Background Information:

In the late 1800's certain phenomenon could not be explained by the wave theory of
light. Specifically these phenomenon were:
- The photoelectric effect (the discharging of electrically-charged metal plates by
ultraviolet lights)
- The spectrum of light emitted by hot bodies such as lava or hot metals.

The solution to these problems required a total change in our understanding of the structure
of matter and electromagnetic waves

Quanta:
It was shown that the energy of a particle is quantized (particles could not have a continuous
range of energies, only specific values). Electromagnetic energy was also shown to be quantized. It
consists of discrete, massless bundles of energy called light quanta or photons
The amount of energy present in electromagnetic waves is proportional to the absolute
temperature raised to the fourth power (T4). Thus hot bodies radiate considerably more energy than
cool bodies.
In 1900 Max Plank found he could calculate the frequency of the spectrum if he assumed the
energy of vibration of the atoms in a solid could have only specific values given by
E = hf
where h is Planks constant (h = 6.63 x 10-34 J٠s). Plank also predicted that atoms do not radiate
electromagnetic energy all the time that they are vibrating, only when their vibration energy
changes. This hypothesis was the first hint that Newtonian mechanics might not be valid under
certain conditions.

Photoelectric Effect:
 The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons when light falls on a body. In 1905
Einstein published a theory to explain the photoelectric effect. Einstein combined the theory of
light (photons) with Plank's theory of hot bodies (E=hf) but Einstein took it a step further by
explaining the existence of a threshold frequency .A photon with a minimum energy hfo
(where fo is the threshold frequency) is needed to eject an electron from the metal. Furthermore,
an electron cannot accumulate a photon until it has enough energy. Light with a frequency
greater than fo has more energy than what is needed to eject an electron The excess energy hf-
hfo becomes the kinetic energy of the electron. Therefore the maximum KE of the moving
electron is equal to:
KEmax = hf - hfo

The product hfo is the work necessary to free the most weakly-bound electron from a metal.
This product is therefore called the work function of the metal. The maximum kinetic energy of
the emitted electron is then the total energy given to the electron by the photon (hf), less the
work function (Wo = hfo ). That is:
KEmax = hf - Wo

This is Einstein's photoelectric equation and it won him a Nobel prize in 1921.
Since the wavelength of light is more easily measured than its frequency, the energy of a
photon with a given frequency is given by E = hc/λ.
The maximum kinetic energy may also be determined by measuring the work done in
stopping it or qVo where Vo is the potential needed to stop the electron (stopping potential).
Thus:

KEmax = -qVo

The negative sign is there because by definition, the KE is determined by the work done
to stop an electron which is negative, but KE must always be positive.

Practice Exercises:

1. The stopping potential to prevent current through a photocell is 3.2 V. Calculate the maximum
KE in joules and eV of the photoelectrons in the cell. 5.12 x 10-19 J 3.2 eV

2. The stopping potential for a photocell is 5.7 V. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy in
electron-volts of the photoelectrons in the cell. 5.7eV

3. The threshold wavelength of zinc is 310 nm. What is the work function in eV of zinc? Zinc in
a photocell is irradiated by ultraviolet light of wavelength 240 nm. What is the maximum KE of
the photoelectrons in eV? 4 eV 1.17 eV

4. The work function for cesium is 1.96 eV. What is the threshold wavelength for cesium? What
is the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons ejected when 425 nm blue light falls on
cesium? 632.7 nm 0.96 eV

The Compton Effect:

The Compton effect demonstrates that even though a photon has no mass, it has KE just
like a particle does.

Einstein showed that a photon should have another particle property which is momentum

Einstein predicted the momentum of a photon was:

p = hf/c = h/λ

This theory was tested by Arthur Compton using X-rays and a graphite target to scatter the X-
Rays. He found that some of the scattered X-Rays had longer wavelengths and therefore must
have lost energy. This meant that they transferred energy and therefore momentum to electrons
in the target. He arrived at the following conclusion:

A photon is a particle that has energy and momentum but unlike matter a
photon has no mass and travels at the speed of light.

Matter Waves:
The photoelectric effect and Compton scattering showed that electromagnetic waves have
particle properties. Victor Louis de Broglie suggested that material particles should then exhibit
wave properties. By analogy to the wave, the momentum of a particle would be p = mv = h/λ.
Thus the wavelength of a particle would be:

λd = h/mv

According to de Broglie, particles such as electrons or protons should show wavelike

properties. The wave nature of ordinary (macroscopic) matter is not obvious because the
wavelengths are so infinitesimally small that wavelike behaviors such as diffraction and
interference are not observed. However these properties for very small (subatomic) particles are
observable because the wavelengths are approximately the size of the particle.

Practice Exercises:

1. Find the speed of an electron accelerated by a potential difference of 250 V. What is the
de Broglie wavelength of this electron? 9.4 x 106 m/s 7.8 x 10-11 m

2. A 7.0 kilogram bowling ball rolls down an alley with a velocity of 8.5 m/s. What is the
de Broglie wavelength of the bowling ball? Why does the ball not show wavelike behavior?
1.1 x 10-35 m; wavelength is infinitesimally small compared to the object it will not show wave
behavior
3. An X-Ray of wavelength 5 x 10-12 meters is traveling in a vacuum. Calculate the momentum
of the X-Ray. Why does the X-Ray show little particle behavior?
1.3 x 10-22 N٠s; momentum is infinitesimally small to show observable effects when colliding
with objects of ordinary size.

4. In what ways are electrons and photons similar? In what ways are they different?

Both have - energy and momentum and can undergo diffraction and interference

particle properties wave properties

photons have no mass, no charge, and travel at the speed of light.