Skeletal System

Functions
-Protects our organs (brain, intestines, etc.)
-Provides a framework for the movement of our body through our muscles
-Stores minerals that our body needs to function properly
-Produces blood cells

Divisions of Skeleton
Axial Skeleton: consists of the 80 bones that make up the trunk of our body.
Appendicular Skeleton: consists of the other 126 bones in the human body and make up our
limbs.

Shapes of Bones:
1. Long bones
-Longer than wide
-Carry most the load of our daily activities
-Crucial for skeletal mobility
-Examples: thigh bone (femur), tibia, and fibula

Structure:
1. Diaphysis: main shaft composed of compact bone
* Periosteum: membrane of living cells in diaphysis that allow tendons and muscles to
attach themselves to bones
*Medullary cavity: hole that contains bone marrow
-Bone marrow: stores fat, produces blood cells, and plays an important part
in the body’s immune system
2. Epiphysis (2 portions): part that is composed of cancellous bone and articular cartilage

2. Short bones
-Approximately about as wide as long
-Provide support and stability at vital joint areas of the skeletal system
-Examples: wrist/carpal bones and ankle/tarsal bones

3. Flat bones
-Protect vital softer tissues
-Provide a surface for muscle attachments

4. Irregular bones
-Bones which, from their peculiar form, cannot be grouped/defined like the other types of
bones
-Protect nervous tissue

5. (Sesamoid bones)
-Found in locations where a tendon passes over a joint, such as the hand, knee, and foot.
-Functionally, they act to protect the tendon and to increase its mechanical effect
Bones have two inside parts:
1. Compact bone
-Supports the whole body
-Protects organs
-Provides levers for movement
-Stores and releases chemical elements (calcium)
-Dense, smooth and very strong
-Contains living cells which help make repairs if a bone is
injured or broken.

2. Cancellous, or spongy, bone

-So named because of its holey appearance.
-Typically occurs at the ends of long bones, proximal to
joints and within the interior of vertebrae
-Spongy and light weight
-Also, like compact bone, contains living cells which help make repairs if a bone is injured or
broken.

Ligaments- The tissue that connects bones to other bones

-A strained ligament will usually heal with time, but a torn ligament will not.
-A torn ligament must be repaired surgically

Most bones start out as a soft, flexible tissue called cartilage

When you were born, you had little true bone
As you grow, the cartilage is replaced by bone
During childhood, growth plated of cartilage remain in most bones, providing a place for those
bones to continue to grow.
If cartilage wears away, the joint becomes arthritic.

JOINTS:
➢ regions of the skeleton where two or more bones meet and articulate.
➢ supported by a variety of soft tissue structures
➢ prime functions : facilitate growth or to transmit forces between bones, thereby enabling
movement or weight to be transferred.

Classification of joints according to shape of articular surfaces:

Hinge joints
-Articular surfaces are pulley shaped.
-Movements are permitted only in one plane (transverse axis).
-Most common joints.
-e.g. elbow, knee, ankle and interphalangeal joints.

Pivot joints
-Rounded end of one bone fits into the concavity of another bone.
-The rounded part is surrounded by a ligament.
- Limited rotation around a central axis.
-e.g. superior radio-ulnar and median atlanto-axial joints.

Saddle joints
-Articular surfaces are reciprocally saddle shaped i.e. concavo-convex.
-Allows a wide range of movement.
-e.g. first carpo-metacarpal, sterno-clavicular, incudo-malleolar joints.

Ball and socket joints

-Rounded convex surface of one bone fits into the cup-like socket of another bone.
-Permits greatest range of movements.
-e.g. shoulder, hip and incudo-stapedial joints.
What's in a Bone?
A bone may seem lifeless, but it is a living organ made of several different tissues.
Bone is composed of connective tissue and minerals that are deposited by living cells called
osteoblasts.

Bone Marrow
-Red marrow, found in spongy bone, produces red blood cells
-Yellow marrow, found in the central cavity of long bones, stores fat

Different bone disorder and illnesses

1.Osteoporosis
-is a disease that results in a decrease in bone mass and mineral density. The quality and
structure of the bone may also change. Osteoporosis can decrease bone strength and increase
the risk of fracturing.

2. Osteoarthritis
-is the most common form of arthritis.
-This condition affects the body’s joints by degrading cartilage, the tissue that covers the surface
of joints. -Osteoarthritis can also change the shape of bones. -Osteoarthritis most frequently
affects the hands, hips, and knees.

3. Bone cancer and tumors

-is an uncommon type of cancer that begins when cells in a bone start to grow out of control.
Any of the cells in the bone can develop into cancer.
-Primary bone cancers are cancers that start in the bone.
-The most types of primary bone cancers include osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma.
-Cancer cells can also spread to the bone from other areas of the body. Doctors refer to these as
bone metastases.
-The most common site for bone metastases is the spine.

4. Rickets
-is a childhood bone condition similar to osteomalacia, but it occurs due to imperfect
mineralization.
-It results in soft, weak bones, typically due to a vitamin D deficiency. Without sufficient vitamin
D, the body cannot metabolize calcium and phosphorous, which are essential for proper bone
development and growth. Vitamin D deficiency may result from inadequate nutrition, lack of
sun exposure, or malabsorption.

5. Fracture
-A fracture is a break in a bone which occurs when it is put under sudden or very strong
pressure or force. This covers falls, a direct impact on the body, and sports-related injuries.

Scoliosis
- is an abnormal curvature of the spine resulting in an S or C shape. The disorder often occurs in
a child’s growth spurt before puberty, with cases usually diagnosed in the first seven years.

Gout
-is a common form of inflammatory arthritis marked by intense pain and caused by too much
uric acid in the body.
-Uric acid crystals build up in the joints and surrounding tissues in the body.
- This disorder typically affects one joint at a time, usually the one connecting the big toe.
-Other commonly afflicted joints are the lesser toe joints, ankles, and knees.

The Muscular System

Function of the muscular system

-Provides movement in conjunction with the skeletal system

-Important in life support
-Used by humans for food

Classifications of Muscles

Voluntary: Movement of the muscle is under the control of the animal

Involuntary: Movement of the muscle is not controlled by the animal

Types of Muscles

1. Smooth Muscles: Involuntary muscles, found in the walls of internal organs and the blood
vessels.
-”voluntary muscle”
-”visceral muscle”
-Is found along our digestive tract: used to move food along

2. Cardiac Muscles: Muscles that form a network to make up the heart.

-”striated muscle”
-”involuntary muscle”

3. Skeletal Muscles: Have a striped appearance, include voluntary and involuntary, attached to
and moves your bones.
-This is a majority of the muscle tissue in your body.
-”striated muscle”
-”voluntary muscle”
Is in our biceps, triceps, postural muscles, etc

Peristalsis
-Rhythmic contraction that pushes substances through tubes of the body.
-Muscle fibers in visceral smooth muscle respond to neurotransmitters but they also stimulate
each other to contract.
-The muscle fibers tend to contract and relax together.
-This type of muscle produces an action called peristalsis.

Muscle Fatigue
-Condition in which a muscle has lost its ability to contract
-Develops due to an accumulation of lactic acid
-Occurs when the blood supply to a muscle is interrupted
-A motor neuron loses its ability to release acetylcholine onto muscle fibers
-Cramps or painful involuntary contractions of muscles, can accompany muscle fatigue

Connective Tissue Coverings

Fascia - covers entire skeletal muscles and separates them from each other.
Tendon - a tough, cord-like structure made of fibrous connective tissue that connects muscles
to bones.
Aponeurosis - a tough, sheet-like structure made of fibrous connective tissue that attaches
muscles to other muscles.
Epimysium - a thin covering that is just deep (underneath) to the fascia of a muscle that
surrounds the entire muscle.
Perimysium - connective tissue divides a muscle into sections called fascicles.
Endomysium - covering of connective tissue surrounds individual muscle cells.

Body Movements
Flexion – Bending a body part
Extension – Straightening a body part
Hyperextension – Extending a body part past the normal anatomical position
Dorsiflexion – Pointing the toes up
Plantar flexion – Pointing the toes down
Abduction – Moving a body part away from its position in the anatomical position
Adduction – Moving a body part toward its position in the anatomical position
Circumduction- Moving a body part in a circle; for example, moving your arm in a circular
motion
Pronation – Turning the palm of the hand down
Supination – Turning the palm of the hand up
Inversion – Turning the sole of the foot medially
Eversion – Turning the sole of the foot laterally
Retraction – Moving a body part posteriorly
Protraction – Moving a body part anteriorly
Elevation – Lifting a body part; for example, elevating the shoulders as in a shrugging expression
Depression – Lowering a body part; for example, lowering the shoulders

Major Skeletal Muscles

-The muscle name indicates the location, size, action, shape, or number of attachments of the
muscle.
-As you study muscles, you will find it easier to remember them if you think about what the
name describes

Muscles of the Head

Sternocleidomastoid - pulls the head to one side and also pulls the head to the chest
Splenius capitis - rotates the head and allows it to bend to the side
Frontalis - raises the eyebrows
Orbicularis oris - allows the lips to pucker
Orbicularis oculi - allows the eyes to close
Zygomaticus - pulls the corners of the mouth up
Platysma - pulls the corners of the mouth down
Masseter and temporalis - close the jaw

Arm Muscles
Pectoralis major - pulls the arm across the chest; it also rotates and adducts the arms
Latissimus dorsi - acts to extend, adduct, and rotate the arm inwardly
Deltoid - acts to abduct and extend the arm at the shoulder
Subscapularis - rotates the arm medially
Infraspinatus - rotates the arm laterally

Forearm Muscles
Biceps brachii - flexes the arm at the elbow and rotates the hand laterally
Brachialis - flexes the arm at the elbow
Brachioradialis - flexes the forearm at the elbow
Triceps brachii - extends the arm at the elbow
Supinator - rotates the forearm laterally (supination)
Pronator teres - rotates the forearm medially (pronation)

Muscles of the Wrist, Hand and Fingers

Flexor carpi radialis and flexor carpi ulnaris - act to flex and abduct the wrist.
Palmaris longus - acts to flex the wrist.
Flexor digitorum profundus - acts to flex the distal joints of the fingers but not the thumb.
Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis - act to extend the wrist and abduct the hand.
Extensor carpi ulnaris - acts to extend the wrist.
Extensor digitorum - acts to extend the fingers but not the thumb.

Respiratory Muscles
Diaphragm - separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity; its contraction causes
inspiration.
External and internal intercostals - muscles expand and lower the ribs during breathing.

Abdominal Muscles
External and internal obliques - compress the abdominal wall.
Transverse abdominis - also compresses the abdominal wall.
Rectus abdominis - acts to flex the vertebral column and compress the abdominal wall.

Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle

Trapezius - muscle raises the arms and pulls the shoulders downward.
Pectoralis minor - muscle pulls the scapula downward and raises the ribs.

Leg Muscles
Psoas major & iliacus - flexes the thigh.
Gluteus maximus - extends the thigh.
Gluteus medius and minimus - abduct the thighs and rotate them medially.
Adductor longus and magnus - muscles adduct the thighs and rotate them laterally.
Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus - three muscles are known as the
hamstring group. They act to flex the leg at the knee and extend the leg at the thigh.
Rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius - act to extend the leg
at the knee.
Sartorius - flexes the leg at the knee and thigh and abducts the thigh, rotating the thigh laterally
but rotating the lower leg medially.

Muscles of the Ankle, Foot, and Toes

Tibialis anterior - acts to invert the foot and point the foot up (dorsiflexion).
Extensor digitorum longus - acts to extend the toes and point the foot up.
Gastrocnemius - acts to flex the foot and flex the leg at the knee.
Soleus - also acts to flex the foot.
Flexor digitorum longus - acts to flex the foot and toes.

Diseases and Disorders of the Muscular System

Botulism - affects the gastrointestinal tract and various muscle groups
Fibromyalgia - fairly common condition that causes chronic pain primarily in joints, muscles,
and tendons
Muscular Dystrophy -inherited disorder characterized by muscle weakness and a loss of muscle
tissue
Myasthenia gravis - patients experience muscle weakness
Rhabdomyolysis - a condition in which the kidneys have been damaged related to serious
muscle injuries
Tetanus - commonly called lockjaw
Trichinosis - an infection caused by parasites (worms)