)
Purpose:
 To monitor and support ongoing learning.
 To identify gaps in knowledge and competencies.
 To provide feedback that guides improvement.
Assessment Tools:
 Observations: Teachers assess learners’ skills and understanding through direct
observation in class activities.
 Quizzes and short tests: Frequent low-stakes quizzes to gauge progress.
 Portfolios: Collection of work that shows a learner’s development over time.

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  Peer assessments: Encouraging learners to assess each other, fostering collaboration and
self-reflection.
 Discussions and debates: Informal assessments of understanding through interactive
dialogue.
6. Summative Assessment (Assessment of Learning)
Purpose:
 To evaluate the overall learning and competency of the learner at the end of a specific
period (e.g., term, year, or course).
 To determine if the learner has met the required competencies and learning outcomes.
Assessment Tools:
 Examinations: Formal tests that assess knowledge and skills.
 Projects: Final projects that demonstrate mastery of a competency in real-world contexts.
 Presentations: Assessing learners' ability to communicate and apply their knowledge.
 Research papers: Long-term assessments that test in-depth understanding and analytical
skills.
7. Grading of Competency-Based Assessment
Grading in a competency-based system focuses on learners’ ability to demonstrate mastery of
specific competencies, rather than simply how well they perform in traditional tests. Grading
practices include:
 Mastery Levels: Learners are assessed based on their ability to demonstrate specific
skills and knowledge. Common levels include:
o Novice: Basic or incomplete understanding.
o Intermediate: Adequate understanding with some application.
o Proficient: Competent application of skills and knowledge in various contexts.
o Advanced: High level of proficiency with deep understanding and creative
application.
 Competency Milestones: Assessment is often reported based on progress toward
achieving predefined competencies rather than a single final grade.
 Descriptive Feedback: Instead of simply assigning a grade, learners receive detailed
feedback on their strengths, areas for improvement, and strategies for achieving mastery.

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  Standards Referencing: Grading is often based on the degree to which a learner meets
established competency standards, rather than comparing them to the performance of
their peers.

ASSESSMENT
Educational assessment is the process of determining the extent to which learners have acquired
specified knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, abilities and competencies. The term "specified"
means that they have been pre-determined before the subject begins. Assessment includes
methods that teachers use to determine what learners know and what they can do.
Assessment is also both a tool of learning and as a means of establishing the extent to which the
desired learning outcomes have been developed.
Assessment is not just designing an assessment task and producing an assessment score. A good
assessment also defines the size and nature of the learning gap. At best, this suggests and directs
the teacher and learners’ attention to the next steps for progress.

Purposes of Assessment
- The aim of assessment is to establish the extent to which the learner has acquired the
expected competencies with a view to informing interventions for further acquisition
and mastery of expected competencies.
- Assessment helps to diagnose and monitor the progress of a learner and provides
feedback to learners, parents, teachers and curriculum developers and implementers.
This helps them plan learning in terms of what the learner needs in order to continue
advancing and fill gaps in understanding of performance.
- It also provides guidance on the selection of future subjects, certification and
promotion to the next progression level.
- In every curriculum implementation, assessment is expected to ascertain the extent to
which specific learning outcomes have been achieved.
- The assessment provides the basis for advising teachers on pedagogical methods and
deliberate intervention.
- Assessment focuses on the extent to which a competency has been acquired as opposed
to laying emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge of the concepts. In most cases

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 assessment is organized in a national or classroom level. The assessment needs to use a
variety of ways to collect information about a learner’s learning and progress in all
subjects. The collection of a learner’s information should be a continuous process and
should be recorded efficiently and effectively. The teacher should give attention to each
learner's way of responding and learning and the span of time he or she takes to do so.
The teacher should provide timely and effective feedback that will lead to positive
action and help the learner.
When a teacher is providing reports on a continuous basis, he or she should be sensitive to every
learner's response.
All over the world, educators have taken notice of the fact that assessment is often overlooked
when planning and implementing curriculum change.
Guiding Principles for Competency Based Assessment
The guiding principles for competency-based assessment are explained below:
a) Validity
This is the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretation of assessment scores
entailed by the proposed uses of assessment. It is important to ensure that the scores obtained
from assessments are used according to the intended purpose of the assessment. Evidence
should be collected in a variety of contexts and on a number of occasions and the assessment
process and materials should assess everything they claim to. The assessment score must reflect
the learner’s actual ability in the assessed criteria.
b) Reliability
This refers to the consistency of the interpretation of evidence and results of the assessment.
The assessment tasks used should be of similar demands and provide similar opportunities to
exhibit all the intended competencies being assessed. The instrument used for administering and
scoring should be interpreted in the same way by the assessors
c) Fairness
This refers to how the assessment conditions are applied to all those being assessed. It aims at
ensuring that the assessment process does not disadvantage any learner and learning outcomes
can be achieved through a range of strategies. Assessment should reflect an inclusive view of
society and respect for diversity. Assessment tasks should have a balance in relation to gender,
faith, cultural and socio-economic factors.

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d) Flexibility
This is the process of ensuring the skills, knowledge, abilities and values can be demonstrated
in a variety of ways that are suitable to the school.
e) Access
This refers to the provision of assessment for learners with disabilities by making
arrangements for them to demonstrate their competency levels.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT (ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING)

It is carried out during the learning process to provide immediate feedback to both the learner
and the teacher. In the classroom, the assessment should help the learners to learn and should
result in actions that are successful in closing the gap between the current and desired
achievement levels. All students come to class with some learning gaps, some have few while
others have many. The teacher adds value to the students when they leave the class with fewer
gaps than when they entered.
Formative assessment uses both formal and informal methods to check whether learning
is taking place. This is carried out on a continuous basis to monitor the learner’s progress and to
collect information on learners’ ability to demonstrate the required competencies in carrying out
tasks.
Formative assessment is used for the diagnosis of learning gaps, for corrective measures,
retesting, feedback of evidence to teachers, and learners' self-evaluation.
The assessment should focus also on abilities, attitudes and aptitudes that do not manifest
themselves in the form of the written word. This aims at assessing a learner's development in all
areas of learning.
In this scenario, the goal of formative assessment is to monitor student learning to provide
ongoing feedback that can be used by teachers to improve pedagogical strategies and by
learners for improvement in their learning.
The assessments should be made on recorded evidence based on anecdotal records to be
maintained by the class teacher or subject teacher.
The overall assessment should be followed by descriptive remarks by the class teacher or the
teacher responsible for the subject about positive and significant achievements, avoiding
negative assessment even by implication. Formative assessment can be carried out using

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multiple modes of assessment.

INSTRUMENTS FOR FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

1. Observation schedule
This is a guide outlining characteristics and behaviour that learners manifest at various points in
time or during the performance of specific activities individually or as a group. The teacher
records observations made on the behaviour of the learner.
2. Checklists
Checklists contain a list of attributes of an individual’s behaviour and require the teacher to
carefully observe and tick whatever behaviour is portrayed, at the end of the lesson the teacher
makes a summary and draws a conclusion.
The learners too can be helped to develop and use their own tools to monitor their progress
especially on self-efficacy (such as personal, social and decision making) skills. For example,
the following characteristics can form items in a check list in the case of effective
communication skills.
Teachers and other observers’ remarks could be "The learner above has acquired some
competencies in creativity and problem solving. However, they need to work on their attitudes
towards others, take more responsibility, and be interested in their work."
Checklists assist the teacher to determine areas to focus on in order to enable the learner to
develop relevant knowledge and skills.
3. Rating Scales
These allow teachers to indicate the degree or frequency of the behaviours, skills and strategies
displayed by the learner. Rating scales state the criteria and provide three or four response
selections to describe the quality or frequency of learner’s work.
Use of descriptive words, such as always, usually, sometimes and never helps to pinpoint
specific strengths and needs. In a rating scale, the descriptive word is more important than the
related number. The more precise and descriptive the words for each scale point, the more
reliable the tool.
4. Rubrics
Rubrics use a set of criteria to evaluate a learner's performance. They consist of a fixed

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measurement scale and detailed description of the characteristics for each level of performance.
These descriptions focus on the quality of the performance and not the quantity for
example; they do not focus on the number of paragraphs, examples to support an idea, or
spelling errors. Rubrics are commonly used to evaluate learner performance with the intention
of including the result in a grade for reporting purposes and teacher accountability measures.
Rubrics use a set of specific criteria to evaluate learner performance. They may be used to
assess individuals or groups and, as with rating scales, may be compared over time.
5. Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a list of questions on various aspects of a person’s situation or issue. It
requires the respondent to give honest opinions or views. This helps the teacher to have an
insight into the situation at hand and prepare appropriate programmes and materials.
Questionnaires can be used before teaching to find out the needs, characteristics, experiences
and knowledge levels of learners. During teaching, questionnaires enable the teacher to find out
how various learners are progressing and responding to the learning activities.
Questionnaires can be given to learners to gather feedback on how they are applying their
learned competencies to challenging or difficult situations they are encountering in and out of
school. This helps the teacher take appropriate action.
6. Project Method
A project is a set of activities implemented within a set timeframe with a clear start and end
time. It should have a clearly stated purpose and set of objectives. Learners will be encouraged
to initiate individual or group project that may earn them income.
The project will give an opportunity to learners to apply their acquired knowledge and
transferable skills to a real- l i f e situation, especially with regard to pertinent and
contemporary issues in society. Learners could be challenged to identify a need in their
community where they can provide services based on what they have learned. The project will
encourage learners to learn through their own investigations rather than through passive
absorption of the teacher’s words.

The success of a project depends on the learner’s effort but they also require a lot of supervision
from the teacher. Learners should be assigned work as individuals or as groups. They should be
given adequate information with regard to the scope of the project and the mode of reporting the

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findings, which are generally presented as a report, a portfolio or a presentation.
Assessment of a project should be done at inception and midway through the project life. A
final assessment should be made when the project is fully established and running. It is at this
point that the final marking or score should be obtained and communicated to the learner or
group.
It is advisable that individual learners or groups do not engage in more than one project at a time.
7. Journaling
This entails the learner keeping a record of their personal feelings, thoughts and experiences on a
daily basis. A journal shows the activities carried out in a day by a learner.
Assessing the learner through journals and diaries should be a joint venture between the learner
and the teacher. Based on the learner’s performance, the teacher can provide either support or
challenge or both.
8. Portfolio
A portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work samples, student self-assessments and goal
statements that reflect a student's progress. It is a collection of evidence assembled by learners to
demonstrate competency. The portfolio file contains all the major learning activities, assessment
projects and documents. Students generally choose the work samples to place in the portfolio,
but the teacher may also recommend that specific work samples be included. The teacher and
learner from time-to-time review how learners are organizing and maintaining their portfolios.
Portfolios are powerful tools that allow students to see their academic progress. For example, if
there are ten competencies to be taught in a term/month in any level, the learner with the support
of the teacher should be able to develop a personal portfolio showing their performance.
9. Question and Answer
Questioning serves as assessment when it is related to outcomes. Teachers use questioning
(usually oral) to discover what students know and can do. Strategies for effective question and
answer assessment include:
a) Apply a wait time or 'no hands-up rule' to provide students with time to think after a
question before they are called upon randomly to respond.
b) Ask a variety of questions, including open-ended questions and those that require more
than a right or wrong answer.
c) Include questions that promote higher-order thinking.

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10. Profiling
In this method, the teacher constructs a record of each learner using information obtained from
the teacher's observation checklist, learner’s journal, checklist, portfolio and involvement in
projects. A learner’s profile in this case will be a summary of the teacher’s opinion on mastery of
competencies acquired in a level.
11. Continuous Assessment Tests
These are tests that are designed according to pre-determined criteria that measure competencies
in specific subjects. The tasks should be designed to elicit evidence from the learner on their
acquisition of competencies such as creative thinking, problem solving, and communication.
They should take the form of synoptic assessments.
12. Homework
Assigning homework enables a teacher to gather evidence of a learner’s progress towards a
target. It provides opportunities for the extension and application of skills taught in class to new
situations. This enhances parental engagement as they guide and supervise the homework.
13. Progress Report Card
Test scores are not the only outcome of a test. More information can be provided to turn a
teacher's evaluation of a learner’s test performances into information that can help learners
achieve more by reporting the learner’s progress towards meeting a standard based learning
target. These details allow parents to support their children in the specific areas of need.
According to Hattie (2008), reports should include effective feedback that addresses issues such
as feed up (where the learner is going), feedback (how the learner is going) and feed forward
(where to next). Qualitative statements are crucial in reports as they give descriptions of the
abilities of the learner.

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