Student name: ID: Department

School of Engineering

Fluid Mechanics and Energy Transfer (FMET)

Laboratory experiment FMET4 – Two-stage air compressor

Learning outcomes

✓ To give first-hand operating experience of a two-stage condenser air compressor and its
associated equipment
✓ To find the parameters which have the most effect on the performance of the kit,
particularly the effect of stage cooling and intercooling on the polytropic index of
compression and the work of compression.

1. Introduction

The main advantage of a two-stage intercooled compression process as compared with a single
stage process (operating between the same pressures) is the substantial saving which can be made
on the compression work 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑣. This is shown by the shaded area on the idealised p-V
diagram (see Figure 3). This reduction is possible because the volume of the mass of air delivered
from the Low Pressure stage is reduced by cooling in the intercooler at a constant pressure (process
2-3). The high pressure part of the p-V diagram will therefore have smaller area for the same mass of
air delivered.

2. Use of a compressor

The compressor is part of a compressed-air generation system. Such systems are used where
compressed air is employed as energy source. This is particularly true of workplaces at which
combustible gases represent an explosion hazard (for example in mines or the chemical industry)
and where compressed air is thus utilised as a substitute for electric power.

• Mining: For driving machines

• Chemical industry: Control engineering

• Workshops, petrol stations: Tools, paint spray appliances, tyre inflators

• Assembly shops: Automation, pneumatic controls

Figure 1 shows the two-stage compressor in the CTL lab. Air coolers, pressure reducers, water traps
etc. may also form part of such systems. The compressor is the central component of any compressed-
air generation system, being used to transform the mechanical energy supplied into an increase in air
pressure.

3. Function of the Compressor

Compressors are machines which convey gaseous media (in this case, air) from low-pressure
chambers into chambers with higher pressure. The energy supplied for this purpose by machines,
such as electric motors or combustion engines, increases the pressure in line with the intended use,
but also warms the air. Part of the heat is returned to the ambient atmosphere by way of cooling fins.
Fig. 2 shows the basic design of a reciprocating compressor.

The volume of air in the cylinder is compressed by the upward movement of the piston and conveyed
by way of a discharge valve into the pressure line. On its downward stroke, the piston draws in fresh
air via the intake valve. A crank mechanism, consisting of crankshaft and connecting rod, produces the
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necessary upward and downward movement of the piston from regular rotation. The oil required for
lubricating the moving parts gathers in the oil sump.

Figure 1 Compressed-air generation system

Figure 2 basic design of a reciprocating compressor

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The processes taking place in a compressor can best be illustrated by way of a so-called p-v diagram.

Such p-v diagrams show the pressure in the cylinder in relation to the respective cylinder volume. The
illustrations below give an indication of the individual compression phases. The p-v diagram has been
turned clockwise through 90° to correspond to the piston stroke.

Compression: Starting from point 1, bottom dead centre (BDC), the piston moves up and
compresses the air in the cylinder. The pressure increases with decreasing volume.

Discharge: At point 2 the pressure in the cylinder has reached the high pressure 𝑃𝐻𝑃 in the pressure
line. The discharge valve opens and the compressed air flows into the pressure line (the pressure in
the cylinder is constant while the volume drops).

Re-expansion: At point 3 the piston has reached top dead centre (TDC) and reverses its direction. The
discharge valve closes and the air left in the cylinder expands again. The pressure drops.

Intake: At point 4 the pressure has dropped to the lower pressure (ambient pressure) 𝑃𝐿𝑃 with
the result that the intake valve opens and fresh air flows into the cylinder. This process continues
until the piston has reached bottom dead centre (BDC), where the entire procedure starts again.
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4. Two-stage compression

If the pressure ratio is increased in single-stage compression, the back pressure and temperature of
the medium also increase. The pressure ratio during compression is limited by the temperature at
which the lubricating oil/gas mixture can explode. With compression in stages, the medium is cooled
between the individual stages. This reduces the volume losses, the forces on the link-age, and the
drive power. Intercooling causes a reduction in the intake temperature and the intake volume of the
second stage. In the idealised p-V diagram (Figure 3), the process of the second stage runs directly
after the intercooling from 1II up to the final pressure 2II. With single-stage compression, it would
run to the final pressure 2' without any jump. The difference between these two curves is the work
saving.

Figure 3 p-v diagram of the two-stage compressor

Schematic of the kit is shown in Figure 4. Example of the reading of the pressures and temperatures
in the kit is shown in Figure 5.
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Figure 4 Process schematic

Figure 5 Example of the reading.

5. Characteristic variables of the piston compressor

Isothermal efficiency: The isothermal power 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ of the compressor (where 𝑝𝐿𝑃 = 1 bar) is:
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𝑝𝐻𝑃 (1)
𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ = 𝑝𝐿𝑃 𝑉̇ 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑝𝐿𝑃

𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ Isothermal power of the compressor [W]

𝑝𝐿𝑃 Intake pressure (absolute pressure) [Pa]
𝑝𝐻𝑃 Delivery pressure (absolute pressure) [Pa]
𝑉̇ Volumetric flow rate [𝑚3 /𝑠]

The isothermal power is the lowest power required to rise the pressure between the lower pressure
𝑃𝐿𝑃 to the higher pressure 𝑃𝐻𝑃 if the process is entirely isothermal.

If the actual electrical power consumption, 𝑃𝑒𝑙 , and 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ are known, the isothermal efficiency
𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ of the compressor can be calculated:
𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ (2)
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ =
𝑃𝑒𝑙

Measuring the volumetric flow rate using a Venturi nozzle (differential pressure sensor): The
differential pressure p in a Venturi nozzle is proportional to the flow rate.

Differential pressure / volumetric flow rate: The differential pressure in a venturi nozzle is proportional
to the square of the volumetric flow rate:

(4)
2∆𝑝
𝑉̇ = 𝐴𝑛 √
𝜌
𝑉̇ Volumetric flow rate in m3/s
∆𝑝 Differential pressure in N/ m2
𝜌 Density in kg/m3
𝐴𝑛 Cross-section area (narrowest flow cross-section) m2

Density of air: The density, 𝜌, of air is dependent upon the ambient temperature 𝑇 [Co] and the air
pressure 𝑝𝑜 . If we assume that the air behaves similarly to an ideal gas, then we get:
𝑝0 (5)
𝜌=
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 . (𝑇 + 273)

𝑝𝑜 = Ambient pressure in mbar

𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 = Specific gas constant of air 287 J/(kg.k)
T = Ambient temperature in °C
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6. Polytropic process

The compression process is normally polytopic (i.e. temperature, pressure and volume of air is
changing and the heat is lost during the process). For polytropic process, the volume and pressure
before and after compression in each stage are related to each other according to the following
equation.
𝑘 𝑘 (6)
𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑝𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑑𝑒𝑙

Also temperature and pressure follow the following equation.

𝑘−1 (7)
𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑘
=( )
𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑛

Here 𝑘 is the process index. Please note that the process index for the 1st stage, 𝑘1 , is different than
the process index of the 2nd stage, 𝑘2 .

7. Measured values and evaluation

• Air mass flow rate 𝑚̇𝑎

𝑉𝑃̇1 (8)
𝑚̇𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇1

Here, 𝑉̇ is the air volumetric flow rate, 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 is the air gas constant (287 J/kg.K) and 𝑇 is the absolute
temperature in Kelvin.

• Process index

As the compressor process is polytropic with process index, 𝑘, each stage of the compressor has its
own process index. You can use Equation (7) to find each stage index. For instance, the process index
of stage 1 can be found as follow.
−1
𝑇
𝐿𝑜𝑔( 2 )
𝑇1
𝑘1 = 1−( ) (9)
𝑃2
𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑃 )
1
( )

Where, 𝑇1 is the inlet temperature in Kelven, 𝑇2 is the exit temperature of 1st stage, 𝑃1 is the inlet
pressure of the 1st stage and 𝑃2 is the exit pressure of 1st stage. Same thing can be done to stage 2.

• Indicated power
The indicated power of each stage is calculated as:

𝑘 𝑘−1 (10)
𝑊̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇𝑖 ( ) {(𝑃𝑅 )( 𝑘 ) − 1}
𝑘−1

Here, 𝑃𝑅 is the pressure ratio of the stage and 𝑇𝑖 is the inlet temperature of the stage in Kelven.
Student name: ID: Department

• Compressor thermodynamic efficiency

The thermodynamic efficiency of the compressor is the total indicated power divided by the electrical
power.

𝑊̇1 + 𝑊̇2 (11)

𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜 =
𝑃𝑒𝑙

8. Experiments

1. Switch on the compressor. If it does not start, the motor protection switch directly on the
motor may have switched off – switch it back on.
2. Use the discharge valve to set the desired final pressure, wait until a constant pressure 𝑝3 at
8 bar is reached and record the measured values.
3. Fill in the below table.
4. Switch off the compressor.

9. Tasks

1. Fill in Table 1.
2. Calculate the volume flow rate 𝑉̇ and the mass flow rate 𝑚̇.
3. Calculate the isothermal efficiency of the compressor.
4. Calculate the process index of each stage.
5. Calculate the indicated power of each stage and the total thermodynamic efficiency of the
compressor.
6. Comment on the result in terms of the value of the process index of each stage, and the
different efficiencies of the compressor.

Table 1 experiment reading

𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟑 T1 T2 T3 T4 ∆𝒑 𝑽̇ 𝑷𝒆𝒍
[bar] [bar] Set point [℃] [℃] [℃] [℃] [mbar] [m3/s] [W]
pressure
[bar]
3.16 8 18 92.4 41.1 85 10.5x10^- 4.74x10^- 1.99x10^3
1 3 3
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WORKING OUT AT END

Appendix A
Technical data

Dimensions
Length x width x height 1770 x 800 x 1520 mm
Weight approx. 304 kg
Power supply
Voltage 400 V
Frequency 50 Hz
Phases 3
Compressor
Manufacturer Kaeser
Type K 2502 H35
Cylinders 2 in V-shape
Max. Pressure 35 bar
Operating pressure 12 bar
Intake capacity 15 m³/h = 250 L/min
Speed at 50 Hz approx. 750 min-1
Speed at 60 Hz approx. 900 min-1
Stroke 72 mm
1st stage
Hole 78 mm
Driving rod length 150 mm
2nd stage
Hole 45 mm
Driving rod length 150 mm
Drive motor
Power 3.0 kW
Speed 3000 min-1
Intake vessel
Volume 20 L
Max. Pressure 16 bar
Pressure vessel, stage 1
Volume 5L
Max. Pressure 16 bar
Pressure vessel, stage 2
Volume 20 L
Max. Pressure 16 bar
Differential pressure sensor
Measuring range 0...10 mbar
Output signal 0...10 V DC
Power supply 24 V DC
Venturi nozzle
Smallest diameter 12 mm
Differential pressure sensor
Measuring range 0...1, 6 bar abs
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Output signal 0...10 V DC

Power supply 24 V DC
Resistance thermometer with measuring transducer
Type PT100
Measuring range 0...200 °C
Output signal 0...10 V DC
Power transducer
Measuring range 0...2500 W
Output signal 0...10 V DC
Noise level 95 dB(A)

Appendix B
List of formula symbols and units
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Summary of results
Comments on results obtained:

𝑘1 > 𝑘2 , 𝑘2 is closer to being isothermal as intake volume and temperature was reduced by the intercooler.
Isothermal efficiency was calculated to be 49.489%, so compression uses almost 50% of the power given and
other 50% is converted to waste energy. Overall efficiency is 56.278% so almost 43% of inputted power is
converted to waste energy .This shows that intercooling and multistaging has a large effect on the isothermal
efficiency of a compressor

For supervisor/demonstrator use only.

Mark based on accuracy of measurements, understanding of key aspects

and contribution to the laboratory [maximum 5]
Lateness penalty [ maximum -3]
Overall Mark for laboratory

Comments on performance and attitude of student :