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This page intentionally left blank
Numerical Electromagnetics
The FDTD Method

Beginning with the development of Finite Difference Equations, and leading to the
complete FDTD algorithm, this is a coherent introduction to the FDTD method (the
method of choice for modeling Maxwell’s equations). It provides students and profes-
sional engineers with everything they need to know to begin writing FDTD simulations
from scratch and to develop a thorough understanding of the inner workings of commer-
cial FDTD software. Stability, numerical dispersion, sources, and boundary conditions
are all discussed in detail, as are dispersive and anisotropic materials. A comparative
introduction of the finite volume and finite element methods is also provided. All con-
cepts are introduced from first principles, so no prior modeling experience is required,
and they are made easier to understand through numerous illustrative examples and the
inclusion of both intuitive explanations and mathematical derivations.

Umran S. Inan is a Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at Stanford

University, where he has led pioneering research in plasma physics and electromagnetics
for over 30 years. He also currently serves as president of Koç University in Istanbul.
As a committed teacher, he has authored two previous books that have become standard
textbooks for electromagnetics courses. He has also received numerous awards, including
the Tau Beta Pi Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching Award and the Outstanding
Service Award from the Electrical Engineering Department for Excellence in Teaching.
He is a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the
American Geophysical Union (AGU), and the American Physical Society. He is the
recipient of the 2008 Appleton Prize of the International Union of Radio Science (URSI)
and the Royal Society, and the 2007 Allan V. Cox Medal of Stanford University for faculty
excellence in fostering undergraduate research.
Robert A. Marshall is a Research Scientist at Boston University, where he has worked
since receiving his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 2009.
He has received numerous awards from both Stanford University and the academic
community, including the International Radio Science Union (URSI) and the American
Geophysical Union (AGU).
FDTD is presently the method of choice for solving most numerical electromagnetics
studies. The Inan and Marshall book is a very thorough, yet readable, account of all the
details of the method, very valuable for students and professionals alike, with problems
included, ready for a course. Even those who use commercial programs would benefit
from a better understanding of dispersion, accuracy, media descriptions, basic limitations
and so on, all treated in great detail. I am sure it will be a good reference for a number of
years. No special background needed since basic material for a good understanding is
given, such as electromagnetics, or numerical solution of differential equations. Highly
recommended.
Jørgen Bach Andersen, Professor Emeritus,
Aalborg University

This book is what has been needed to teach in a systematic fashion the theoretical
developments and numerical implementations of one of the most powerful numerical
techniques in computational electromagnetic with vast applications in a variety of disci-
plines. The authors have elegantly and masterfully presented the FDTD method from the
Maxwell’s equations with sufficient rigor to make the book very reachable by students
and practicing researchers.
Yahya Rahmat-Samii, Distinguished Professor,
University of California at Los Angeles
Numerical Electromagnetics
The FDTD Method

UMRAN S. INAN
Stanford University∗

ROBERT A. MARSHALL
Boston University

∗ Now Serving as President of Koç University, Istanbul

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521190695


C Cambridge University Press 2011

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2011

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data

Inan, Umran S.
Numerical electromagnetics : the FDTD method / Umran S. Inan, Robert A. Marshall.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-521-19069-5 (hardback)
1. Electromagnetism – Computer simulation. 2. Finite differences. 3. Time-domain analysis.
I. Marshall, Robert A. II. Title.
QC760.I589 2011
530.14 10113 – dc22 2010048442

ISBN 978-0-521-19069-5 Hardback

Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/9780521190695

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
To my parents, my beautiful wife Elif, my dear children
Ayse and Ali, and my very special granddaughter Ayla.
USI

To my brother Pete.
RM
 Contents

Preface page xiii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Why FDTD? 1
1.2 Other methods 2
1.2.1 Finite volume time domain 2
1.2.2 Finite difference frequency domain 3
1.2.3 Finite element methods 4
1.2.4 Spectral methods 5
1.3 Organization 5
References 6

2 Review of electromagnetic theory 8

2.1 Constitutive relations and material properties 11
2.2 Time-harmonic Maxwell’s equations 13
2.3 Complex permittivity: dielectric losses 15
2.4 Complex permeability: magnetic losses 17
2.5 Equivalent magnetic currents 17
2.6 Electromagnetic potentials 19
2.7 Electromagnetic boundary conditions 21
2.8 Electromagnetic waves 23
2.8.1 The wave equation 25
2.8.2 Group velocity 27
2.9 The electromagnetic spectrum 28
2.10 Summary 30
2.11 Problems 32
References 33

3 Partial differential equations and physical systems 34

3.1 Classification of partial differential equations 37
3.1.1 Elliptic PDEs 38
3.1.2 Parabolic PDEs 38
3.1.3 Hyperbolic PDEs 39
viii Contents

3.2 Numerical integration of ordinary differential equations 41

3.2.1 First-order Euler method 42
3.2.2 The leapfrog method 44
3.2.3 Runge-Kutta methods 45
3.3 Finite difference approximations of partial differential
equations 46
3.3.1 Derivatives in time 48
3.3.2 Derivatives in space 51
3.3.3 Finite difference versions of PDEs 52
3.4 Finite difference solutions of the convection equation 53
3.4.1 The forward-time centered space method 54
3.4.2 The leapfrog method 57
3.4.3 The Lax-Wendroff methods 60
3.5 Finite difference methods for two coupled first-order
convection equations 63
3.6 Higher-order differencing schemes 65
3.7 Summary 67
3.8 Problems 68
References 71

4 The FDTD grid and the Yee algorithm 72

4.1 Maxwell’s equations in one dimension 74
4.1.1 Example 1D simulations 77
4.2 Maxwell’s equations in two dimensions 78
4.2.1 Transverse electric (TE) mode 80
4.2.2 Transverse magnetic (TM) mode 81
4.2.3 Example 2D simulations 82
4.3 FDTD expressions in three dimensions 84
4.3.1 Example 3D simulation 87
4.4 FDTD algorithm for lossy media 88
4.4.1 1D waves in lossy media: waves on lossy transmission
lines 88
4.4.2 2D and 3D waves in lossy media 90
4.5 Divergence-free nature of the FDTD algorithm 92
4.6 The FDTD method in other coordinate systems 93
4.6.1 2D polar coordinates 94
4.6.2 2D cylindrical coordinates 97
4.6.3 3D cylindrical coordinates 101
4.6.4 3D spherical coordinates 104
4.7 Summary 107
4.8 Problems 108
References 112
 Contents ix

5 Numerical stability of finite difference methods 113

5.1 The convection equation 114
5.1.1 The forward-time centered space method 115
5.1.2 The Lax method 116
5.1.3 The leapfrog method 119
5.2 Two coupled first-order convection equations 120
5.2.1 The forward-time centered space method 121
5.2.2 The Lax method 122
5.2.3 The leapfrog method 124
5.2.4 The interleaved leapfrog and FDTD method 126
5.3 Stability of higher dimensional FDTD algorithms 127
5.4 Summary 128
5.5 Problems 129
References 131

6 Numerical dispersion and dissipation 132

6.1 Dispersion of the Lax method 133
6.2 Dispersion of the leapfrog method 136
6.3 Dispersion relation for the FDTD algorithm 140
6.3.1 Group velocity 141
6.3.2 Dispersion of the wave equation 143
6.3.3 Dispersion relation in 2D and 3D 143
6.3.4 Numerical dispersion of lossy Maxwell’s equations 145
6.4 Numerical stability of the FDTD algorithm revisited 147
6.5 Summary 148
6.6 Problems 149
References 151

7 Introduction of sources 152

7.1 Internal sources 152
7.1.1 Hard sources 152
7.1.2 Current and voltage sources 153
7.1.3 The thin-wire approximation 154
7.2 External sources: total and scattered fields 156
7.2.1 Total-field and pure scattered-field formulations 158
7.3 Total-field/scattered-field formulation 159
7.3.1 Example 2D TF/SF formulations 162
7.4 Total-field/scattered-field in three dimensions 165
7.4.1 Calculating the incident field 168
7.5 FDTD calculation of time-harmonic response 168
7.6 Summary 169
7.7 Problems 170
References 173
x Contents

8 Absorbing boundary conditions 174

8.1 ABCs based on the one-way wave equation 176
8.1.1 First-order Mur boundary 176
8.1.2 Higher dimensional wave equations: second-order Mur 177
8.1.3 Higher-order Mur boundaries 182
8.1.4 Performance of the Mur boundaries 184
8.1.5 Mur boundaries in 3D 186
8.2 Other radiation operators as ABCs 188
8.2.1 Bayliss-Turkel operators 188
8.2.2 Higdon operators 191
8.3 Summary 193
8.4 Problems 195
References 197

9 The perfectly matched layer 199

9.1 Oblique incidence on a lossy medium 200
9.1.1 Uniform plane wave incident on general lossy media 202
9.2 The Bérenger PML medium 205
9.2.1 Bérenger split-field PML in 3D 209
9.2.2 Grading the PML 210
9.2.3 Example split-field simulation 211
9.3 Perfectly matched uniaxial medium 212
9.3.1 Bérenger’s PML as an anisotropic medium 217
9.4 FDTD implementation of the UPML 218
9.5 Alternative implementation via auxiliary fields 222
9.6 Convolutional perfectly matched layer (CPML) 225
9.6.1 Example simulation using the CPML 228
9.7 Summary 231
9.8 Problems 233
References 235

10 FDTD modeling in dispersive media 237

10.1 Recursive convolution method 238
10.1.1 Debye materials 239
10.1.2 Lorentz materials 244
10.1.3 Drude materials 248
10.1.4 Isotropic plasma 250
10.1.5 Improvement to the Debye and Lorentz formulations 252
10.2 Auxiliary differential equation method 253
10.2.1 Debye materials 254
10.2.2 Formulation for multiple Debye poles 254
10.2.3 Lorentz materials 257
10.2.4 Drude materials 259
 Contents xi

10.3 Summary 260

10.4 Problems 262
References 264

11 FDTD modeling in anisotropic media 265

11.1 FDTD method in arbitrary anisotropic media 265
11.2 FDTD in liquid crystals 268
11.2.1 FDTD formulation 271
11.3 FDTD in a magnetized plasma 274
11.3.1 Implementation in FDTD 277
11.4 FDTD in ferrites 281
11.4.1 Implementation in FDTD 284
11.5 Summary 287
11.6 Problems 288
References 290

12 Some advanced topics 291

12.1 Modeling periodic structures 291
12.1.1 Direct-field methods 292
12.1.2 Field-transformation methods 296
12.2 Modeling fine geometrical features 302
12.2.1 Diagonal split-cell model 302
12.2.2 Average properties model 304
12.2.3 The narrow slot 305
12.2.4 Dey-Mittra techniques 306
12.2.5 Thin material sheets 309
12.3 Bodies of revolution 311
12.4 Near-to-far field transformation 316
12.4.1 Frequency domain formulation 317
12.4.2 Time domain implementation 320
12.5 Summary 323
12.6 Problems 324
References 326

13 Unconditionally stable implicit FDTD methods 327

13.1 Implicit versus explicit finite difference methods 328
13.1.1 The forward-time centered space method 328
13.1.2 The backward-time centered space method 329
13.2 Crank-Nicolson methods 331
13.3 Alternating direction implicit (ADI) method 333
13.3.1 Accuracy of the ADI method 337
xii Contents

13.4 Summary 339

13.5 Problems 339
References 340

14 Finite difference frequency domain 342

14.1 FDFD via the wave equation 342
14.2 Laplace matrix and Kronecker product 345
14.3 Wave equation in 2D 349
14.4 Wave equation in 3D 351
14.5 FDFD from Maxwell’s equations 352
14.6 Summary 353
14.7 Problems 354
References 355

15 Finite volume and finite element methods 356

15.1 Irregular grids 356
15.1.1 Nonuniform, orthogonal grids 357
15.1.2 Nonorthogonal structured grids 360
15.1.3 Unstructured grids 360
15.2 The finite volume method 361
15.2.1 Maxwell’s equations in conservative form 362
15.2.2 Interleaved finite volume method 364
15.2.3 The Yee finite volume method 366
15.3 The finite element method 368
15.3.1 Example using Galerkin’s method 370
15.3.2 TE wave incident on a dielectric boundary 375
15.4 Discontinuous Galerkin method 377
15.5 Summary 382
15.6 Problems 383
References 383

Index 385
Preface

Our purpose in this text is to provide an introduction to Numerical Electromagnetics,

sometimes referred to as Computational Electromagnetics (CEM), a subject much too
broad to cover in a single volume. Fifteen years ago, we might have found it difficult to
choose between the different techniques to emphasize in our relatively brief coverage.
However, due to a number of developments in the late 1980s and the 1990s, partial
differential equation (PDE)-based methods, and in particular the so-called Finite Dif-
ference Time Domain (FDTD) method, have emerged as the methods with arguably
the broadest range of applicability. This is especially true for electromagnetic problems
involving complex and dispersive media, photonics applications, and modeling of high-
speed circuits and devices. In addition, FDTD modeling of practical problems can now
be undertaken with computer resources readily available to individual users. Finally,
and quite importantly for our purposes, FDTD methods are relatively straightforward
and intuitively follow from a physical understanding of Maxwell’s equations, making
this topic particularly suitable for both undergraduate and first-year graduate students
in the context of a mezzanine-level course. Students with limited or no prior modeling
experience will find that the FDTD method is the simplest and most insightful method
from which to start their modeling education, and they can write practical and useful
simulations in a matter of minutes. With an understanding of the FDTD method under
their belts, students can move on to understanding more complicated methods with
relative ease.
A number of software packages exist for modeling in the FDTD method, both free,
open-source packages and very expensive industrial software suites. Many of these
packages are very powerful. In our experience teaching the FDTD method, however,
we find that students get far more out of the course by coding their own simple FDTD
problems rather than simply pushing buttons in a software package. To this end, this book
is targeted toward a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental inner workings
and details of the FDTD method. We provide all of the basic background material to
understanding how difference equations are formed from differential equations; how
instability and numerical dispersion arise; and how to deal with sources, boundary
conditions, complex materials, and complicated structures. We provide a number of
problems in each chapter, some of which require coding simulations from scratch. These
problems are presented in a logical progression, so that codes developed in early chapters
can be easily modified to include the new material in later chapters. Furthermore, we
xiv Preface

encourage the students to modify the basic codes outlined in the problems in order to
explore problems of interest to them.

Acknowledgments

The material presented in this book was initially put together as class notes for the
EE256 Numerical Electromagnetics course, newly introduced and taught by one of us
(USI) at Stanford University in the spring quarter of 1999. The course was then taught
regularly every other year, for graduate students from Electrical Engineering, Applied
Physics, and Physics. Then Ph.D. student Dr. Michael Chevalier served as the Teaching
Assistant (TA) for the course in the spring of 1999, 2001, and 2003, while the other one
of us (RAM) served as TA in the spring of 2005 and 2007 and also taught the course in
the summer of 2008. Ph.D. student Forrest Foust served as the TA in spring 2009, when
the course was taught for the last time by one of us (USI). The original set of course
notes from 1999 significantly improved over the years, with the help of the TAs cited
above, and by the feedback, comments, and suggestions of the many students who took
the course. We would like to extend our sincere gratitude especially to Forrest Foust,
who put in countless hours of proofreading on short notice and made many valuable
suggestions. Sarah Matthews, Julie Lancashire, and Emma Walker at Cambridge were
extraordinarily helpful and patient during the development of this text. Finally, both of
us want to acknowledge our families for their patience and encouragement during the
process.

On the cover: 2D FDTD simulation of a Luneburg lens. A Luneburg lens, proposed by

Rudolf Luneburg in 1944, is a dielectric sphere whose permittivity varies with radius as

=
0 [2 − (r/R)2 ], where R is the radius of the sphere. When a point source is excited
at the surface of the lens, the varying index of refraction creates a plane wave at the
output of the lens. The opposite is also true: a plane wave incident on the lens will focus
to a point at the opposite side. Recently, an adaptation of the Luneburg lens has been
proposed as a compact, high-speed receiver for internet connectivity on trains.
1 Introduction

1.1 Why FDTD?

With the continued growth of computing power, modeling and numerical simulation has
grown immensely as a tool for understanding and analyzing just about any problem in
science. Where in the mid-twentieth century, detailed analyses were required to get any
meaningful insight out of complex problems, today we can simply plug the governing
differential equations into a computer, the results of which can provide an immense
amount of information, which is of course complementary to theoretical analyses. The
growth of computing power has brought with it a smorgasbord of modeling methods,
applicable in any number of fields. The problem, then, is knowing when to use which
method.
In electromagnetic problems, which are of interest to us in this book, there are quite a
number of useful numerical methods, including the Method of Moments, Finite Volume
methods, Finite Element methods, and Spectral methods, just to name a few. The FDTD
method, however, grew to become the method of choice in the 1990s, for a number
of reasons. First, it has always had the advantage of being a very simple method; we
shall see in Chapter 3 that the derivation of difference equations is very straightforward.
However, before the 1990s, the FDTD method was hindered by the need to discretize
the simulation space on sub-wavelength scales, with time steps commensurately small.
Hence, any reasonable problem would require a large amount of computer memory and
time. Since the 1990s, however, with the growth of computing power, the FDTD method
has taken off.
As an example, a typical 3D problem would require, at minimum, 100 grid cells
in each dimension, or 106 grid cells total. With a minimum of six fields to compute
(three components each of the electric field
and magnetic field ), and 2 bytes per
value (for 16-bit resolution), we require 12 MB of memory. As for computation time, our
simulation might require 1,000 time steps. Each of six equations will have four additions
and two multiplications (at minimum, for the free-space algorithm in Chapter 4) at each
of the 1 million grid cells, for ∼36 billion operations over the time of our simulation. In
1990, 12 MB of memory and 36 billion operations was a significant calculation; today,
you could quite easily run this simulation on your mobile phone.1

1 More accurately, this simulation used 48 MB on a desktop PC running Matlab, since it stored the arrays at
8-byte doubles; and it ran 1,000 time steps in under 5 minutes.
2 Introduction

The advantages of the FDTD method over other methods include:

r Short development time. Thanks to the simple discretization process, a realistic 2D
or 3D simulation can be written in only a few minutes in less than 100 lines of code.
In other methods, such as the Finite Element method, creating the numerical grid
alone can require entire software packages, and understanding of the discretization
procedure can be quite convoluted.
r Ease of understanding. Again, thanks to the simple discretization procedure, the
FDTD method is easily understandable and directly follows from the differential form
of Maxwell’s equations. The stability and dispersion characteristics of the method also
follow from a simple, intuitive understanding of the updating procedure.
r Explicit nature. In the traditional explicit FDTD method, no linear algebra or matrix
inversions are required, and as such there is no inherent limit to the size of a simulation;
computer time is the only limitation.

However, there are also a number of disadvantages of the FDTD method:

r Stair-stepping edges. The orthogonal grid structure of the FDTD method implies that
edges of structures within the simulation have edges that follow the grid structure.
This can become a problem for curved surfaces, for which greater accuracy is sought.
Some methods for FDTD have been developed to overcome this limitation, including
the subcell structures discussed in Chapter 12, but other methods are generally better
suited to these complex geometries.
r Computational time. In the FDTD method, the time step at which we advance the
solution is limited by the spatial size, and cannot be larger than a certain maximum
size, as we will derive in Chapter 5. For simulations with large spaces or multiple
scales (largely varying wavelengths), this means the simulation must be run for a very
long time. Other methods can often be better at dealing with multiscale problems.

1.2 Other methods

This book covers the FDTD method in detail, with little coverage of other methods.
As mentioned above, this is due to the increasing prevalence of the FDTD method
in electromagnetic problems. However, any good engineer or scientist should have a
good understanding of other available methods, and should develop knowledge of the
appropriate conditions under which different methods are used. Here we provide a brief
mention of some other methods commonly used in electromagnetic problems.

1.2.1 Finite volume time domain

The Finite Volume Time Domain (FVTD) method became popular in modeling elec-
tromagnetic problems due to its flexibility in modeling irregular structures [1, 2]. As
we will see throughout this book, the FDTD method is somewhat restricted to regular,
structured grids, and any curved surfaces become “staircased” when the discretized grid
 1.2 Other methods 3

is formulated. We will see in Chapter 15 that FDTD methods can be developed around
irregular grids; however, the FVTD method is another way of working around irregular
structures.
In short, the FVTD method defines the fields
and  in small volumes of space,
rather than at the nodes of grid cells as in the FDTD method. These small volumes
can be arbitrarily defined, but are typically taken to be tetrahedra in 3D or triangles in
2D. These shapes simplify the resulting equations and can be designed around curved
and complex structures quite well. The FVTD method then uses the integral forms of
Maxwell’s equations to conserve the field quantities. For example, in a small volume Ve
with surface area Ae , any change in the electric or magnetic flux inside the volume from
one time step to the next must be balanced by the flux moving across the boundary area
Ae , which moves into (or out of) the adjacent cells.
An introduction to the Finite Volume method for electromagnetics is provided in
the book by S. Rao [3], and we will introduce it in some detail in Chapter 15. The
method has the obvious advantage that irregular structures can be modeled quite easily.
The simulation time is typically very similar to the FDTD method. Disadvantages
include the need to create and define an irregular grid of tetrahedral cells, which is quite
cumbersome outside of commercial software.

1.2.2 Finite difference frequency domain

Time domain methods such as FDTD are extremely useful when a transient or broadband
analysis is required. For example, we may be interested in the scattering pattern of a
broadband pulse of energy from a particular scatterer. However, in cases where a steady-
state solution is sought only at a single frequency, the FDTD method is rather inefficient.
Instead, frequency domain methods can be much more efficient, since they avoid the
need to step in time.
The Finite Difference Frequency Domain (FDFD) method is highly applicable, since
it maintains the spatial features of the FDTD method, but removes time stepping. Rather,
the steady-state solution is found at a single frequency through a matrix inversion process.
We will briefly introduce the FDFD method in Chapter 14.
The FDFD method has the additional advantage that dispersive materials become
trivial to implement. As we shall see in Chapter 10, dispersive materials in the FDTD
method require either convolution terms or auxiliary equations. In the FDFD method,
one simply uses the scalar (or vector, in the case of anisotropic dispersive materials)
values of
, µ, and σ at the frequency of interest.
Particular problems that are better suited to FDFD are those where the solution is
required at only a single frequency. For example, mobile communications typically
operate in a narrow bandwidth around a carrier frequency, so that the bandwidth can
be approximated by a single frequency. However, the FDFD method can also be used
for broadband simulations, by running multiple simulations, one at each frequency of
interest. In this way the spectral response of a problem can be determined, with the
frequency resolution limited only by the number of simulations one is willing to run.
This can be useful for problems involving dispersive media, whose material parameters
4 Introduction

vary with frequency in a way that cannot be easily modeled in FDTD. In Chapter 10 we
will discuss modeling of dispersive materials in the FDTD method, where methods have
been derived for some typical dispersion characteristics.

1.2.3 Finite element methods

The finite element method has become prominent in electromagnetic problems in the past
decade or so, but has been around much longer than that, having originated in the 1940s
with the work of A. Hrennikoff and R. Courant2 [4]. The finite element method (often
known as Finite Element Analysis or FEA) was developed in the 1950s for airframe and
structural analysis.
Like the finite volume method, the finite element method divides the simulation
space into small areas or volumes (in 2D and 3D, respectively) which can be arbitrarily
shaped and oriented; for this reason, the finite element method is well suited to problems
with complex geometry. Also similar to the finite volume method, while the small
“subdomains” can have arbitrary shapes, triangles and tetrahedra are most commonly
used for their simplicity.
Now, in each of the other methods we have discussed so far, Maxwell’s equations are
discretized and values of the fields are found which satisfy these equations. In the finite
element method, however, the solution to Maxwell’s equations is approximated over each
subdomain with some functional form, usually a low-order polynomial, which is known
as a basis function. The solutions in each subdomain are then made to be continuous
across their boundaries, and the solution must be made to fit with the global boundary
conditions enforced by any scattering structures.
The finite element method in electromagnetics has the disadvantage of being rather
complicated, and as such we will provide only a brief introduction to the method in
Chapter 15. However, Finite Element Time Domain (FETD) is the state-of-the-art for
time domain solutions of electromagnetic problems. Many books have been written on
the method, and we refer the reader to those books in Chapter 15.

Discontinuous Galerkin methods

One of the drawbacks of the finite element method in electromagnetic problems is that it
requires some level of global knowledge of the simulation space. The basis functions used
are local, defined in each grid element, but to enforce continuity at element boundaries,
a large, sparse matrix must be solved, which can heavily increase the computational cost.
More recently, discontinuous Galerkin methods have moved to the forefront of electro-
magnetic simulation. These methods enforce strict locality by relaxing the requirement
of continuity between elements. Discontinuous Galerkin methods borrow ideas from
finite volume methods to connect elements together at their boundaries, and result in
explicit, local, and highly accurate algorithms. We will provide a brief introduction to
discontinous Galerkin methods in Section 15.4.

2 The same Courant for whom the Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy (CFL) condition in FDTD is named.
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