Module 1: Philosophical Perspective of the ●​ Socratic method - the so called introspection, a

Self method of carefully examining one’s thoughts

and emotion to gain self knowledge
The Self can be viewed in 3 ways: ●​ He inspired the youth of Athens to “know
-​ Self is innate. thyself”
-​ Self is emergent. ●​ He equates knowledge with virtue and ignorance
-​ Self is integrated and developing with vice

Self is innate. Plato (Greek Philosopher)

●​ The self is an important quality of humans that is ●​ “The self is an immortal soul”
present upon birth and that self-awareness is ●​ Student of Socrates.
natural. ●​ His philosophy can be explained as a process of
●​ This view of self includes the philosophies of self knowledge and purification of the soul
Socrates, Plato, Augustine, and Rene ●​ In his Theory of Forms, he introduced the
Descartes. concepts of the two worlds:
1)​ The world of forms (nonphysical ideas)
Self is emergent. - real and permanent
●​ The self is an outcome of interaction with the 2)​ World of sense (reality) - temporary
physical as well as the social world. and only a replica of the ideal world
●​ The empiricist perspectives of Aristotle , John ●​ He introduce the idea of a 3 part soul;
Locke, and David Hume belong to this view of ○​ Reason - our mind or divine essence
self. that enable us to think deeply, make
wise choices and achieve a true
Self is integrated and developing. understanding of eternal truth
●​ The self has various components that undergo ○​ Spirit or Passion - basic emotion (
change through time. love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness
●​ Immanuel Kant, Gilbert Ryle, and Maurice and empathy)
Merleau-Ponty’s The Phenomenology of ○​ Physical Appetite - our basic biological
Perception may fall under this view of self. needs (hunger, thirst and sexual desire)

Different Philosophical Views of the Self: Aristotle (Greek Philosopher)

1.​ Socrates (Greek Philosopher) ●​ “The soul is the essence of the self”
2.​ Plato (Greek Philosopher) ●​ Student of Plato
3.​ Aristotle (Greek Philosopher) ●​ He suggests that anything with life has a soul
4.​ Augustine ( Early Christian Philosopher)( African ●​ Soul - the essence of the self
Philosopher) ●​ He believes that reality is based on what we can
5.​ Rene Descartes (French Philosopher) sense and perceive.
6.​ John Locke (English Philosopher) ●​ 3 kind of soul possessed by man
7.​ David Hume (Scottish Philosopher) ○​ vegetative - includes the physical body
8.​ Immanuel Kant (German Philosopher) that can gow
9.​ Sigmund Freud (Austrian Psychoanalyst) ○​ Sentient soul - includes sensual desire,
10.​ Gilbert Ryle (British Philosopher) feeling and emotion
11.​ Paul Churchland (Canadian Philosopher) ○​ Rational soul - what makes man
12.​ Maurice Merleau-Ponty human it include the intellect
(French Phenomenological Philosopher)
Augustine ( Early Christian Philosopher)( African
Philosopher)
Socrates (Greek Philosopher) ●​ “The soul is superior to the body”
●​ “An unexamined life is not worth living” ●​ A saint in the Catholic Church
●​ He believes that every human possess an ●​ He integrated the ideas of Plato and Christianity.
immortal soul that survives the physical body ●​ He believes that the soul is what governs and
●​ He suggests that reality consist of 2 defines the human person.
dichotomous realms ●​ In his work “confessions” he describes that
1)​ Physical Realm humankind is created in the image and likeness
●​ Changeable, transient and of god
imperfect ●​ For Augustine, “knowledge can only come by
●​ The physical world on which seeing the truth that dwells within us.” The
man lives truth refers to the truth of knowing God.
●​ Body belongs to the physical ●​ “I am doubting, therefore i am”
realm
2)​ Ideal Realm Rene Descartes (French Philosopher)
●​ unchanging, eternal and ●​ “I think, therefore, i am”
immortal ●​ The Father of Modern Philosophy and is
●​ Soul belongs to the ideal realm considered a rationalist.
●​ He explained that the essence of the self - the ●​ Rationalist - someone who believes that
soul - is the immortal entity reason and logical thinking are the primary
sources of knowledge
 ●​ The latin phrase “Cogito ergo sum” = “I think, ●​ In Kant’s work, Critique of Pure Reason he
therefore, i am” opposes Hume’s view that knowledge is
●​ There are 2 dimensions of the human self subjective. According to Kant, our knowledge is
○​ The self as a thinking entity - non objective. Time and space are universal
material, immortal and conscious conditions which are necessary to acquire
○​ The self as a physical body - material, sensory experience.
mortal non thinking entity governed by ●​ For Kant, the human mind is an active shaper
the physical law of nature of experience
●​ The knowledge of reality can be attained ●​ The self transcends experience.
through logical deduction.
●​ Known for the Mind-Body Dualism wherein he Sigmund Freud (Austrian Psychoanalyst)
argues that mind and body are independent of ●​ “The self is multilayered”
each other, and each can exist without the other. ●​ Freud is not a philosopher, but his views on the
nature of the self may have an impact on
John Locke (English Philosopher) philosophical thinking.
●​ “The self is consciousness” ●​ Freud holds that the self is multilayered:
●​ For him the human mind at birth is tabula rasa ○​ Conscious
or at blank slate ■​ Governed by the “reality
●​ Locke used the concept of reason from the principle”
empirical perspective. ■​ everything you're aware of at
●​ He things that the self is primarily from sense the moment. It includes your
experience (taste, feel, see, feel, hear) current thoughts, feelings, and
●​ Empiricist - someone who believes that perceptions.
sensory experience and observation are the ○​ Preconscious
primary sources of knowledge ■​ Governed by the “pleasure
●​ For him, sensory experience is the source of principle”
all knowledge and therefore there can be no ■​ part of your mind that contains
knowledge without observation. thoughts and memories you’re
●​ He holds that our personal identity is made not currently aware of but can
possible by self-consciousness or being aware easily bring to mind.
of the world that our senses perceive. ○​ Unconscious
●​ Locke’s Law of Reason states that all human ■​ contains thoughts, memories,
beings are born equal in terms of their natural and desires that are buried deep
rights such as the rights to life, liberty, and and not accessible to your
property. conscious mind.
●​ The goal of psychoanalysis is to release
David Hume (Scottish Philosopher) repressed emotions and experiences to
●​ “There is no self” decrease internal conflicts.
●​ He is also an empiricist.
●​ He asserts that both experience and Gilbert Ryle (British Philosopher)
observation are the foundations of any logical ●​ “The self is the way people behave”
argument. ●​ “ I act, therefore, i am”
●​ Impression ●​ Ryle is a representative of philosophical
○​ These are the raw, immediate behaviorism.
experiences we have through our ●​ In his book, The Concept of Mind Ryle
senses opposes Descartes’ Mind-Body Dualism which
○​ Vivid perceptions and are strong and maintains that the mind is distinct from the body.
lively ●​ For Ryle, the mind and body are intrinsically
●​ Ideas linked which means that mental states and
○​ copies of impressions bodily actions are one and the same. The mind
○​ Less lively and vivid is the totality of human dispositions that is
●​ Hume’s Bundle Theory (Lack of Self) proposed known through the way the people behave.
that the self is nothing but a bundle or collection
of interconnected and continually changing Paul Churchland (Canadian Philosopher)
sense impressions of what a human person is all ●​ “The self is the brain”
about. ●​ Churchland, being a proponent of Eliminative
●​ Self-knowledge depends on one’s conscious Materialism (the idea that the self is inseparable
experience and perception. from the brain and the physiology of the body
●​ All we have is the brain, if the brain is gone,
Immanuel Kant (German Philosopher) there is no self. For Churchland, the physical
●​ “The self transcends experience” brain and not the imaginary mind, gives us our
●​ He harmonized the contradicting ideas of the sense of self.
rationalists and the empiricists.
●​ He believes that knowledge derives from an Maurice Merleau-Ponty (French Phenomenological
integration of sensory experience and Philosopher)
conceptual understanding. ●​ “The self is embodied subjectivity”
 ●​ He argues that all knowledge about the self is ●​ “Me self”
based on the “ phenomena” of experience ○​ the objective element of the self. It
●​ Merleau-Ponty, as a phenomenologist, gives represents the internalized attitudes and
importance to man’s lived experiences. demands of other people and the
●​ In his work, The Phenomenology of individual’s awareness of those
Perception, the body is considered as a demands.
subject, opposed to the view of Western ●​ The full development of the self is attained when
Philosophy that treats the body as an object. the “I” and the “me” are united.
●​ Merleau-Ponty believes that the consciousness, ●​ According to Mead, the self is not present at
the world, and the human body are intricately birth, It develops only with social experience
intertwined in perceiving the world. wherein language, gestures, and objects are
●​ For him, perception is not merely a used to communicate meaningfully.
consequence of sensory experience; rather, it is ●​ Since there is meaning in human actions, we
a conscious experience. The self is embodied infer people’s intention or direction of action,
subjectivity. which may lead us to understand the world from
others’ point of view – a process that Mead
labeled as role-taking
●​ When we perform our own particular role, we
Module 2: Sociological Perspective:The Self as a become self-aware.
Product of Society ●​ MEAD DETAILED THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE SELF IN A THREE-STAGE PROCESS:
Sociological perspective of the self ○​ 1. Preparatory Stage (0-3 years old)
●​ is based on the assumption that human behavior ■​ Children imitate the people
is influenced by group life. around them
●​ A particular view of oneself is formed through ■​ No sense of self
interactions with other people, groups, or social ■​ Just preparing for role taking
institutions. ○​ 2. Play Stage (3-5 years old)
■​ Start to view themselves in
Sociology relation to others as they learn
●​ as a scientific study of social groups and human to communicate through
relationships, generates new insights to the language and other symbols
interconnectedness between ourselves and ■​ Role taking is exhibited
other people. ■​ The self is developing
○​ 3. Game Stage (8-9 years old)(begin in
Sociologists the early school years)
●​ offer theories to explain how the self emerges as ■​ Children understand not only
a product of social experience. their own social position but also
those around them
THE PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF ■​ Becomes concerned about their
WELL-KNOWN SOCIOLOGISTS action
Charles Horton Cooley ■​ The self is now present
●​ In 1902 he introduced the looking-glass self to ■​ Generalized others - attitudes,
highlight that the people whom we interact with viewpoints, demands and
become a mirror in which we view ourselves. expectations of the society
●​ Our self-identity or self-image is achieved
through a threefold event: Gerry Lanuza (2004)
1.​ We conceive an idea of how a person ●​ In his article “The Constitution of the self”
presents himself to others. discussed the relationship between society and
2.​ How he analyzes how others perceive the individuals
him ●​ According to him “IN MODERN SOCIETIES
3.​ How he creates an image of himself THE ATTAINMENT AND STABILITY OF
SELF-IDENTITY IS FREELY CHOSEN”
George Herbert Mead ●​ It is no longer restricted by customs and
●​ Supports the view that a person develops a traditions.
sense of self through social interaction not the ●​ While this newfound freedom offers infinite
biological precondition (same with cooley) possibilities for self-cultivation, problems such as
●​ Mead’s theory of the social self, explained that alienation and dehumanization of the self also
the self has two divisions: the “I” and the “me”. appear which hinder the full development of
●​ “I self” human potentials.
○​ the subjective element and the active ●​ Hence, there is a need to discover the
side of the self. It represents the “authentic core” of the self for the individual to
spontaneous, and unique traits of the freely work towards self-realization.
individual. ●​ “IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES,
○​ The "I-self" is the self as it experiences SELF-IDENTITY CONTINUOUSLY CHANGE
and responds to the world without being DUE TO THE DEMANDS OF MULTITUDE OF
influenced by social expectations or SOCIAL CONTEXTS, NEW INFORMATION
norms. TECHNOLOGIES, AND GLOBALIZATION”
Jean Baudrillard Martin Sokefeld (1999)
●​ posits that in the postmodern society the self is ●​ Believes that the concept of self is a necessary
found in the prestige symbols of goods supplementary to the concept of culture in
consumed by man. anthropology and should be regarded as a
●​ EXPOSES THE NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES human universal
OF POSTMODERNITY TO INDIVIDUALS IN ●​ Identity is understood as a disposition of basic
THE SOCIETY personality features acquired mostly during
●​ The postmodern individuals achieve self-identity childhood
through prestige symbols that they consume.
●​ The cultural practices of advertising and mass Social Anthropology
media greatly influence individuals to consume ●​ The concept of identity is used mostly in the
goods not for their primary value and utility but context of “ethnic identity”
to give them a feeling of goodness and power
when compared with others. Identity
●​ The self may be a never-ending search for ●​ Understood as a disposition of basic personality
prestige in the postmodern society features

MODULE 3: An Anthropological Conceptualization of 2 ways in which the concept of self is viewed in

the Self : The Self as Embedded in Culture different societies
1)​ Egocentric
Anthropology ●​ The self is seen as an autonomous and
●​ holds a holistic view of human nature. distinct individual
●​ It is concerned with how cultural and biological ●​ Each person is defined as a replica of all
processes interact to shape human experience. humanity but is capable of acting
independently from others
Contemporary Anthropologists ●​ means focusing mostly on your own
●​ believe that culture and self are complementary perspective and interests. It’s like seeing
concepts that are to be understood in relation to everything from your own point of view
one another ●​ “All about me”
2)​ Sociocentric
James L. Peacock (1986) ●​ The self is contingent on a situation or
●​ “anthropology encroaches on the territory of the social setting
sciences as well as the humanities, and ●​ This is a view of the self that is
transcends the conventional boundaries of both context-dependent which emphasizes
while addressing questions to the distant past that there is no intrinsic self that can
and the pressing present – perhaps with possess enduring qualities
implications for the future”. ●​ means focusing on the perspectives and
●​ This definition of anthropology emphasizes that interests of the group or society you
it is an academic field for understanding the belong to.
interconnections and interdependence of ●​ “All about we”
biological and cultural aspects of the human
experience in all times and places. Christie Kiefer
●​ Believes that an individual is neither a robot or ●​ Japanese posses a sociocentric view of the self,
independent self witted in which the membership of a person in a
particular social group defines the boundaries of
Anthropology considers human experience as an the self
interplay of “Nature” - genetic inheritance that sets
individual potentials, “Nurture” - socio cultural Francis Hsu
environment ●​ Attributes a sociocentric view of the self to the
chinese
Ethnographic investigation ●​ He explains that the chinese prioritize kin ties
●​ Discuss that cultural variation may affect one's and cooperation
mental state, language and behavior
AMERICANS ARE EGOCENTRIC​
THE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF AND
IDENTITY Identity Toolbox
Edward Taylor ●​ Features of a person’s identity (such as gender,
●​ British anthropologist age, or personal appearance) that he or she
●​ Defines culture as “ that complex whole which chooses to emphasize in constructing a social
includes knowledge, belief art, morals, law, self.
customs, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society”
 ●​ Individuals seek confirmation from others that
they occupy the positions on the social
landscape that they claim to occupy

Arnold van Gennep How do societies distinguish individuals from one

●​ Believes that changes in ones status and another?
identity are market by 3-phased rites of passage ●​ By using criteria such as age, gender, kinship,
●​ Three-phased rites of passage ethnicity, and language.
○​ Separation Phase ●​ Differences and similarities in characteristics
■​ People detach from their former among individuals are used to construct social
identity to another landscapes on which each person’s place or
○​ Liminality Phase identity is indicated.
■​ Person transition from one
identity to another Robbins (2012)
○​ Incorporation Phase ●​ Considers human beings as cultural animals
■​ The change in ones status is
officially incorporated Cultural Differences
●​ Exist when group of people assign different
Rights of Passage meanings to different life events
●​ Helps a person adjust from one social dimension
of his life to another stage of life identity Module 4: Psychological Perspective of
theSelf
Anthony Wallace and Raymond Fogelson
●​ Coined the term “ identity struggle”
William James
●​ Characterized the interaction in which there is a
●​ Concept of the self
discrepancy between the identity a person
●​ Suggest that self is divided into 2 categories
claims to possess and the identity attributed to
○​ I-Self
that person by others.
■​ The self that knows who he is
●​ Individuals must be able to defend their
■​ Also called the thinking self
identities if they are threatened
■​ Reflects the soul of a person
which is called pure ego
Katherine Ewing
●​ “Illusion of Wholeness” exhibit how individual
○​ Me-Self
selves throughout the world continuously
■​ Also called the empirical self
reconstitute themselves into new selves in
■​ Refers to the person's personal
response to internal and external stimuli
experience and is further
subdivided into:
●​ Material self
The Self as Embedded in Culture
○​ Individuals
●​ Clifford Geertz (1973), an American
physical
anthropologist
attributes and
○​ offered a reformulation of the concept of
material
culture which favors a symbolic
possession that
interpretive model of culture.
contribute to
○​ He defines culture as “a system of
self image
inherited conceptions expressed in
●​ Social self
symbolic forms by means of which men
○​ Who a person
communicate, perpetuate, and develop
is and how she
their knowledge about and attitudes
acts in social
toward life.”
situations
○​ Geertz agrees with Max Weber, that
●​ Spiritual self
“man is an animal suspended in webs of
○​ Most intimate
significance he himself has spun,”
and important
wherein those webs were taken as
part of the self
symbols of culture.
○​ Includes
○​ Man is defined by his genetic potentials
persons
shaped into actual accomplishments
purpose, core
which are made possible by culture.
values,
○​ Geertz emphasized that human nature
conscience and
is interdependent with culture:
moral behavior
●​ “Without men, no culture, certainly; but
equally, and more significantly, without
Carl Roger
culture, no men.”
●​ Self theory: the real and ideal self
●​ Self concept
Social Identities
●​ People have their own and others’ positions in
society.
 ○​ Aspect of self understanding ○​ The ability of an individual to control his
that is important in adolescence behavior without having to rely on other
year for help
○​ Image of one self
●​ He defines the self as a flexible and
changing perception of personal identity THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE
●​ The self is the center of experience
●​ According to him humans are always Carl Jung
striving for self fulfillment and self ●​ Theory of the self is the concept of archetypes
actualization ●​ Archetypes
●​ Central to achieving self actualization is ○​ The universal models after which roles
the development of the self concept are patterned
●​ 2 components of self ○​ Represents the hidden potentialities of
○​ Real self psyche
■​ Consists of all the ○​ Resides in the personal unconscious
ideas, including the ●​ 4 major archetypes
awareness of what one ○​ Persona
is and what we can do ■​ The social roles that individuals
○​ Ideal self present to others
■​ The persons conception ○​ Shadow
of what one should be ■​ Repressed thought that are
or what one aspires to socially unacceptable
be ■​ Dark side of the psyche
●​ When the ideal self is far from the real ○​ Anima
self the person become unhappy ■​ Feminine side of the male
○​ Animus
MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF, TRUE VERSUS ■​ Masculine side of the female
FALSE SELF ●​ Self
​ Self understanding in adolescents also includes ○​ The central archetype that unites all
conceptualizing the self as multiple or unified and true or parts of psyche
false ●​ Ego
Winnicott ○​ The individual conscious perception of
●​ Found that the self is composed of the true self the self
and the false self
●​ False self SIGMUND FREUD CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF
○​ Hide and protect the true self AND PERSONALITY
Sigmund Freud
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC ●​ He argues that mind is composed of 3 structures
through which the personality is formed
Albert Bandura (2001) ○​ Id
●​ Posits that human through their agency are ■​ Satisfy basic urges and desires
perceived as proactive agents of experience ■​ Pleasure seeking side
●​ Agency ■​ Devil within the self
○​ Embodies the endowment, belief ○​ Ego
system, self regulatory capabilities, and ■​ Reality principle and controls
distributed structures and function the id
●​ Main features of human agency ■​ Person in the middle
○​ Intentionality ○​ Superego
■​ Acts done intentionally ■​ Conscience or moral judge
○​ Forethought ■​ The angel
■​ Enables the person to anticipate ●​ Ego strength
the likely consequences of ○​ Egos ability to resolve the conflict
prospective actions between 3 structures
○​ Self-Reactiveness ●​ Psychsual Stages of the self
■​ Involves making choices and ○​ Oral stage (1st stage)
choosing appropriate course of ■​ Birth - 1st years old
action ■​ Babies derived pleasure from
○​ Self-Reflectiveness oral activities such as sucking or
■​ Ability to reflect upon biting,
●​ Self efficacy ■​ Incorporative personality
○​ The individual's belief that he is capable disorder - Overindulgence,
to perform a task that influence whether such an overeating, smoking
he will think pessimistically or and alcoholism
optimistically ■​ Oral aggressive personality -
Dissatisfaction, such as
sarcasm and tactless
●​ Self regulation ●​ Anal stage ( 2nd stage)
 ○​ 2 years old ○​ Initiative - Developing a sense of
○​ Child derives pleasure from the responsibility
elimination of body waste ○​ Guilt - made to feel responsible
○​ Through toilet training the child learns
the basic rules of society ●​ 4) Industry Vs. Inferiority
○​ Anal fixation ○​ Elementary school age
■​ can lead to anal-retentive ○​ Children face the task of developing
personality disorder such as knowledge and skill though in school
having the obsession with ○​ Industry - encourage in their effort
cleanliness ○​ Inferiority - receive little or no
■​ Or anal expulsion personality encouragement
disorder such as clumsiness ●​ 5) Identity formation Vs. Identity confusion
●​ Phallic stage (3rd stage) ○​ During adolescents
○​ 3-6 years old ○​ Face the task of finding out who they
○​ Derives pleasure from examining, are, what they are, and what they want
touching folding or displaying their in life
genitals - curiosity between anatomy of ○​ Identity formation - parents provide
men and woman proper support
○​ Sex curiosity will remain high in ○​ Identity confusion - not adequately
elementary years supported
●​ Latency stage (4th stage) ●​ 6) Intimacy Vs. Isolation
○​ 7-12 years old ○​ Early adulthood
○​ Sexual energy is repressed because ○​ It is vita that people develop intimate
children become occupied with school relationships
●​ Genital stage (5th stage) ○​ Intimacy - stable and successful
○​ Adolescents - adulthood age relationship
○​ Pleasure is again derived from genital ○​ Isolation - inability to develop intimate
area relationships
○​ Individual seeks to satisfy their sexual ●​ 7) Generativity Vs. Stagnation
drives from relationships ○​ Middle adulthood
○​ Generativity - person's desire to
THE ROLES OF ERIK ERIKSON'S THEORY IN contribute to the world by teaching next
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF generation
Erik Erikson ○​ Stagnation - feel they are not making a
●​ Adolescence is a period of identity development meaningful impact
●​ Identity information ●​ 8) Integrity Vs. despair
○​ Viewed as a process that requires ○​ Old age
adolescents to distance themselves ○​ Focus on self reflection of one's life
from the strong expectations and ○​ Integrity - satisfied and proud of their
definition imposed by fam9ily and accomplishments
friends ○​ Despair - unsuccessful and will fee that
○​ To achieve an individual identity, ne life has been wasted
must create a vision of the self that is
authentic which is anchored on the Trust vs mistrust
meaning of his or her goals in the future Autonomy vs shame and doubt
●​ 8 psychological stage of development Initiative vs guilt
●​ 1) Trust Vs. Mistrust Industry vs inferiority
○​ 1st year of life Identity formation vs identity confusion
○​ trust - if he is properly cared for Intimacy vs isolation
○​ Mistrust - not well cared for Generativity vs stagnation
●​ 2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Integrity vs despair
○​ 3 years old
○​ Autonomy
■​ Independence of thought and
confidence t think and act for
oneself
○​ Children begins to assert their
independence
○​ Either confident and secure or overly
dependent
○​ Shame and doubt
■​ If children are overly controlled
or criticized, they may develop
shame and doubt
●​ 3) Initiative Vs. Guilt
○​ 3-5 years old
 Western Self as Analytic
●​ Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive
with emphasis on the causal links (part-to-whole
relationships). The whole is understood when
differentiated into parts. One must categorize
and make distinctions to pursue cause.

Western Self as Monotheistic

●​ The belief in one Supreme Being coexisting with
the universe condensed the supernatural and
human capabilities into bipolarity of both
qualities of existence (e.g. beautiful/ugly,
kind/cruel, sacred/profane, strong/weak, etc.)
and categories of identity or experience (e.g.,
God/Satan, body/soul, love/lust, sinner/saint,
etc.)

Western Self as Individualistic

●​ Western individualism exhibits the coexistence
of favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent
in personal freedom. Although the right for
individual freedom provides opportunities for
self-fulfillment, it also increases the likelihood to
experience alienation and frustration.

Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic

●​ Western way of thinking is focused on material
“things” and favors a rational-empirical approach
over magical and superstitious explanation of
immaterial “things”.

David Ho
●​ Describes western self as an individualistic self
that is deeply aware of itself

Frank Johnson
●​ Traces the earliest historical roots of the western
concept of self

EASTERN CONCEPT OF SELF

The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought
1. Hinduism
2. Buddhism
3. Confucianism
4. Taoism

Hinduism
●​ The Hindus concept of self is expounded in
Vedanta, a major school of Indian thought, and
is based on Upanishads, the classical Indian
philosophical treatises.
Module 5: The Western and Eastern Concept of Self ●​ It has been stated that Brahman is an Absolute
Reality, and Atman (soul or spirit), the true
Geertz knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman.
●​ Defines the western concept of self as “a ●​ Vedanta characterizes human suffering as the
bounded, unique more or less integrated result of failure to realize the distinction between
motivational and cognitive universe” the true self (permanent and unchanging) and
the non true self (impermanent and changes
Frank Johnson (1985) continually).
●​ Western concept of self is holistically defined in ●​ “Law of karma” the most important doctrine of
terms of hinduism
○​ Western Self as Analytic ●​ “The true self to be realized is the passive,
○​ Western Self as Monotheistic uninvolved self-as-witness, not an active ego
○​ Western Self as Individualistic with a sense of sovereignty to know, to act, and
○​ Western Self as Materialistic and to enjoy/suffer.”
rationalist
 ●​ The goal of man is to have a knowledge of the Confucianism
true reality – Brahman. ●​ Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects
●​ Self-realization is being united to all-embracing (Conversations of Confucius).
Brahman. But the realization of true selfhood will ●​ The core of Confucian thought is the Golden
result in a complete dissolution of individual Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do
identity. to others what you would not want others to do
to you”.
Buddhism ●​ The basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing
●​ Siddharta Gautama known as Buddha = “The how to act in relation to others.
Awakened One” ●​ The most important of relationships are the Five
●​ The root word of Buddhism is “budh” meaning Cardinal Relationships: between ruler and
awake minister, between father and son, between
●​ Nothing exists independently of anything else. husband and wife, between brothers, and
●​ The self is the center of relationships. between friends.
●​ The self as a dynamic process of spiritual ●​ Hence, the self is known as a relational self.
development. ●​ Another important feature in Confucian thought
is the individual’s greatest mission of attaining
Four Noble Truths the basic principles of Buddhism self- realization wherein self-cultivation is
1)​ Life is suffering instrumental. Self-cultivation could be
2)​ Suffering is caused by attachment to disease accomplished by knowing one’s role in the
3)​ Suffering can be eliminated society and act accordingly.
4)​ Elimination of suffering is through the practice of
the eightfold path The self is a subdued self:
• Moral character is perfected through continuously
Eightfold path taking every opportunity to improve oneself in thought
1)​ Right view and action. There will be harmonious relationships when
2)​ Right aspirations individuals follow the rules of proper social behavior. The
3)​ Right speech individual is set to respond to what is socially required
4)​ Right action rather than to one’s personal needs and goals.
5)​ Right livelihood
6)​ Right effort The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example of the
7)​ Right mindfulness value of harmony with the environment.
8)​ Right concentration ●​ It is also applied to the concept of health for
energy (qi/chi), balance for disease prevention,
In Buddhist philosophy healing, and the development of human
●​ Man is just a title for the summation of the five potential.
parts (matter, sensation, perception, mental
constructs, and consciousness) that compose Taoism
the individual, however each of the parts ●​ Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. Taoists
distinctly is not man. reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. To
●​ Man has no self (or no-soul). There is only them, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not
nothing and all else is an illusion. There is of social relationships.
nothing permanent, but change. The ignorance ●​ The self is described as one of the limitless
of the impermanence of everything may lead to forms of the Tao.
an illusion of selfhood. This primal ignorance is ●​ The Tao is commonly regarded as Nature that is
the cause of life’s misery, births and rebirths the foundation of all that exists.
●​ The perfect moral-intellectual knowledge ●​ It is not bounded by time and space. The ideal is
becomes powerful in the sense that it eliminates to identify with the Tao. The perfect man has no
the cause of one’s misery and being awakened self.
from the illusion of selfhood. ●​ Selflessness is attained when the distinction
●​ The ideal is to experience Nirvana (literally, between “I” and “other” dissolves.
“blowing out,” as of a lamp), a state of ●​ Consequently, the individual may behave
transcendence devoid of self-reference. This spontaneously, just going with the flow of the
state of transcendence can be achieved through Tao.
meditation. ●​ The selfless person leads to a balanced life, in
harmony with both nature and society.
Confucius is believed to have lived from c. 551 to c. 479 ●​ There is oneness of the Tao.
BCE in the state of Lu. ●​ Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and
●​ Chief among his philosophical ideas is the harmony with nature should govern one’s life.
importance of a virtuous life, filial piety and Individuals must seek to understand and act in
ancestor worship. Also emphasized is the accordance with the natural order. There should
necessity for benevolent and frugal rulers, the be unity and harmony among opposing
importance of inner moral harmony and its direct elements: the Yin and Yang.
connection with harmony in the physical world
and that rulers and teachers are important role Comparison: Western and Eastern Concepts of Self
models for wider society.
 Frame of Reference

Western Thought Eastern Thought

There is a separation Religion and philosophy

between philosophy and are intertwined.
religion/spirituality.

Source of Knowledge

Has made use of reason Has trusted intuition and

rather than faith to pursue is often associated with
wisdom religious beliefs.

Emphasis

Distinctions and Commonalities and

oppositions harmonies

View of the Universe and Life

Linear Circular

View of Self

•Egocentric •Sociocentric

Ideal (Goal in Life)

Self-actualization through To achieve a balanced life

personal growth and find one’s role in
society

Cultural Framework

Individualism Collectivism

Individualism
●​ The self is a distinct and autonomous entity; it is
an independent part of the universe and the
society.
●​ Independence and self-reliance are core values.
●​ Prioritize personal goals over group goals.
●​ Characterized by exchange relationship
●​ Uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose and
volition are the acknowledged features of self.
●​ Personal success is important.

Collectivism
●​ The self is an integrated part of the universe and
the society.
●​ Interdependence and connectedness are core
values.
●​ No distinctions between personal and group
goals, or if there is a distinction, the personal
goals are subordinate to the group goals
●​ Characterized by communal relationship
●​ Conformity and obedience are essential social
behaviors.
●​ Duty towards all others is important