Unit 2

The Hawthorne Experiments

The Hawthorne Experiments were a series of industrial experiments in the 1920s and 1930s
in the Hawthorne suburb of Chicago. The experiments were conducted to study how
employee productivity was affected by factors other than physical working conditions and
pay. The experiments led to the discovery of the Hawthorne Effect, which describes how
people change their behavior when they know they are being observed.
The four stages of the Hawthorne experiment are: Illumination Experiments, Relay Assembly
Test Room Experiments, Mass Interviewing Program, and Bank Wiring Observation Room
Experiments.
Explanation: These stages represent different phases of the Hawthorne studies, where
researchers progressively investigated the impact of various workplace factors on worker
productivity. This led to the discovery of the "Hawthorne Effect" - that being observed can
influence behavior.
1. Illumination Experiments: This initial phase focused on testing how different levels
of lighting affected worker productivity.
2. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments: Researchers selected a small group of
female workers in a relay assembly room to test various changes like work hours,
breaks, and incentives, observing increased productivity regardless of the specific
changes.
3. Mass Interviewing Program: This stage involved conducting extensive interviews
with workers to understand their attitudes, concerns, and perceptions about their
work.
4. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments: Researchers observed a group of male
workers in a bank wiring room, finding that social norms and group pressure
influenced their output more than individual incentives.
Importance
 Human-based management : The experiments showed that the study of human
behavior and social interaction is important for effective management.
 Group relations : The experiments showed that group relations are important
influencers of worker behavior.
 Psychological and social factors : The experiments showed that psychological and
social factors should be considered when designing work environments and
management practices.
 Human Relation Theory :The experiments are associated with the Human Relation
Theory of Organization.

Group Dynamics
A group means “two or more people who interact with one another, are psychologically
aware of one another, perceive themselves to be members of the group, and work towards a
common goal.” Group dynamics studies the nature, formation, and reasons for forming the
groups. It studies how groups affect the behavior and attitude of members and the
organization. It is a process by which people interact with each other. If groups are
effectively managed, they contribute a lot to organizational goals.

Page 1 of 8
Types of Group Dynamics
The types of group dynamics can be better understood through the points mentioned below.
1.Norming Dynamics
o Norms are the 'unwritten rules that guide how group members should act.
o For instance, you and your friends might have a rule that no one interrupts when
someone else is talking or that homework must be completed before playing video
games.
2.Role Dynamics
o Inside a group, people often take on a role depending on their skills, interests, or
personalities.
o Roles can be like 'the planner' which organizes group projects, 'the peacemaker' the
one who sorts disputes, or 'the joker' who lightens the mood with casual talks.
3.Communication Dynamics
o This refers to how the data is shared within the group.
o Some groups have open communication, where each one feels free to express their
thoughts, while others may have a few individuals who dominate the conversation.
4.Conflict Dynamics
o Conflict in a group is not always bad! It can lead to better ideas and stronger
relationships when managed well.
o However, if conflicts are resolved properly, it could prevent members from feeling
unhappy and less willing to contribute.
5.Influence and Power Dynamics
o These dynamics move around who has the most sway or power in the group.
o Power can be based on several things, like a person's wisdom, charisma, or even
popularity.
6.Cohesion Dynamics
o Cohesion is about how tightly knit a group is. A cohesive group often works well
together and supports each other.
o Activities like team-building games can help to strengthen group cohesion.
7.Task and Social Dynamics
o Task dynamics are about how the group gets work done, like how tasks are alloted
and how deadlines are set.
o Social dynamics focus more on the relations and personal bonding within the group.

Stages of Group Dynamics

Forming

o In the forming stage, group members come together and get acquainted. This is the
time when people are trying to figure out their place in the group. People may feel
a bit shy at first as they are still getting to know one another.
o During this stage, there's a lot of politeness and cautious behaviour as individuals
try to establish their roles and build rapport.
Page 2 of 8
 Storming

o As the group progresses, conflicts and differences of opinion may arise. This stage is
called storming. Group members start sharing their ideas and perspectives, and
sometimes disagreements emerge.
o It's required to know that conflict can be a natural part of the group development
method as people are figuring out how to work together.

Norming

o In this stage, the group starts to find common ground and establish norms, rules, and
expectations. People here start to recognize each other's strengths, appreciate
diversity, and work towards a shared vision or goal.
o Collaboration and cooperation become more apparent as everyone starts to value
the joint effort of the group.

Performing

o The performing stage is when the group reaches its peak performance. Everyone is
fully engaged, motivated, and working efficiently towards achieving the group's
objectives. Roles and responsibilities are clearly defined, and the group is highly
productive. Communication is effective, trust among members is established, and
conflicts are managed constructively.

Adjourning

o The adjourning stage starts when the group's task is completed or when people
here decide to move on. There may be a sense of fulfilment and mixed emotions as
members reflect on their experiences and say their farewell.
o It's vital to find out and appreciate the contributions of each person during this
stage, as it helps in fostering positive closure.
Functions of Group Dynamics
 Collaboration
 Support and Encouragement
 Division of Labour
 Brainstorming and Creativity
 Decision-making
 Learning and Personal Growth
 Social Interaction and Bonding
Roles and Responsibilities
 Trust and Respect
 Diversity
 Conflict Resolution
Factors Affecting Group Dynamics
 Individual Differences
 Group Size

Page 3 of 8
  Group Goals and Purpose
 Communication Channels
 Leadership Style
 External Influences
 Trust and Relationships
Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness in organizational behavior is the strength of the bonds between members of a
group. It's also known as group cohesion, social harmony, or social cohesion.
Strategies to Improve Group Cohesiveness
 Foster a positive and inclusive team culture
 Establish shared goals and objectives
 Encourage collaboration and teamwork
 Promote effective communication
 Build trust and interpersonal relationships
 Provide support and resources
 Leaders should be attentive to the needs and concerns of individual team members.

Challenges in Maintaining Group Cohesiveness

 Conflicts and disagreements
 Group think
 Turnover and changes in group composition
 External pressures and competition
Conflict
Conflict is a disagreement or clash between people or groups with different ideas, goals, or
values. It can be a natural part of life and can be resolved in a way that leads to positive
outcomes.
Types of Conflict
 Intrapersonal conflict: An internal struggle within a single person, such as a conflict
between their values, goals, or roles
 Interpersonal conflict: A conflict between two or more people, such as when people
disagree over politics
 Intragroup conflict: A conflict within a group, such as when members of a board of
directors disagree
 Intergroup conflict: A conflict between two or more groups, such as when groups
within or outside an organization disagree
 Value conflict: A conflict that arises when people disagree on what is right or wrong,
good or bad, just or unjust
Common sources of conflict
Desire, disagreement, miscommunication, power struggle, greed, relationship issues,
change, and scarcity of resources.
Tips for resolving conflict Consider the specific nature of the conflict, Consider the context in
which the conflict occurs, Communicate clearly, Delegate tasks effectively, and Make roles
and responsibilities clear.
Resolution of Conflict

Page 4 of 8
Conflict resolution in organizational behavior is the process of identifying and addressing
conflicts between employees in a workplace. Conflict resolution can help improve the health
and performance of employees and the organization as a whole.
Conflict resolution steps
1. Identify the source: Determine the root cause of the conflict
2. Consider the bigger picture: Look beyond the immediate incident
3. Request solutions: Ask for ideas on how to resolve the conflict
4. Find common ground: Identify solutions that both parties can support
5. Reach an agreement: Come to a resolution that both parties can accept
Conflict resolution strategies
 Collaborating: A cooperative style that involves working together to find a
solution that benefits everyone
 Accommodating : A cooperative style where one party gives in to the other
party's concerns to avoid conflict
 Compromising : A strategy where both parties give up some of their needs to
reach an agreement
 Competing : A style where one party refuses to compromise and will not back
down until they get their way
Sociometry
Sociometry, in the context of organizational behavior, is a method used to measure and
analyze interpersonal relationships within a group, allowing researchers to understand the
social structure of a team by identifying who people prefer to interact with, who is
considered a leader, and who might be isolated, essentially revealing the patterns of
attraction and repulsion among colleagues within a workplace setting.

Sociometry Applications in Organizational Behavior:

 Team building and development: Identifying potential conflicts within a team,
recognizing influential members, and facilitating better collaboration by
understanding social connections.
 Leadership identification: Identifying individuals who are perceived as leaders or
highly respected by their peers.
 Communication network analysis: Understanding how information flows within an
organization by mapping out communication patterns between employees.
 Organizational culture assessment: Analyzing social connections to gain insights into
the prevailing norms and values within a company.
 Change management: Identifying key individuals who can influence others during
organizational changes, facilitating smoother adoption.
Limitations of Sociometry
 Subjectivity: Choices made by individuals can be influenced by personal biases and
social desirability.
 Limited to self-reported data: Individuals might not accurately disclose their true
preferences.
 Potential for social pressure: Group members may feel pressured to choose certain
individuals based on perceived expectations.

Page 5 of 8
Group Norms
In organizational behavior, "group norms" refer to the unspoken or explicitly stated rules and
expectations that guide how individuals behave within a group, shaping their interactions
and contributing to overall group dynamics; essentially, they are the shared standards of
conduct that members of a team or group are expected to follow, influencing everything
from communication styles to work ethic and decision-making processes.
Types of group norms:
 Performance norms: Expectations regarding the quality and quantity of work
produced.
 Interaction norms: How group members should communicate and interact with each
other (e.g., respecting turn-taking, active listening)
 Appearance norms: Expectations about dress code and professional demeanor
 Status norms: How power and influence are distributed within the group
Supervision
In organizational behavior, "supervision" refers to the act of overseeing and guiding the work
of employees by a designated supervisor, which involves setting expectations, monitoring
performance, providing feedback, and ensuring tasks are completed according to
organizational standards and goals; essentially, it's the process of directing and controlling a
team to achieve desired outcomes.
Important factors for effective supervision:
 Leadership skills: The ability to inspire, motivate, and guide employees towards
achieving goals.
 Technical expertise: Sufficient knowledge about the work being supervised to
provide accurate guidance.
 Interpersonal skills: The capacity to build positive relationships with employees,
actively listen, and effectively resolve conflicts.
 Fairness and consistency: Applying rules and standards equitably across the team.
Different types of supervision:
 Direct supervision: A supervisor directly oversees the day-to-day work of a small
team.
 Functional supervision: An expert in a specific area guides employees across
different departments related to their area of expertise.
 Team-based supervision: A supervisor facilitates collaboration within a team to
achieve shared goals.
Style
In organizational behavior, "style" primarily refers to a leader's approach to interacting with
and influencing their team, encompassing their decision-making process, communication
methods, and overall behavior when directing and motivating employees; different
leadership styles like autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and transformational are key
aspects of this concept, with each having distinct characteristics depending on the situation
and desired outcome.
Key points about leadership styles in organizational behavior:
 Autocratic: Leader makes all decisions alone with little to no employee input, often
used in crisis situations where quick action is needed.

Page 6 of 8
  Democratic: Leader actively involves employees in decision-making, fostering
participation and collaboration.
 Laissez-Faire: Leader provides minimal guidance and allows employees to make most
decisions independently, suitable for highly skilled and motivated teams.
 Transformational: Leader inspires and motivates employees by setting a clear vision,
empowering them to reach their full potential.
 Transactional: Leader focuses on rewards and punishments to motivate employees,
based on meeting performance expectations.
Factors influencing leadership style choice:
 Situation: The urgency of a decision, the complexity of the task, team's competence
level.
 Employee characteristics: Individual motivation, skills, and experience.
 Organizational culture: The company's values and norms regarding leadership
behavior.
Training for supervisors
Training for supervisors in organizational behavior should focus on key areas like conflict
resolution, effective communication, decision-making, change management, performance
management, understanding individual motivations, team building, diversity and inclusion,
and ethical leadership, equipping them with the knowledge to navigate employee dynamics
and optimize team performance within the organizational structure.
Key aspects of organizational behavior training for supervisors:
 Individual behavior:
 Motivation theories: Understanding factors that motivate employees
(Maslow's hierarchy, Herzberg's two-factor theory, etc.)
 Perception: How individuals perceive situations and others, and how to
manage biases
 Personality traits: Recognizing different personality types and adapting
leadership style accordingly
 Stress management: Identifying sources of stress and strategies for managing
stress in the workplace
 Group dynamics:
 Team building: Facilitating effective team collaboration and communication
 Leadership styles: Identifying appropriate leadership styles based on the
situation and team needs
 Conflict resolution: Techniques for proactively addressing and resolving
conflicts between team members
 Decision-making: Group decision-making processes and how to encourage
participation
 Organizational factors:
 Organizational culture: Understanding the company culture and how to
promote positive behaviors
 Communication strategies: Effective communication methods for different
situations and audiences

Page 7 of 8
  Change management: Guiding employees through organizational changes
and minimizing disruption
 Performance management: Setting clear expectations, providing regular
feedback, and conducting performance appraisals
 Ethical considerations:
 Workplace ethics: Recognizing and addressing ethical dilemmas in the
workplace
 Diversity and inclusion: Fostering an inclusive workplace where everyone
feels valued and respected
 Fairness and transparency: Ensuring fair treatment and open communication
with employees
Training delivery methods:
 Classroom lectures: Presenting theoretical concepts and frameworks
 Case studies: Analyzing real-life scenarios to apply organizational behavior principles
 Role-playing exercises: Practicing communication and conflict resolution skills in
simulated situations
 Group discussions: Facilitating open dialogue and sharing perspectives on
organizational behavior issues
 Experiential learning: Engaging in activities that directly mimic workplace situations

Page 8 of 8