Research Methods

CAC 2207
 Objectives
• Define, explain and distinguish key research terms.
• Describe the research process, activities, skills, validity, reliability and
ethical considerations.
• Clarify the process of selecting specific methodological approaches to
a study.
• Introduce skills to design, collect data, analyze and interpret findings
using statistical tools.
• Equip students with the minimal skills toolkit to conduct research
projects.
Literature Review
 Introduction
• An examination of the researches that have been conducted.
• Selection of available documents on the topic which contain information,
ideas, data and evidence on issues in question.
• Effective evaluation of documents in relation to the research being proposed
 Reason for Literature Review
• To demonstrate your scholarly ability to identify relevant
information and to outline existing knowledge.
• To identify a gap of knowledge (create research space for your
work!).
• To evaluate and synthesize the information in line with the
concepts that you have set for yourself for the research.
• To gain methodological insight.
• To justify your study and substantiate your findings.
• Ontology
• The science of what is, of the kinds and structures of objects. ontology
seeks the classification and explanation of entities.
• Ontology is about the object of inquiry, what you set to examine.
• Epistemology
• Study of knowledge and how knowledge is acquired and is considered a
branch of philosophy ie study of reality and how it may be reached.
 Approach
• Start from your research problem.
• Identify and locate appropriate information.
• Read and critically evaluate the information that you locate.
• File and store your readings and notes.
• Plan, organize and write critically about the literature that you
located.
 How to structure the Lit Review
1. Chronological organisation 3. Topical or thematic organisation
• Ordered according to historic or • Research organised into
development context. categories or conceptual
subjects for your topic
2. The ‘classic’ study organisation
4. Inverted pyramid organisation
• Outline of major studies
regarded as significant • Starting with broad literature,
(benchmarks) in your study area then narrowing down to specific
studies which focus on the
question/s at hand
 Critically examine the literature
• Do not just list what you have located.
• Link it to your research question.
• Demonstrate how it supports or extends the topic or existing knowledge
in your subject area.
• Can also provide the strengths, weaknesses or omission of the literature.
• Always make deductions from the literature presented.

NB: language used should often be evaluative and demonstrate your perspective
of the literature in relation to your research problem.
• Make your ‘voice’ clear.
• ‘How’ is, honestly, a difficult question – rather it is actually easy for
your voice to be easily lost.
• Important:
• Your theoretical view should be clearly stated and your critical
evaluation of literature are a part of this.
• Your language must indicate your own or other writers’ attitude
towards the research problem.
 Example

Multiple sources example Researchers voice discussion

• Bridging programs are a common • A distinction will be drawn here to smaller
and successful strategy for scale ‘bridging programs' that address only
improving educational very specific aspects of preparedness, for
opportunities and subsequent example, bridging mathematics programs for
success for disadvantaged enhancing the maths skills of students
students in the Zimbabwe (Tripodi entering technical fields. Although these
1994), South Africa (Davies & often represent important equity initiatives,
Parry 1993), Zambia (James their tight focus and relatively short duration
1994) and Botswana (Postle, serve to distinguish them from the broader
Clarke & Bull 1997). and more intensive enabling programs that
are the focus of this paper.
 Bringing in the researchers view
• The author: argues, asserts, reasons, describes, states

• The author argues: unconvincingly, logically, well, subjectively

• The evidence is: complete, limited, accurate, unconnected

 Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
 A framework is simply the structure of the idea or concept and how it is
put together.

 A theoretical framework is a model driving the study

 Conceptual framework is a model of how one makes logical sense of
the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as
important to the research problem.
 Both involve identifying the network of relationships among the
variables considered important to the study of the problem.
 Theory flows logically from literature review.
 A theoretical framework guides your research, determining what
things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you
will look for.

 From theoretical framework, testable hypotheses can be

developed to examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not
in a particular situation.
 A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be
given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the
theorised relationships.
 Variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly
identified and labelled in the discussions.
 State how two or more variables are related to one another.
 Explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist
drawing from previous research.
 Harvard Style
• Book: single authora - (Holt, 1997) or Holt (1997) wrote that...
• Book: 2 or 3 authors - (McCarthy, William & Pascale, 1997)
• Book: more than 3 authors - (Bond et al., 1996)
• Book: no author - (A history of Greece, 1994)
• eBook - (Aghion & Durlauf, 2005)
• Book: different works by same author in same year - (Bond, 1991a) (Bond,
1991b)
• Journal article: print - (Conley & Galeson, 1998)
• Webpage: no date - (Jones, n.d.)
• Webpage: no author -(Improve indigenous housing, 2007)
• Use first few words of the page title - Website (Australian Securities
Exchange, 2009)
• Wiki - (Leonardo da Vinci, 2012)
• YouTube - (The History of Project management, 2010)
• Facebook and Twitter - (Smith, 2012)
 Bibliography and References
• Bibliography shows sources • References on the other
(books, journals…) you have hand, are sources you have
read and got some ideas from directly or indirectly quoted in
but are not necessarily cited in your study.
your study.

• Author Surname, Initials.

(Publication Year). Title of the
Text in Italics. Place of
Publication: Publisher.
 List of references
• Reference list should be located on • Blocker, D & Wahl-Alexander, Z
a separate page at the end of the 2018, 'Using sport education in a
work university physical activity course',
JOPERD: The Journal of Physical
• Includes the full details of all your Education, Recreation & Dance,
in-text references (except for
vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 56-61.
personal communications and
newspaper articles without • Branford, A & Coutts, L 2015a, The
authors), precious ring, Walker Books
Australia, Newtown, NSW.
• Arranged alphabetically A-Z by
author surname
• Branford, A & Coutts, L 2015b, The • Foot, G 2019, ‘Health drinks:
wishing seed, Walker Books turmeric', The best thing since
Australia, Newtown, NSW. sliced bread?, podcast, 20 February,
accessed 25 February 2019,
https://www.bbc.co.uk/programm
• Cancer Council 2017, Causes of es/p071h3tx.
cancer, Cancer Council, viewed 21 • Fujishin, R 2018, The natural
May 2018, speaker, 9th edn, Routledge, New
<https://www.cancer.org.au/about York.
-cancer/causes-of-cancer/>.
• Hasler, E 2018, The built
environment, Liverpool University
Press, Liverpool.
Research Methodology
 Objectives

• Understand different Research Strategies / Approaches /

Types.

• Should be able to identify and apply different research designs.

• Be able to select and apply appropriate sampling techniques.

 Introduction
 Research methodology focuses on the manner in which the
research is planned, structured and executed in order to comply
with scientific criteria (Mouton and Marais,1996).

 Leedy (1993), argues that research methodology forms an integral

part of any research that is undertaken.

 It assists in explaining the nature of the data, and

 Highlights the methods employed that will lead to the generation of
appropriate conclusions through applicable data processing.
 The methodology chapter is an important component that maps
out the methods to be utilized during the research.

 This chapter addresses the question; “How did you conduct the
research?’’

 It helps your audience understand the various steps of your

research process.
This chapter should explain the following:

 Your methodology; why you chose it and why it is appropriate

for your research.
 Your methods of data collection.
 How you expect to show that your data is reliable.
 Your methods of data analysis.
 When writing a methodology chapter, you will need to include:

1. An introductory paragraph that describes the problem that you

addressed through your methodology.
2. Include a general overview of the approach you used.
3. Provide a thorough description of how you collected the necessary
data as well as the analytical procedure used to draw conclusions.
4. Include a rationale for the choice of methods for data gathering and
for data analysis.
 Key questions to answer
1. What data will be collected - quantitative, qualitative or
both?
2. How will the data be collected - Interviews, questionnaires,
observation
3. Is the research method both suitable and informative enough?
4. What are the advantages as well as limitations of a particular method
selected?
5. Should one method be applied or perhaps using a variety of them
will add to the novelty of my research?
6. Are the research methods you have chosen effective and fitting in
the spectrum of possible approaches?

Have all the necessary parts like participants, instruments, procedure and
data analysis.
 Time dimensions of research

Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal Research

• Observations at a limited Much more expensive and time-
point in time. consuming than cross-sectional.
• Frequently used by social 1. Time-series: multiple observations
scientists. over time of the several units.
• Although it does not capture 2. Panel Study: multiple observations
over time of the same units.
time, change, or process, it is
often used in explanatory 3. Cohort Study: multiple
research. observations over time of similar
units.
 Research Strategy
Type Process/Main Principle Epistemological Ontological
emphasis orientation orientation

Quantitative Measurement Deductive Post-Positivism Objectivism

(P-Value) reasoning; testing of (no researcher (anti positivism)
theory independence)
Qualitative Words Inductive; Interpretivism Constructionism
generation of theory (subjective (created by
knowledge) humans/society)
Pragmatic/Mixed Measurement and Inductive and Interpretive and Constructive
(Triangulation) Words deductive positivism and objective

Advocacy / Involve marginalized Bring positive Interactivism Personalised

participatory or vulnerable groups change (emancipate) (natural reality) reporting
 Quantitative
• The quantitative approach tends to approximate phenomena from a larger
number of individuals using survey methods. (Creswell, 2003, p. 19)

• They provide a proposed explanation for the relationship among variables

being tested by the investigator through measurement.
 Qualitative
• The qualitative approach to research is focused on understanding a
phenomenon from a closer perspective (natural settings, attempting to make
sense of or interpret phenomenon in terms of the meanings people bring to
them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, p.3)

• They may often serve as a lens for the enquiry or they may be generated
during the study.
 Research Methods
• Survey questionnaires
• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Participant observation (field notes)
• Video
• Text and Image analysis (documents, media data)
• Choice of Methodology & Methods
• Depends on Research Questions
• Research Goals
• Researcher Beliefs and Values
• Researcher Skills
• Time and Funds
 Sampling
• What is your population of interest?
• To whom do you want to generalize your results?
• Can you sample the entire population?
 Basic Methods of Sampling
• Random Sampling
• Selected by using chance or random numbers
• Each individual subject (human or otherwise) has an equal chance of being selected
• Examples: Drawing names from a hat Random Numbers

• Systematic Sampling
• Select a random starting point and then select every kth subject in the population
• Simple to use so it is used often
• Convenience Sampling
• Use subjects that are easily accessible ,
• Examples: Using family members or students in a classroom shoppers

• Stratified Sampling
• Divide the population into at least two different groups with common
characteristic(s), then
• Draw SOME subjects from each group (group is called strata or stratum) , Results in
a more representative sample Women men
 Questionnaire
• A research tool for data collection
• Usually a set of structured questions for which answers can be coded and
analysed quantitatively
• Can also include open questions
• On-line, postal, telephone, face-to-face
• Can also be used for qualitative analysis using semi- structured questions
(face-to-face or by telephone)
• Designing the Questionnaire - determine survey objectives: plan what to
measure, decide on format (personal interview, telephone, self)
• Formulate questions to obtain the needed information
• Decide on the wording of questions sequence and layout
• Using a sample, test the questionnaire for omissions and ambiguity
• Correct the problems (pre-test again, if necessary)
 Major Decisions in Questionnaire Design
• Content - What should be asked?
• Wording - How should each question be phrased?
• Sequence - In what order should the questions be presented?
• Layout - What layout will best serve the research objectives?
• Guideline: include demographic, socioeconomic, and geographic information.
• You will need to control or adjust for variables such as – race, gender, age, income,
education, marital status, family size, geographical information
 Types of questions
• Closed ended - A, strongly agree, R agree, C disagree, D strongly
disagree. Income category years of education category. These are
easy to enter data & compare answers.
• Open ended – respondent is free to answer and explain. Not so
easy to process responses. Does not impose researchers
categorization, confounded with language/verbal skills, answers
are not reliable- e.g How is your relationship? Answer—OK, I
guess or complicated. Difficult to analyse responses.
 Things to avoid
• Complexity: use simple, direct, conversational language
• Embarrassing, sensitive, or threatening questions
• Ambiguity
• Words such as "often", "occasionally' usually", "regularly", "frequently",
"many", should be used with caution. If these words have to be used,
their meaning should be explained properly.
• Long-worded questions &Jargon
 Research Design
 Kothari (2007:31) defines a research design as “a conceptual
structure for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
which combines relevance and economy”.

 Guy et al.(1987:92) define research design as “a plan of procedures

for data collection and analysis that are undertaken to evaluate a
particular theoretical perspective.”

 This is the plan that shows how all the major parts of the research
project come together.
Generally, there are two parts of the research design:

1. Sampling design which deals with the methods of

selecting subunits to be observed for the given study.

2. Statistical design which consists of the appropriate

methods of statistically analyzing data.
 Population (target) – a set of units having common observable
characteristics.
 Accessible population – this is the portion of the target
population that is accessible to the researcher for a particular
study.
 It represents the sampling frame from which the sample is then
selected.
 An element is an individual unit of a population.
 Reasons for sampling
 Economy of expenditure
 Greater speed
 Greater scope

 e.g. to ascertain if glass containers can withstand pressure, we put

a sample of containers under pressure until they break.
 Therefore we do not break every item produced.
 Greater accuracy
 Practicability

 You don’t really have to study all birds in order to know how they live.
 Sample - a finite subset of the population that is selected for research.
 The goal is to be able to find out true facts about the sample that will also
be true of the population.
 Sampling is the process by which we select our sub-set of the population.
 Sampling frame - a list of all elements from which the sample is actually
drawn.
 Sampling unit – the individual members of the sample or cases.
 A parameter is a numerical characteristic of the population while that of a
sample is a statistic.
 A unit of analysis is the type of element or variable of interest.
 Rule of thumb
 If the population is less than or equal to 1000 take 30% of the
population.
 If more than 1000 but less than or equal to 10 000 take 23% of
the population.
 If more than 10 000 but less than or equal to 100 000 take 10%
of the population.
 If you have a population of more than 100 000 take 1% of the
population.
 Sample factors
1. Size - The size should be adequate for the purpose of the study, especially if
there were many sub-groups included in the analysis, or many variables used
simultaneously.

2. Representativeness - The sample should be selected randomly from

the population, using probability theory. The sampling frame should be
adequate.

3. Implementation - The sampling plan must be carried out carefully, and

adequately supervised. Was there some quality control plan? The result
should generate a good response rate.
 Sampling methods

Probability (Quantitative) Non-probability (Qualitative)

 Each member of the population  Probability of selecting any
has an equal chance of being particular member is
selected. unknown.
 The chance of a unit/element  Also known as ‘deliberate’
being chosen into the sample
is ‘known’ by its exact sampling because items are
probability or by statistical selected deliberately by the
estimates. researcher.
 Key to a representative sample
thus more accurate.
Types of sampling Approach
i. Simple random sampling i. Convenience
ii. Systematic random sampling ii. Judgement
iii. Quota
iii. Stratified random sampling
iv. Snowball
iv. Cluster sampling and
v. Probability proportionate to
size sampling
 Error in research
Sampling Error Data collection error
• unlikely that one would end up • error includes factor such as poor
with a truly representative sample question wording of self-completion
even when probability sampling is questionnaires and structured
used interviews; poor interviewing
techniques; and flaws in the
administration of research
Sampling-Related Error instruments.
• arises from activities that are Data processing error
related to the sampling process • faulty management and coding of
and are connected with data validity of measurement than
generalization or external validity sampling
eg non-response.
 Response rate
 Social survey conducted • Response rates are very important
whether by structured in research because the lower the
interviews or by self-
completion questionnaires rate, the more questions are likely
invariably, not all people in the to be raised about the
sample may participate. representativeness of the achieved
sample.
(number of usable questionnaires) *100 • Low response rate introduces bias.
(total sample – unsuitable or
uncontactable members of the sample) • Response rate below 50% is
unacceptable
 Write brief notes on the following…

Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory/causal

Case study Comparative Hypothesis testing