Presented By:Dr.

Swati Dixit

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 Concept of Ecosystem

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 There are many supporting systems like Forests, oceans,
grasslands, deserts which have structural components
and functions.
 They all have living organisms interacting with their
surroundings exchanging matter and energy.
 The word Ecology was coined by Earnest Haeckel in
1869 from Greek Words:
Oikos (Home) + Logos(study)
 So ecology is study of organisms in their natural home
interacting with the biotic and abiotic components
(Surroundings)
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 What is Ecosystem???

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An Ecosystem is a self regulating group of
biotic communities of species interacting
with one another with their non-living
environment exchanging energy and matter.

Therefore Ecology can be termed as---

“Study Of Ecosystems”

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 Continue…..

Ecosystem is a unit or a system which is
composed of no. of sub-units
They may exchange energy & matter from
outside – is an Open Ecosystem; or isolated
from outside in a closed one.
The Closed once are generally artificial. Eg.
Biosphere2, in Oracle, Arizona
Life on earth is sustained by the flow of
energy from sun & cycling of nutrients
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Characteristics of an Ecosystem

 Structure of ecosystem
 Biotic Structure
 Abiotic Structure
 Functions of Ecosystem
 Trophic Structure
 Food Chains
 Food Web
 Ecological Pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Nutrient Flow
 Ecological Succession
 Types of Ecosystems
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Structure of Ecosystems

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 Biotic Components
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A) Producers- they produce their own food either by
process of Photosynthesis or by Chemical Process
 Plants produce food by Photosynthesis(using sun,
CO2 and water) in presence of Chlorophyll. Thus
they are also called as Autotrophs
 There are some micro-organisms which produce
organic matter to some extent by oxidation of certain
chemicals in absence of sunlight. They are called as
Chemosynthetic or Chemotrophs

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 Biotic Components

B) Consumers :All organisms which get their food by
feeding on other organisms are called as Consumers
 Herbivores- Feed on producers (plant eaters)also called as
Primary Consumers
 Carnivores- Feed on other consumers
 If they feed on Herbivores- Secondary Consumers – eg frog
 If they feed on Carnivores – tertiary Carnivores/ Consumers- eg.
Snake, Big Fish
 Omnivores- They feed on plants and animals- Man, many
birds, fox
 Detrivores- They feed on parts of dead organisms, wastes
of living organisms. Also known as Saprotrophs or
Detritus feeders

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 Biotic Components
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C) Decomposers
They derive energy by breaking down complex
organic matter to simpler once.
E.g. Bacteria & Fungi

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 Abiotic Components

 They include various physical, chemical &
Geographical factors;
 Physical Factors:
 The sunlight & shade
 Intensity of Solar flux
 Average Temperature
 Annual Rainfall
 Wind
 Soil type, availability of water,
We can clearly see the difference in solar flux, temp., rainfall
pattern in desert , tropical & Tundra Ecosystem. While in
grassland and forest they also vary as per geographical location 11
 Abiotic Components

Chemical Factors
 They include availability of nutrients like Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Carbon, Hydrogen, potassium, Oxygen,
sulphur, levels of toxic substances, salts causing
salinity influence the function of ecosystem.
Geographical Factors
 Latitude, Longitude and altitude

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Nutrient Cycling & Energy Flow

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 Functions of Ecosystems:
Trophic structure

In ecosystems energy and matter exchange
occurs in a definite pattern.
Nutrients and energy move along food chain
Producers, consumers are arranged in a
specific manner and their interaction along
with population size is called as Trophic
structure and the level as Trophic Level.
And the amount of living matter at each
level is called Standing Crop or Standing
Biomass 14
 Food chain

The sequence of eating and being eaten is
known as food chain.
Someone is the food of other.
Two major food chains
 Grazing- Starts from producers that is green plants –
terrestrial, marine, pond ecosystem
 Detritus- Starts with dead organic matter- Mangrove
Ecosystem

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Simple Grazing Food Chain
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 Grazing food chain

Terrestrial Food Chain

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Marine Food Chain
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Detritus food chain
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Mangrove Ecosystem
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 Food web
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No food chain is isolated.
Organisms act at various levels in different
food chains.
Feed on more than one type of organism.
Form a Complex Food Web.
Thus, “Food Web - is a network of food chains
where different types of organisms are
connected at different trophic levels”
so that there are a no. of options of eating and
being eaten at each trophic level
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Significance: Food chain and Food Web
Energy and nutrient flow

Maintain population of different species and thus
maintain Ecological Balance

Bio magnification: a rather harmful phenomenon.

Eg: build up of DDT in higher animals.
(Case Study- Pesticides - Diclofenac in Vultures.)

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Case Study
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 Ecological Pyramids

Graphic representation of trophic structure
and function of ecosystem
Starts with producers at the base and
consumers at successive levels towards
apex is called as an “Ecological Pyramid”
They are of 3 Types:
 Pyramids of Numbers
 Pyramids of Biomass
 Pyramid of Energy
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 Pyramid of Number
Represents Number of individual organism at
each level. 
May be Upright or Inverted.
Of Forest, grassland and parasitic food chain

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 Upright –
Grassland
& Pond

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Inverted- Parasitic food Chain Narrow Pyramid- Forest

 Pyramid of Biomass
Based on total biomass i.e dry matter at every
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level in a food chain
Upright or Inverted.

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 Pyramid of Energy
Amount of energy
at each trophic
level.

Always Upright
Energy goes on
reducing at each
level.
Loss in the form of
heat, respiration.
 Shows sharp decline
from producers to top
carnivores.
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 Energy Flow
Energy flow in an ecosystem is Unidirectional
Source of energy is sun 
Plants convert this energy into chemical energy
Energy is lost in body functions like respiration
Available passes to next trophic level
Follows two laws of thermodynamics
 1st Law: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can be
converted from one form to another
 2nd Law: energy dissipates as it is used.
Energy flow models: explain the flow of energy
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 Universal energy flow model
Explained by ecologist E. P. Odum
Says, as flow of energy takes place there is a
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gradual decrease in energy.
Thus less energy is available at each trophic level.
Loss occurs by use in locomotion, excretion,
respiration
Rest is stored as biomass and passes further

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 Single channel Energy flow
model:

Normal food chain…normal energy flow….
Grazing food chain

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 Y shaped or double channel flow model:

 Here entire biomass cannot be consumed as quantity

is high. 
 Here major biomass enters detritus food chain along
with grazing food chain. Gives Y shape.

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 Nutrient Cycling
Nutrients are important functional attribute.

These nutrients are available to biotic components
through natural resources
Nutrients if not returned back would end up and
not be available for future use.
These nutrients are thus cycled through
BIOGEOCHEMICAL cycles.
Nutrients are decomposed, converted by micro-
organisms and ready to use again..thus cycle
continues.
Water, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon. 37
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Carbon Cycle

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Phosphorous Cycle

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 Primary Production

Primary productivity is the rate of energy captured
by producers. = the amount of new biomass of
producers, per unit time and space

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 

 Net primary production is thus the amount of energy

stored by the producers and potentially available to
consumers and decomposers.
 Gross primary production (GPP)
= total amount of energy captured
 Net primary production (NPP)
= GPP - respiration 42
 Secondary Production

 Secondary productivity is the rate of production
of new biomass by consumers, i.e., the rate at
which consumers convert organic material into
new biomass of consumers.

 Note that secondary production simply involves

the repackaging of energy previously captured
by producers--no additional energy is
introduced/produced into the food chain.
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 Ecosystem Regulation

 All ecosystems regulate and maintain themselves
under a set of environmental conditions
 If stress---- tries to resist and maintain balance is
known as Homeostasis

 Tolerance and resistance possible only within a min

and max range

 If stress is too high then balance lost and ecosystems

collapse.
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 Ecological Sucession*
 An orderly process of changes in the community structure and

function with time mediated through modifications in the
physical environment and ultimately culminating in a
stabilized ecosystem
 Whole sequence of communities which are transitory are
known as Seral Stages
 Ecological Succession starting from different Substrata or areas
are named differently:
 Hydrach / Hydrosere – starting from water or pond
 Mesarch- Starting from adequate moist area
 Xerach/Xerosere – Starting in dry area or areas with less moisture
 They Can also be of following types:
 Lithosere- Starting on bare Rock
 Psammosere- Starting on sand
 Halosere- Starting on saline soil
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Succession
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 Process of Succession
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 Nudation- It is a development of bare area without
any life form.
 Invasion- Successful establishment of one or more
species by migration or dispersal leading to
establishment /ecesis. These are called Pioneer
Species
 Competition and co-action- As the no. of individuals
increase there developes a competition for space,
water, nutition. The competion is Inter-Specific
(within different Species) or Intra –Specific (within
the same species)
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 Process of Succession
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Reaction – The living organisms grow, use
water & nutrients from substratum having
strong influence on Environment which is
modified to a large extent – is reaction
Stabilization- the succession ultimately
culminates in a stable community called as
Climax, which is in equilibrium with
environment
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Succession : Seral stages

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Hydrarch

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Xerarch
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 Major Ecosystems
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Forest ecosystems
Desert Ecosystems
Grassland Ecosystems
Aquatic Ecosystems

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Forest Ecosystems
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Forest Occupy roughly 40 % of the land.
The different components of forest ecosystem are as follows:

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 Abiotic Components: These are organic & inorganic substances
present in the soil and atmosphere. In addition to minerals present
in forest we find the dead organic debris, moreover light condition
are different due to complex stratification in the plants.
 Biotic Components:
 Producers: These are mainly trees that show much species and
greater degree of stratification. Besides trees there are also
present shrubs, and ground vegetation.
 Consumers: Primary Consumers: These are herbivores that
include animals feeding on tree leaves, ants, beetles,
grass hoppers, etc., and large elephants, deers, squirrels, etc.

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 Continue..
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 Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores, like snakes,
birds, lizards, fox, etc. feeding on herbivores.
 Tertiary consumers: These are top carnivores like lion tiger,
etc. that eat carnivores of secondary level.
 Decomposers: These are wide variety of micro organisms
including, fungi, bacteria.
 Also present are epiphytes, lianas
 Extremely diverse and productive

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 Layered structure
 Emergent layer
 Canopy layer
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 Under storey
 Shrub layer
 Ground layer or forest
floor

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Desert Ecosystem
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Desert occupy 17 % of land.
 Abiotic components include, light, temperature,
minerals.
 Biotic Components:
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 Producers : These are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses, and
few trees.
E.g. Cacti, Xerophytes, mosses
 Consumers: The most common animals are reptiles, and insects,
there are some rodents, and birds, and above all ship of desert
camels, feed on tender plants.
 Decomposers: These are very few as due to poor vegetation the
amount of dead organic matter is less. They are some fungi and
bacteria.

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 Types
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 Tropical deserts: high heat, very dry
Eg : Sahara, Thar desert
 Temperate desert: day temperatures very hot in summer
and nights very cool in winter
Eg: Mojave in Southern California
 Cold deserts: Cold winters and warm summers
Eg : Gobi desert in China

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Grassland Ecosystem
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Grassland occupy comparatively fewer area roughly

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19 % of the earth’s surface.
 Abiotic Components: These are nutrients present
in soil, and aerial environment, thus the
elements like, phosphates, sulphates, water,
carbon dioxide, present in soil and in air.
Moreover some trace elements are also present.
 Biotic Components:
 Producers: They are mainly grasses as species of Cynadon,
Desmodium, besides them a few shrubs also contribute some
primary production.

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 Consumers:
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 Primary Consumers: The herbivores feeding on grasses are
grazing animals, as cows, goats, rabbit, etc. besides them
there are some insects as termites, millipedes that feed on
grasses.
 Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores feeding on
herbivores these include, animals like, fox, jackals, snakes, frogs,
birds.
 Tertiary Consumers: Some times hawks, vultures, feeding on
secondary consumer, thus occupy tertiary consumers.
 Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of dead
organic matter of different form are fungi and some bacteria

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Aquatic ecosystems
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 Pond Ecosystem
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Producers are of following type
 Macrophytes: these are large rooted plants, which
include partly or completely submerged
hydrophytes, e.g. : Hydrilla, Trapha, Typha.
 Phytoplankton: These are minute floating or
submerged lower plants e.g.: algae.
 Consumers: They are heterotrophs which depends
for their nutrition on the organic food
manufactured by producers.

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 Primary Consumers:
 Benthos: These are animals associated with living plants ,
detrivores and some other microorganisms

 Zooplanktons: These are chiefly rotifers, protozoans, they feed on
phytoplankton
 Secondary Consumers: They are the Carnivores which feed
on herbivores, these are chiefly insect and fish, most insects &
water beetles, they feed on zooplanktons.
 Tertiary Consumers: These are some large fish as game fish,
turtles, which feed on small fish and thus become tertiary
consumers.
 Decomposers: They are also known as micro-consumers. They
decompose dead organic matter of both producers and animal
to simple form. Thus they play an important role in the return of
minerals again to the pond ecosystem, they are chiefly bacteria,
& fungi.
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 Lake Ecosystem

 Big freshwater bodies with standing water
 Planktons, Nektons, Neustons, Benthos, Periphytons
 Stratification based on temperature differences

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 Ocean Ecosystems
 Ocean Ecosystem are more stable than pond
ecosystem, they occupy 70 % of the earth surface.

 Abiotic Components: Dissolved oxygen, light,
temperature, minerals.
 Biotic Components:
 Producers: These are autotrophs and are also
known Primary producers. They are mainly,
some microscopic algae (phyto- planktons)
besides them there are mainly, seaweeds, as brown
and red algae also contribute to primary
production.

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 Consumers: They are all heterotrophic macro
consumers


 Primary Consumer: The herbivores, that feed on
producers are shrimps, Molluscs, fish, etc.
 Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores fish
as Herring, Shad, Mackerel, feeding on herbivores.
 Tertiary Consumers: These includes, other
carnivores fishes like, Cod, Halibut, Sea Turtle,
Sharks etc.
 Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of
dead organic matter of producers, and animals are
chiefly, bacteria and some fungi.

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 Estuarine ecosystems

 An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water
along the coast where fresh water from river and
streams meet and mix with salt water from oceans.
This Ecosystems are considered as most fertile
ecosystem.
 Abiotic Components: Nutrients such as phosphorus
and nitrogen, temperature, light, salinity, pH.
 This ecosystem experience wide daily and
seasonal fluctuations in temperature and Salinity
level because of variation in freshwater in flow.

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 Biotic Components:


 Producers: Phytoplankton's - these micro-organisms
manufacture food by photosynthesis and absorb nutrients
such as phosphorous and nitrogen, besides them,
mangroves, sea grass, weeds, and salt marshes.
 Consumers: Primary consumers, Zooplanktons that feed
on Phytoplankton, besides them some small
microorganisms that feed on producers.
 Secondary Consumer: Include worms, shellfish, small fish,
feeding on Zooplanktons
 Tertiary Consumer : Fishes, turtles, crabs, starfishes feeding
on secondary consumers.
 Decomposers: Fungi & Bacteria are the chief microbes active
in decay of dead organic matter.

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Tabular Format
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 
Thank You

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