‫َّٰل‬

‫ِب ْس ِم ٱل ِه ٱل َّر ْح َٰم ِن ٱل َّر ِحي ِم‬

Frithjof Schuon (1907-1998), was a Swiss philosopher and writer of German descent. He was a
Muslim Sufi who simultaneously propounded the philosophy that all major religious traditions of
the world whilst being exoterically distinct, are esoterically unified at the core. In this essay, we
try to review how he understood the Islamic tradition. Views are personal to the extent that we
believe that they accurately summarize Schuon's perspective.

The most well-known book written by Schuon on Islam is arguably Understanding Islam. It
begins with the sentence "Islam is the meeting of God as such and man as such" which sets the
stage for understanding his viewpoint of God and man in the Islamic framework. God as such
refers to the Supreme Reality stripped of all vestiges imposed by human thought. He is
Transcendent. He is Absolute and He is Independent of all historical and philosophical
connotations. Man, on the other hand, is considered a being, a being created in God's image -
one who possesses intelligence and the ability to apply that intelligence. God in the Islamic
climate is not considered in the form of a particular manifestation or alternatively, it is not that
any particular attribute of Him is stressed. Likewise, man in the Islamic climate is not thought of
as a being which is part of a pantheistic design, or of some fallen creature requiring to be saved.
This does not do away with the possibilities of God's attributes being celebrated - refer Quran
7:180 "Unto God belong the Most Beautiful Names; so call Him by them" - or everything
including man being encompassed by God - refer Quran 57:3 "He is the First, and the Last, and
the Outward, and the Inward"; it is just that this viewpoint of God and man is not prominent in
the Islamic tradition, and fundamentally the definition which puts itself forth is that God is,
what God is and man is, what man is.

The meeting that Schuon refers to rests on the pillars of man's intelligence and his free will.
According to Schuon, the originality of Islam rests in the fact that it makes intelligence and free
will (and the ability of speech) the point of departure from where one may embark on his
journey towards God. Since these abilities are available at a personal level to man, Islam does
away with the notion of an external savior following which no intermediaries between the
individual man and God are needed on this journey. Therefore a distinction is drawn between
Islam and certain other traditions wherein priests or other agencies are deemed necessary.
Intelligence of man, when talked about in Islam, is not restricted to merely logical deductions
based on scientific principles, instead, intelligence is understood as a wider ability of subsuming
knowledge which includes sensory, intuitive, self-realized and gnostic knowledge. It is this
intelligence of man which leads him to the inescapable conclusion that there exists an Absolute
(i.e. God), that he cannot be but One and that all uncertainty in this regard must be abolished.
To reach this conclusion is the core function of intelligence in man and is summarized in the first
half of the Islamic testimony of faith which Schuon translates as "There is no divinity (or reality,
or absolute) save the sole Divinity (or Reality, or Absolute)". Considering that God is the only
Reality therefore entails that one who accepts this testimony in his heart becomes conscious of
the fact that God alone is real and that the world as we see and know it, is fundamentally unreal
- even though at some level it exists but its existence is superficial and not a real thing. It also
entails that all worldly things depend on God for their superficial existence. The persuasive force
of Islam is not vested merely in the fact that there is one God and not two, but in the total and
utter dependence of everything else upon God. We remark that intelligence does not take
anything away from the merit of faith since according to Schuon, intelligence confers a "passive
union" but faith makes it an "active union".

From the intelligence of man, follows his will. Once intelligence proclaims knowledge of God
and decrees that all things are dependent on Him and therefore should conform to His will, it
becomes incumbent that man should conform to His will too. Unlike other things on this earth,
man has been bestowed with free will. God has created man in his image and whilst He alone is
absolute freedom, He has imparted to man free will too. Despite its non-absolute character on
account of it stemming from God, this freedom of man is still freedom - Schuon uses the
analogy "a feeble light is not something other than light", and man has the ability to either
conform to God's will or not. The Law in Islam (the Shariat) is precisely the codified version of
God's will looked upon through the lens of intelligence, since the Law's key source, the Quran -
and its commentary which the life and sayings of the Prophet (SAW) provide - is, as per Schuon,
the crystallized form of the Divine Intellect and answers to the human intellect. The finer
technicalities of application of the Law are sometimes interpreted by human beings and their
correctness is a matter of debate, but the important fact is that there is such a thing as a Law.
Hence the two aspects - the Truth of the Reality and the fact that there is a Law to be followed
characterize Islam; in fact, Schuon explicitly says that Islam in essence is a Truth and a Law.
Application of the Law from a metaphysical point of view signifies trying to achieve a state of
equilibrium for man in respect of the Absolute; i.e. a state wherein perfect conformity is
achieved of the human condition as desired by God. More explicitly, total submission to God's
will enables man to assume his ideal condition of equilibrium with God, wherein he has gotten
rid of the uncertainties and turbulences caused by his ego. This is the state of the meeting
between God and man as envisaged by Islam.

The Prophet Muhammad (SAW) who actualizes the prototype of the perfect man (Schuon refers
to the Prophet as al-Insan al Kamil i.e. the Perfect Man) is the norm of the human condition in
conformity with God and hence is a manifestation of the above principle. The second half of the
Islamic testimony of faith, as translated by Schuon states "Muhammad (the Glorified, the
Perfect) is the Messenger (the spokesman, the intermediary, the manifestation, the symbol) of
the Divinity". It is clear from this translation that Schuon considers the function of the Prophet
(SAW) to be of much more deeper scope than of the exoteric meaning of the word messenger.
The Prophet (SAW) manifests the principle of being in conformity with God and as every
ordinary human has to encounter the normative condition on his journey from non-conformity
to conformity with God, the Prophet (SAW) becomes the intermediary between an ordinary
man and God. Similarly, the very existence of the Prophet (SAW) being in conformity with
respect to the Absolute symbolizes the Absolute. More to Schuon's point, everything in this
world is therefore connected with the Absolute - whatever is in perfect conformity with God's
will is connected to God in the same way as the Prophet (SAW) by achieving conformity did so,
whatever is not can also do so once it achieves its normative condition of perfect conformity.
Thus, while the first half of the Islamic testimony essentially says, "God alone is", the second
half essentially says "All things are attached to God". Schuon thereby concludes that since,
realizing the first half of the testimony of faith means, realizing that God alone is really real and
that the world is not, this implies realizing the second half of the testimony of faith, i.e. God is
everywhere and everything is linked with Him; so the first half of the testimony of faith contains
the second to a large extent.

The idea of achieving conformity or equilibrium implies that the outlook of a typical Muslim,
whatever his level of understanding of Islam might be, has a very specific characteristic. He sees
before him a path which can lead him towards achieving this equilibrium; and he (at a
fundamental level), adopts an attitude of making efforts to come out of his comfort zone and
journey on this path. In other words, he is clear that he has a Law and accepts that he is
supposed to follow it. Now the Law is to be deployed using God-imparted intelligence, refer to
Schuon's point that Islam makes intelligence and free will the point of departure towards God,
and this lends itself to an apparent easiness in implementing it. Such an ease would not have
been necessarily available had this deployment been made fundamentally contingent on
something else, say for example on suffering and sacrifices. Suffering and sacrifices while
important are not fundamental to the application of the Law. In fact, in many cases it is pretty
apparent that application of the Law in Islam implies enjoyment of some worldly riches (confer
also the Quranic verses 5:87, 7:32, 28:77) and even when it may not be apparent, it is pretty
clear that the root of the matter does not lie in connecting application of the Law with always
making sacrifices, but instead the Law is deployed using intelligence with the final goal of God in
mind. So, if the Law when deployed using intelligence decrees something which is also
perchance enjoyable for man, for example, lawful sex, then a Muslim feels no hesitation
whatsoever in going ahead with it. He is following the Law by enjoying himself. This attitude is
sometimes incomprehensible to non-Muslims who are accustomed to a sort of transactional
relationship in religion: pay through efforts and suffering and gain rewards in lieu of them. Such
non-Muslims identify with religious traditions that stress not upon intelligence as the
fundamental principle to be adopted, but upon other aspects such as expending one's self as
much as possible.
The character of Islam, being fashioned by intelligence in a manner peculiar to it, does not
stress a lifestyle based on impractical idealism. A man is not one man, but has many
dimensions: he is a scholar, he is a warrior, he is a family man, he is an ascetic and so on. For a
particular individual, it may be the case that one aspect out of these is more prominent and a
natural inclination towards it is present in him for it, however as a general principle one may
presume that all these aspects, in varying proportions, are present inside every individual. A
prototypical man is therefore a compound man. The concern for equilibrium, so marked in
Islam, and stemming from the second half of the Islamic testimony as explained above, means
that a life which simultaneously balances all these aspects is the desired mode of life. Another
perspective of this equilibrium is that there is agreement of sorts between the laws relating to
man as such, and laws related to man as a collective being and part of a society. Note here that
based on the intelligible perspective of giving everything its due standing, Islam makes a sharp
distinction between these two viewpoints of man - each person is deemed responsible only for
himself; and not for the acts of his family members, and yet such an accord creates an organic
relation of sorts between society and the individual. Hence balance in both can play a role in
developing each other. For an individual on his journey towards God, society provides a
supportive cushion which possibly helps him in avoiding getting "unhorsed", while for the
society, an individual in his small way contributes to creating a society of men oriented towards
the Absolute. This relationship between man and society means that in Islam no Muslim can be
entirely disjointed from the collective Muslim community. According to Schuon, it is also the
reason why there is a general reluctance to avoid abandonment of outward rites by those
following a given certain spiritual method which seemingly compensates for them. So modern
practising Muslims on the whole, remain attached to the orthodox traditions and keep
respecting canonical opinions in matters of Law, outwardly.

Another consequence of the fact that Islam avoids impractical idealism is that morality in Islam
stems from undeniable natural laws. For instance, let us consider the issue of human sexuality.
The fact that it is a biological need for man cannot be denied, and hence Islam accords it its
proper place. Marriage is recommended, and it was said by the Prophet (SAW) that there is
charity in the sexual act when it is done within the parameters of Islamic law. Similarly, eating in
due measure while giving gratitude to God is a meritorious action. What is to be noted here is
that while the human will is sublimated and tempered by Law, it is neither sacrificed outright
nor is it allowed to spread unfettered. This maintains a balance between the human will and
intelligence - wherein we interpret intelligence as the Law resulting from the knowledge of the
Absolute and of the way of achieving attachment with it. A society may have its own set of
rules, what is proper and what is not - Islamic morality comes forth not with the intention of
abolishing every rule, or not with the intention of accepting every rule - but in a balanced way,
compromising on aspects which do not contradict the Law and unyielding on aspects which do
so. The end purpose remains, to paraphrase Schuon, that "society participates in its own way
and according to its own possibilities in the individual's journey to God".

Mention has already been made of the double testimony of faith and its meaning. Besides the
testimony, the daily canonical prayers, the fasts in the month of Ramadan, the mandated giving
of charity and the pilgrimage to Mecca for the Hajj are of paramount importance and form a
basis of the Muslim's practical life. The daily canonical prayers are five in number and are
performed within fixed intervals of time during the day. They imbibe man with a certain rhythm
of universal adoration which mirrors the rhythm of life in the Islamic perspective. Islamic
anthropology views human life as a rhythm wherein equilibrium with the Absolute is
periodically rejuvenated through Revelation. The daily canonical prayers symbolize this
rejuvenation and re-attachment towards the Absolute. It is said that, "The prayer is the
ascension of the believer". (The prayer mentioned here is not any general mode of prayer but it
is a specific prayer performed in a canonical form.) The Ramadan fast is an almsgiving of the
body: the body gives away a part of its strength but in return gets purified by being cut off from
a life centred on superficiality. On the other hand, the mandated alms are a fasting of the soul:
the soul vanquishes its avarice and also solidarity with others controls its ego. The pilgrimage is
a representation of the inward journey towards the heart. Schuon vividly compares this
pilgrimage with the circulation of blood in the biological heart which purifies the body.

Besides the five pillars discussed above: namely the testimony, the canonical prayers, the
Ramadan fasts, the alms and the pilgrimage there is one more aspect that has a somewhat
circumstantial character. It is the holy war waged in the way of Islam if and when the need
arises. Some comments need to be made in this regard, for without clarification a call for war
can seem to contradict the notion of equilibrium and balance. The thing is that Islam's attitude
is always to treat things according to their nature and never go to extremes. Impractical idealism
is never the attitude adopted in any matter. Now inwardly, every man is engaged in a constant
struggle with his seducing soul which continually creates disequilibrium within him. However,
the attitude of Islam is to make efforts to bring equilibrium at all possible levels, whether they
be inward or outward. So outwardly in society too, where strife is undoubtedly a feature,
combativeness and hence war is necessary to restore order and balance in the world.

Actually, the combative spirit in a Muslim is rooted in the second half of the testimony of faith,
according to which all things are attached to the Absolute. As a natural consequence,
any tendency to detach oneself from the Absolute creates opposition. There exists a sort of
fatalism in Muslim thought - arising as a consequence of the fact that the world has no real
reality, (confer the first half of the testimony of faith,) and hence one need not put any real
stock in any worldly matter. The combative and continually struggling attitude espoused above
keeps this fatalism in check and does not allow either aspect to spiral out of control. This very
combativeness manifests itself in the form of holy war only when the distinction between right
and wrong is required to be made entirely explicit. According to Schuon, it is undoubtedly
correct to use force in some situations to "affirm and diffuse a vital truth", for it can be seen
through experience that the interests of irresponsible people are often served by forcefully
making them do the right thing. This may be thought of as a harsh way of accomplishing what is
right. To take an analogy from nature, note that if the population of one species starts
increasing disproportionately in a jungle, then order is restored there by force; i.e. by some
predator hunting and eating that species. One needs to keep in mind, however, that the
application of force is tempered by laws which prohibit infamous actions; and the same reflects
the fact that in a jungle the harshness of certain biological realities has nothing to do with
perfidy and baseness.

To summarize, Islam rests on the consciousness of the Absolute and seeks to realize this
through intelligence. The saying of the Prophet (SAW), namely "God has created nothing more
noble than intelligence, and his wrath is on him who despises it", characterizes this idea. The
world around us contains many forms, which are signs waiting to be understood by us through
our intelligence or by "those who understand" as the Quran says, and these forms, when
confronted with intelligence form the pathway to the Absolute.

The sacred book of Islam is the Quran and now we plan to discuss its role and function in the
Muslim perspective as understood by Schuon. But before we begin, an important qualification is
in order. When Schuon speaks of the word "sacred", he means something that is directly
attached to the transcendent order, which possesses absolute certainty and eludes or goes
beyond comprehension and control of the human mind. So a book on religious practices written
by a worldly man shall not qualify as being sacred since it is not attached to the transcendent.
The sacredness of the Quran springs fundamentally from its divine origin and not because of the
subject which it treats. Hence the Quran speaks of a multitude of things other than God that are
not directly related to what we think as "sacred", For example, it discusses the laws of
succession, and this does not affect its sacred character.

In understanding the Quran, one is confronted with three aspects: firstly the doctrine which
explicitly lays down laws, rights and duties, secondly the narrative - i.e. that aspect which
through stories and symbolisms reflects upon the vicissitudes of the soul and through narrating
stories builds up the core directions 'so to speak' that provide guidance to man - and thirdly its
miraculous power. It may be noted that great books on Islamic jurisprudence have been
composed, for example by Imam Abu Hanifa and Al-Tahawi, based on the doctrine espoused by
the Quran. Islamic jurisprudence is based on such books and covers in excruciating minutiae the
details of daily life. However, and perhaps more importantly, the viewpoint espoused by the Law
in an exoteric manner is only a fragment of the whole truth and there is more to it than meets
the eye. This is true in a wider context and is most vividly illustrated in the story of Moses (AS)
and Khizr (AS) (see verses 65 to 82 in Chapter 18) in the Quran which shows the limits of the
exoteric approach. In this context, there is also a saying of the Prophet (SAW) which states that
'the verses of the Quran enclose, not merely an exoteric and an esoteric meaning, but also
within the latter many other possible meanings, at least seven and at most seventy; their
profusion has been compared to "the waves of the sea."' Schuon makes an important
qualification in this regard when he says that God always keeps his promises, although He may
exceed them, and so the inner meanings can never deny what the outer meanings state;
although they may go beyond them.

An example will make the last point clearer. The key to the whole matter, according to Schuon,
lies in sincerity. When a Muslim proclaims "God is One", it is not simply a matter of announcing
that there is one God, and not two; but it implicitly contains within it a complete
acknowledgement of that One Reality and a fundamental negation of the existence of all others.
The others include the apparent worldly realities related to our social, economic and historical
existence; realities which we encounter on a daily basis. "God is One" therefore also implies that
all things are utterly dependent and totally subservient to that one Reality. Everything depends
on the level of sincerity of belief in this doctrine. Hence one of the especially important
chapters of the Quran, namely Chapter 112, is titled al-Ikhlas which literally means sincerity,
and by a tradition of the Prophet (SAW) is said to constitute one-third of the Quran. The chapter
is quite short; it is one of the shortest in the Quran; and reads: "Say, 'He, God, is One. God the
Eternally Sufficient unto Himself. He begets not; nor was He begotten. And none is like unto
Him." So "God is One", has an exterior meaning that is true, but there is an inner meaning also
which goes beyond it and does not in any way deny it.

An important chapter in the Quran is its very first chapter titled al-Fatihah (literally That which
opens). Schuon provides a commentary for it in his book Understanding Islam; which
encapsulates the theme of the total dependence of everything on God, who is the Absolute
Master and includes a prayer seeking his assistance in our journey towards Him. This chapter
also known as the 'mother of the book' is part of the daily canonical prayers and is said to
contain in essence the whole of the Quran. In seven short verses, it first touches upon the
themes of the omnipotence of God who is the source of all goodness and mercy, and who is the
master of this world and of its termination. After describing these attributes it goes on to
include a prayer, whereby man now established as being totally dependent on God, calls upon
Him to help him in achieving 'liberating Unity' with Him while avoiding the paths which lead
elsewhere. The chapter is traditionally begun with the verse 'In the name of God, the infinitely
Good, the ever Merciful' which although occurs separately as a verse in another chapter, is
sometimes considered a part of this chapter, and is also the traditional formula for consecration
in the daily life of a Muslim. All good actions performed by Muslims are typically preceded by
reciting this verse, known as the Basmalah, which thereby sanctifies and makes them sacred.
Schuon posits that the Basmalah has a role complementary to that of the first half of the Islamic
testimony of faith - which as explained previously denies the existence of anything being
fundamentally absolute except God - since its act of sanctifying, links the world with God and
effectively means that nothing in this world is cut off from God. So within the confines of the
denial of the realness of the world at a fundamental level, there thrives a neutralization of that
denial in the sense that the world does possess a degree of reality proper to a relatively
superficial level. This is similar to the esoteric understanding of the second half of the Islamic
testimony, again referring to our previous discussion, and returns us to the theme of the
possibility of balancing the relative with respect to the Absolute in proper form.

A theme touched upon in the Quran recurrently and at times quite vividly is that of the
recompense to be awarded to man for his actions at the end of the world. Before discussing
Schuon's viewpoint in this regard, it is pertinent to point out that as per him, the Quran as a
whole, aims to instruct and guide man and not hold an academic discussion with him. God's aim
is practical and not theoretical. That being said, Schuon interprets the notion of divine
recompense as part of the design of God, in which any deviation or consonance with the
equilibrium state man ought to live in, has corresponding consequences whether negative or
positive. It is fundamentally abnormal to fail to recognize that man is an accident of a Substance
greater than himself, and since man ought to be aware of this imperfection he is also
responsible for managing it, and cannot escape responsibility in this regard. If he does ignore
this responsibility by establishing norms that are convenient for him - as opposed to the divine
norms towards which his true intellect guides him - this perversion will create a human
disequilibrium. The chastisement of God is actually the consequence of the collision of human
disequilibrium with the immanent equilibrium. Several verses of the Quran such as 24:24,
36:65, 41:20 bear out that it is man's own members who will testify against him in the end and
Schuon interprets them to mean that the establishing of norms, if they are contrary to divine
norms, has the effect of actualizing man's own intellect in the end as an opposition to this
falseness. Hence man condemns himself, or "man burns because he does not want to be what
he is". The Quran's most stringent criticism is reserved for those who have settled on their own
fancies of what is real and what is not; and have abandoned the absolute Reality.

The heaven-hell terminology in the opinion of Schuon is most instructive to illustrate the idea of
repercussions of disequilibrium as a practical point, given the overall central monotheistic
theme of Islam. Here he ventures deeper and also claims that the exoteric truth of the notion of
heaven-hell hides behind it even more esoteric truths which can be unified with similar
concepts in other religious traditions. Although we will not discuss these since they fall outside
the scope of this essay, the esoteric approach to the Quran is not just a matter of reconciliation
and understanding other religious traditions. In modern times, exoteric truths have to be made
intelligible to people today within the ambit of the Islamic tradition as well. The contrast with
the people of earlier centuries is high and a certain misunderstanding has been created in the
mind of the modern man that on the plane of measurable things absoluteness can be realized,
or God can be totally understood on a relative level. Schuon says, "The whole of modern
civilization is built upon this error, which has become for it an article of faith and program." Now
in the pre-modern era, man was not suffering from this defect; as a general rule, he was
subconsciously conscious of his own shortcomings. As a result, the notion of heaven-hell
stimulated and urged him towards virtue. In modern times, the modern man is unaware of his
imperfection and consequently develops an arrogance that mentally conditions him to ignore or
at best push into the background the notion of chastisement. In this situation, Schuon contends
that "the esoterism of gnosis is in a position to render intelligible the very precariously held
positions of exoterism". By its very nature, esoterism tends towards that metaphysical
perspective which defines form, and so forms the basis of the tenets of exoterism. Therein lies
the importance of the esoteric perspective which Schuon emphasizes in understanding the
Quran. Hence also he refers to Sufism as the kernel of Islam.

Schuon feels that it is very important to realize the spiritual and social efficacy behind the
symbols and words of the Quran. As mentioned above, it is his thesis that the intent is first and
foremost to save and assist man and not to establish an academic dialogue. A higher purpose is
what is really being talked about in the Quran and whatever words are being used are really
pointers towards the same. Also, the Arabic language is predisposed towards metaphors and
symbolism - note that the Quran being the word of God means that any translation of the
Quran is not the Quran per se, but a mere translation, following which only the original Quran in
Arabic as revealed to the Prophet (SAW) is The Quran - and this naturally means that metaphors
and symbolism exist in the Quran. Now this implies that the proper understanding of the Quran
requires not just mastery of the Arabic language but also of the implicit connections that these
metaphors and symbolism make. This is likely to create difficulties in developing a correct
understanding of the Quran for modern readers. The difficulty is compounded by the fact that
when the Quran was revealed, and we use the term revealed in the sense of it being the
uncreated word of God and thus transcending man in a direct manner, it was addressed to
people living in a certain area at a certain period of time. The words of the Quran as a general
rule, although exceptions are possible, corresponded to the mental make-up and understanding
of those people, for otherwise, they could not have related to them. Now the same words used
in our time and space today may not convey the same understanding to us as they did to them
because with the passage of time many meanings that were apparent in a word and did not
require to be made explicit then, need to be made explicit now.

To overcome these difficulties, Schuon posits that for a proper understanding, the modern
reader should read traditional commentaries written by people who have in-depth knowledge
of the social, historical, religious and spiritual context of the Quran. These commentaries spring
essentially from the oral traditions both directly from the Prophet (SAW) and also from his
companions, and hence from the same period in which the Quran was revealed. In the opinion
of Schuon, the saying of the Prophet "The ink of the learned (in the Law or in the Spirit) is like
the blood of the martyrs," refers also to the important part played by the orthodox
commentaries in interpreting the Quran. So traditional commentaries of the Quran are a must
for its proper understanding and cursory readings and deductions by laypersons can create
confusion as to the intent. We illustrate this point with some examples. Example number one:
When in 2:198 the Quran says (in a passage about the pilgrimage) "There is no blame upon you
in seeking a bounty from your Lord" the modern reader may get confused as to what is the
point of stating this in this passage where the pilgrimage is being discussed. It is only after
consulting the orthodox commentary of Al-Qurtubi that he will realize that this means that
commerce is permissible during the pilgrimage and does not nullify it. Another example is the
case of 4:79 which states "Whatever good befalls thee, it is from God, and whatever evil befalls
thee, it is from thyself...". Now the preceding verse 4:78 says that: all (which includes evil) is
from God, and the modern reader may get confused in trying to reconcile this with 4:79 which
apparently says that evil is from ourselves. On consulting the commentary of Al-Razi one finds
that he says that 4:79 is meant as a rhetorical question, so that it should be read as "Whatever
befalls thee, is it from thyself?" Al-Qurtubi's commentary is also of the same view although
some other orthodox commentaries do not interpret this in the same way but provide alternate
explanations. Hence one can understand 4:79 as a way to reaffirm 4:78, because the rhetoric is
meant to demonstrate that the opposite is true. The point is, that by consulting the
commentaries many pitfalls in understanding can be avoided by the lay reader.

Somewhat incidentally, it is also pertinent to note Schuon's approach towards the reason for
evil being present in the world. The question is as to how God can create and cause evil when
He is All-Merciful and Just, as posited separately, which on the surface seems to violate the
notion of evil. Schuon's response as elucidated in his book Dimensions of Islam is that this evil is
an infinitely constitutive part of a greater good. He argues that evil is in fact
a necessary constitutive part, necessary in view of the world being not God is "situated outside
God". Being only a part and not the whole, the whole being the greater good and representing
the viewpoint of 4:78 that everything comes from God, Schuon concludes that at a metaphysical
level, there is no evil. He moreover says that the fact that 4:78 immediately precedes 4:79 is
indicative of the fact that the Quran is not concerned with surface contradictions and it
emphasizes penetration and synthesis.

In the context of evil, Schuon also has put forward a philosophical answer to the question as to
why God being all-powerful, a fact that is postulated with exceptional intensity in the Quran,
does not abolish evil in its entirety (see also problem of evil). Schuon's argument essentially
makes a distinction between the Absolute Essence of God which is suprapersonal and beyond
all notions of Being (referred to as Dhat in Sufi terms) from the personal nature of God as
envisaged through his attributes (referred to as Sifat). According to Schuon, within the Absolute
Essence lies the potentiality of the principle of relativity whereby attributes may be understood
in relation to the Absolute. The attribute of "Being" is an example of applying relativity and
omnipotence is an ontological possibility of it. Now as long as creation exists, Being cannot
destroy the principle of relativity; for if it did, then Being would destroy itself and creation
would come to naught. "Evil as such" is an extreme limitation of the imperfect world, and to
speak of the world is to speak of relativity since the world exists as a consequence of "Be and It
is" (Quran 2:117). Hence omnipotence, Schuon asserts, does not imply that evil as such can be
destroyed in its entirety while this world sustains, for that would simultaneously imply the end
of relativity and of the world by its very notion. What omnipotence does imply, according to him
is that a particular evil can be abolished as per the will of God. This whole doctrine is
summarized in Schuon's opinion in the Quranic formula, "And He has power over all things"
occurring several times in the Quran. Hence the problem is answered by drawing a distinction
between the Absolute Essence and the personal notion of God stemming from relativity; and by
a logical argument why omnipotence pertains to specific evils and not to the general idea.

To return to our main point of the necessity of consulting orthodox commentaries written by
people who have a deep and wide-ranging knowledge of all aspects connected with the Quran,
the question arises as to how those Muslims who are far removed from this detailed knowledge
still have unquestioning ardour and zeal towards the Quran. How was Islam able to attract so
many followers in such a vast number amongst the non-Arabs? Schuon responds to this by
saying that the social, spiritual and psychological manifestation of the Quran is visible in the life
of the believers, in the daily call to prayer, in the generosity and serenity of the spirit etc. and
this is the reason behind the attractive power of the Islam. The fact of the matter is that Islamic
life for an average Muslim is influenced by the Quran both directly; most prominently in the
formulae he regularly recites in his daily life and in the canonical prayer; and indirectly because
he subconsciously models his life after the Prophet (SAW), about whom his wife stated that his
character 'was the Quran'. Hence despite not having the technical know-how the average
Muslim lives in the effect of the Quran. It may also be pertinent here to note that the viewpoint
has been advanced by Syed Hossein Nasr in his article The Quran as the Foundation of Islamic
Spirituality, that "The Quran possesses a mysterious presence, which might be called “magical,”
in addition to the Book’s being the source of Islamic doctrine, ethics, and sacred history. It is this
“magic” that is untranslatable and can only be experienced in the language of the revelation,
while the doctrinal content, ethical injunctions, or accounts of the prophets and peoples of old
can be rendered into other tongues." In this context, Schuon has also emphasized the
importance of reciting the Quran to avail benefits accruing from its miraculous power. He claims
that behind the husk of the text lies a concrete and active spiritual presence, and this is what
prompted certain Sufis to spend their entire lives ceaselessly reciting the Quran.

The importance of orthodox commentary in understanding the Quran also has led Schuon to
prompt an interesting argument regarding the validity of Sufi teachers. Schuon claims that the
nature of the revelation is such that it is closed and requires opening by people possessing
knowledge, and this fact holds for all aspects that the revelation enjoins. Hence just like there
are authorities for matters concerning the externals of the faith and for matters concerning
Islamic law in society, in like manner there are authorities for the path espoused by Islam which
leads to total belief in God, i.e. authorities for the path leading to the knowledge of the Essence.
Schuon quotes a saying of the Prophet as follows: "Spiritual virtue (ihsan, whose function is to
render sincere both iman and islam, faith and practice) consists in adoring God as if thou didst
see Him, and if thou dost not see Him, He nonetheless seeth thee", and claims that
the authorities for acquiring this spiritual virtue; which is synonymous with total belief, are
precisely the Sufi teachers. Furthermore, this fact is a purely logical proof of Sufism's legitimacy
and hence of its doctrines and methods. Moreover in defence of 'orthodox Sufism', Schuon
posits that Sufi teachers would be properly legitimate if they, on the whole, remain within the
confines of orthodox Islam. The argument is that dogma, as symbolized by external orthodoxy is
the key to the knowledge of the essence, and although after such knowledge is acquired the
individual goes beyond the form of the dogma, but there always remains a connection to it -
since it was the point of departure from which one took off towards acquiring knowledge. This
fact is reflected in the Quran 2:189 which states "...come into houses by their doors", and
according to Schuon one of the meanings of this is that the laws or the external dogma are the
doors by which one should enter the path leading acquiring knowledge. This idea can be
summarized by visualizing a circle, the boundary of which is the shariah (the Law whose experts
constitute the exoteric orthodoxy), the radius which leads one from the boundary to the centre
is the tariqah (the Path whose experts constitute the esoteric orthodoxy or the Sufi masters)
and the centre itself is the haqiqah (the Truth). In conclusion, firstly there is such a thing as the
Path and secondly, there is no Path without the Law.

To summarize, the Quran provides man with that consciousness which makes him aware of his
peculiar situation in the universe and his connection with God. It enables man to distinguish
between the Really Real and the artificially real. Hence it is quite appropriate to style it as the
discernment - indeed, one of the names with which the Quran refers to itself is Furqan, i.e. the
criterion. The divine origin of the Quran also implies that its content can open up horizons
beyond any earthly limit, and hence any discussion of the sort attempted here is doomed to be
incomplete. Indeed, the Quran itself says in 31:27, "And if all the trees on earth were pens, and
if the sea and seven more added to it [were ink], the Words of God would not be exhausted".
We now turn to the role played by the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) in Islam as understood by
Schuon. Since he is the model of the perfect man, or the prototype that achieved the requisite
consonance and harmony with the Divine order (which, as mentioned previously, is the goal of
Islam) and furthermore laid down a specific way for others to achieve the same harmony, so he
outwardly acts as one of two main sources of legislation in Islam (the other being the Quran,
the literal and direct word of God). This legislation is not only external but internal as well.
The external legislation includes details of all aspects of man's outward life - it includes minute
details like how to dress, proper etiquette for eating, visiting etc. - as well as aspects dealing
with social relationships and also correct moral behaviour. The internal legislation is essentially
about the spirit and about retaining the correct spiritual attitude which enables man to be in a
state of peace and harmony with his primordial self or the state which is most natural to him.
The key in this regard is not the actions by themselves which are a by-product of, or cause, that
state, but the intention lying behind the actions. It is all very well to outwardly pray by saying
the right words and performing the right actions, but this only satisfies the demands of the
outer legislation. The inner legislation demands that prayer must be performed with due
sincerity, for otherwise it will not be valid. The Prophet's (SAW) function in Islam is not just of
the legislator in chief. Love of the prophet permeates the heart of Muslims all over the world
and this love manifests itself when Muslims offer salutations to the Prophet and ask God to
bless him - something which is done with a very high frequency. There is a sort of mystery here,
for it is understood that somehow the sender of these salutations also gains something.

An Urdu verse says: "Ajeeb Faiz hai Aaqa Aapki Mohabbat ka; Durood aap pay parhu'n aur
khud sanwar jaaun." Translated this means "There is a strange benefit in your love my Master; I
send salutations to you but am myself improved as a result." Schuon's thesis behind this
mystery requires some explanation. He starts by delineating two ways of approaching
an understanding of who the Prophet (SAW) is, as per Islam: Firstly that he is a man among men
- he makes it a point of saying "not an ordinary man", but a man nevertheless; and secondly
that on an abstract level he symbolizes a presence, which he calls the Muhammadan Substance.
This substance is the source of Islamic spirituality, in the sense that it forms a paradigm for all
the qualities of states of consciousness which are encountered by the practising Muslims in
their journey towards God. It is characterized as a crystallization of the love of God combined
with high and noble traits which are internal - such as serenity and peace; and also qualities
which practically actualize these, such as certitude in God and fervour in doing one's
spiritual duties - and also external. It is from this Substance that life and vitality are provided to
the Path on which a practising Muslim treads. The Quran itself has a spiritual benefit that
bestows this Substance, for it is said that the character of the Prophet (SAW) was the Quran.
Saintly men of Islam, living even today, are also said to bestow this Substance in a direct and
outward manner by their company - they are so as to say, the vehicles through which this
Substance has travelled from the Prophet (SAW) to the receiver. In like manner, the salutations
and blessings sent on the prophet are also a means of assimilating this Substance and acquiring
what is known as the Barakat Muhammad, or the spiritual aura of the Prophet (SAW). At a
deeper level, when a person sends salutations and asks God to bless the Prophet (SAW), he is
actually referring to the totality of the idea of the "universal" and "whole" man (al Insaan al
Kamil) - of whom the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) as a person, is the symbol of - and thereby
esoterically, to the universal spirit within which this Substance ensconces. Since the particular
individual who is sending the salutations is an imperfect or decayed copy of the same spirit, it
follows that prayers for the benefit of the original also have an effect on himself by awakening
his true intellect, "by God and in God". This effect is the cause of the benefit obtained by the
sender, and this is in summary, the argument put forth by Schuon to resolve the mystery.

Besides the point of view of the whole man, there is another, quite interesting, manner in which
the Prophet's (SAW) nature has been understood by Schuon. This is the point of view of
him being "the ancient man" (al Insaan al Qadeem) - in the sense that he is the norm of the
primordial intellect having the perfectness of consciousness which has deviated in general
today. Man today, is the decayed form of that state whose origin is to be found in the Prophet
(SAW). It ought to be clarified here, that it is only the spiritual principle that the Prophet (SAW)
symbolized which is being talked of here, and there is no claim of the Prophet (SAW) being
ancient in the sense that he was actually present since the world began. The fact that this
principle is independent of physical notions of time is also brought out in the saying of the
Prophet (SAW), "I was a prophet when Aadam (AS) was still between water and clay", to which
Schuon adds the explanation that this refers to the time before creation (i.e. when physical time
had no meaning). Hence when the Prophet (SAW) is emulated by practicing Muslims, and Sufis
in particular, there is the yearning for a return of the same primordial intellect. Schuon also
esoterically links the idea of the primordial intellect with the historical fact that the Prophet
(SAW) was unlettered (nabi al ummi) - so that he was so to speak a blank slate; which
corresponds to the origin of things as they were before the world began. A famous Urdu
poem Shahnama e Islam, which contains a brief history of Islam, refers to the Prophet (SAW)
being the "ancient man" by first recalling that when the world was created and Aadam (AS) was
sent on it, there was a worry amongst the angels that satan will dupe man and cause all sorts of
strife. To this, the angel Jibreel (AS) replied by pointing out that the mark of the Muhammad
Substance was imprinted on man (and hence he would retain the possibility of redemption):

Nigaah ghour se dekho zara Aadam (AS) ki peshaani; Nazar aati nahi kya ek khaas ul khaas
tabaani?

Yahi woh jalwa hai pehle jis ko sijda kr chuke ho tum; Isii jalwe se damaan-e-baseerat bhar
chuke ho tum.
Nishaan-e-Islam ka Allah ne alaam mein rakha hai; Ki noor e Ahmadi (SAW) peshaani e Aadam
(AS) mein rakha hai

(Translation: ‘Look carefully at the forehead of Aadam (AS). Can’t you a special mark evident on
it? Therein is the light which you (i.e. the angels) once prostrated to. That is the very radiation
that enlightened you formerly. God has made ubiquitous Islam everywhere (through this light)
indeed. This forehead mark is nothing but the light of Ahmad (SAW) indeed.)

Another important way that the influence of the Prophet (SAW) permeates Muslim thought,
and therefore Islam in general is related to the tradition which emphasized three things that he
loved. The Prophet (SAW) stated, "Beloved to me in the world are women and perfume, yet the
delight of my eyes is in prayer." This love has permeated Islam in a profound way. Regarding the
first of these, i.e. women, the idea of women in Islam extends beyond their biological and social
role, and it is love for such 'feminine qualities' that ultimately becomes the means of
overcoming the profane mentality, egoism, and hardness in a practising Muslim. Women by
their very nature symbolize "unitive extinction" and generosity, i.e. sacrificing oneself in the way
of God and being of giving nature, and it is in this background that the feminine in Islam is
celebrated. At a deeper level, according to Schuon, the woman is "a formal projection of
merciful and infinite Inwardness in the outward" and this is the fact that bestows her a quasi-
sacramental character. It is this quality that is really behind the esoteric reality of the veil; i.e.
the treasure is important enough so as not to be accessible to all and sundry. (Some people who
misunderstand the concept behind the veil today do so because their point of view is different.
It is not our intention to discuss their viewpoint in detail, nevertheless we remark that such
people root their thinking not in the Absolute and in the corresponding inconsequentiality of
the world but instead adopt a diametrically opposite position. Our point of view focuses on
Schuon's take on the subject only, and this concerns itself with authentic classical Islam and not
with modernist, or non-Islamic opinions.)

The love of perfumes manifests itself in the Islamic way of life having an acute sense of
ambience, and more generally of formless beauty. This beauty when coupled with the
internal harmony of the Islamic character presents an image characterized by a
balance between richness and a kind of poverty peculiar to the Islamic way. Uncleanness and
noise are contrary to this balance and so mosques and traditional Muslim houses in general
have an aura of a fresh, clean and peaceful atmosphere. A related and somewhat peculiar point
in this regard is that Muslims in general do not dissociate between the concept of beauty
and love. The two things usually go together and are thought of as two different faces of the
same Reality. The Prophet (SAW) said, "All that is beautiful comes from the beauty of God" and
also "God is beautiful and He loves beauty". According to Schuon, these two sayings contain
within them the whole doctrine of the world and the love of God. Metaphysically
speaking, earthly love is but a reflection of God's love and phenomena hide behind them the
Reality of God.

We now turn to the third point, i.e. the delight of the Prophet's eyes i.e. prayer. The importance
of canonical prayer in the daily life of the practising Muslim cannot be overstated. It is an
integrated part of his or her existence and even more so, great care is taken so that the activities
of daily life revolve around it. More generally, it is the remembrance of God - either by
the canonical or supererogatory prayers, by the recitation of the Quran, or by repeatedly
reciting certain formulae, such as calling upon God by various names (asma ul husna) - which
forms the basis of the spiritual life of a practising Muslim. Schuon posits that remembrance of
God is the fundamental reason for all types of love since it is the love of the Source from which
all things are derived. Moreover, in accordance with another saying of the Prophet (SAW)
"Everything on earth is accursed except the remembrance of God", all things on earth are
accursed or perishable from the external or outward point of view, but not from the internal or
esoteric point of view wherein they actualize the remembrance of God by manifesting the
archetypes contained in the inward Divine Reality.

Remembrance of God has been strongly recommended by the Prophet (SAW) as a most worthy
action. When asked which person would receive the greatest reward from God, he is reported
to have said that the person who has remembered God the most will get the greatest reward.
Schuon claims that in fact the entirety of the Divine Law is contained in remembering God. In
support of this, he also quotes a tradition wherein one of the companions asked the Prophet
(SAW) to tell him one thing he could hold on to since he was finding various prescriptions of the
Law too numerous. In response, the Prophet (SAW) is reported to have asked him to keep his
tongue always moist with the remembrance of God. Furthermore, remembrance of
God requires virtues such as humility, generosity, truthfulness, perseverance and a disposition
to saintliness. In other words, it is the culmination of all these virtues that only makes possible,
proper remembrance of God. For example, if someone is not truthful then his remembrance will
be of defective nature. Since truth radiates from God, not being truthful means not appreciating
what comes from God and ergo not sincerely remembering his quality. Also, Schuon goes on to
posit that remembrance of God contains a doctrine of divine reciprocity in accordance with the
Quranic verse 2:152 "So remember Me, and I shall remember you." According to him, the fact
that the Essence (i.e. God) remembers man when man remembers God indicates that there is a
mysterious immanence of the Essence within the form of man. In conclusion, remembrance of
God is the most important rule of religion which is the raison d'être of the Law. The Prophet's
(SAW) saying that "The circumambulation (tawāf) around the Holy House, the passage to and
fro between (the hills of ) Safa and Marwah, and the throwing of the pebbles (at three pillars
symbolizing the devil) were ordained only for the sake of the Remembrance of God" validates
this fact.
Let us return to the Prophet (SAW) and focus this time not on his internal or esoteric substance
but on his outward character. Schuon delineates three elements: piety, combativeness
and magnanimity. Piety here refers to whole-hearted sincerity in the fundamental fact of Islam
i.e. the Absoluteness of God, to an extent that it ultimately influenced the climate of Islam
whereby there is no notion of anthropotheism. Combativeness in his character draws attention
to the strength that he possessed, which acted so as to affirm the Divine truth and which
reflected in the staunch and firm path of continuous struggle that Islam espouses. In
this context, a much-quoted saying of the Prophet (SAW), while returning from a military
expedition is that we are returning from the lesser struggle to the greater struggle; i.e. the
lesser struggle was the military expedition but the greater struggle is the struggle that one
makes on a daily basis to live life according to the prescribed way. Combativeness is neutralized
in a sense by another trait within the Prophet (SAW), that is magnanimity or generosity whose
intrinsic quality is nobility. So aggressiveness is modulated by charity and pardon and in general
noble behavior which also tends towards love of cleanliness and of aestheticism. This actually
finds its culmination in the kind of piety exhibited by the Prophet (SAW) which is marked by an
attitude of being a part of the world while being detached from it. In other words, the piety of
the Prophet (SAW) was not reflected in monkhood, in living apart and remaining engaged in
prayers all the time; but instead was reflected in continuously wrestling with the world and its
problems, while simultaneously praying, keeping fasts and observing nightly vigils. This is the
way which Islam has chosen accordingly, and hence a number of famous practicing Muslims
have been scholars, warriors, tradesmen, politicians etc. who while treading the path of Islam
have also simultaneously followed other vocations.

To further clarify the above point, perhaps it would be pertinent to quote a passage
from Mawlana Rumi's prose work Fihi Ma Fihi. In a passage intended to upbraid husbands who
were constantly seeking to reform their wives he says:

"The way of the Prophet is this: It is necessary to endure pain to help rid ourselves of
selfishness, jealousy and pride. To experience the pain of our spouses’ extravagant desires, the
pain of unfair burdens, and a hundred thousand other pains beyond all bounds, so the spiritual
path can become clear. The way of Jesus was wrestling with solitude and not gratifying lust.
The way of Mohammed is to endure the oppression and agonies inflicted by men and women
upon each other."

In other words, in Islam, in accordance with the way of the Prophet (SAW) it is not the case that
the spiritual path lies in negating or sacrificing social life. When the Prophet (SAW) was first
asked to propagate Islam he beseeched God, fearing that by going into people he would lose
the closeness he had with God. In turn, as the tradition goes, he was counselled that he would
find God with him even while amidst the people. Hence Sufis draw an analogy between living in
the world and being present in a boat in the water. Just as the water surrounds the boat but is
not present inside it, similarly the world surrounds a practising Muslim but love of the world is
not present in his heart. Outwardly, the person is supposed to do worldly tasks not normally
associated with religion, but since his heart is fixed on God, these tasks become a part of his
relationship with God. Schuon moreover here compares the spiritual character of the Prophet
(SAW) with that of a noble substance, which remains valuable, no matter the shape in which it is
cast. In like manner, no matter the actions of the Prophet (SAW), they are noble because they
are sanctified on account of stemming from him. So his marriages, military expeditions, social
interactions and speech in day-to-day life all are noble and praiseworthy.

In closing, we must say a word about the honorific attached to the name of the Prophet (SAW)
whenever he is mentioned. In Islam, it is the revelation made by God, in the form of the Quran,
to the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) which forms the bedrock of the connection between man
and God. Since the Prophet (SAW) was the channel through which this revelation occurred, and
the revelation is indeed a blessing - it shows the way out of darkness - hence the name of the
Prophet (SAW) is followed by a blessing. Further, a salutation of peace is added to the name so
as to pay him reverential homage. (When we write SAW after the name of the Prophet (SAW) in
this article it is to this very end - SAW stands for ṣallā -llāhu ʿalayhī wa-ʾālihī wa-sallam where
the ṣallā -llāhu ʿalayhī part stands for 'blessings of God be upon him and his progeny' and
the wa-sallam part stands for 'and grant him peace'.) Now blessing is a direct act of God, for it is
He who blesses; while the salutation only incurs an element of grace from God which is not as
direct as a blessing. Since the Prophet (SAW) in his character of the medium through which the
revelation occurred, caused a fulfilment of the antecedent religions (in his book Dimensions of
Islam, Schuon makes an interesting argument about how Islam synthesizes and completes
earlier monotheisms, thereby justifying why the Prophet (SAW) is the 'Seal of the Prophecy') so
his name is followed by both blessings and the salutation. On the other hand, the names of
other prophets and angels are followed by salutations only.

Epilogue: Schuon's ideas about Islam are marked by three important tendencies: one is that
they are inherently esoteric, are a product of a deeply penetrating mind, and show a marked
inclination towards spirituality. Secondly, there is the push towards traditionalism: in the sense
that he castigates modernism as having fundamentally lost the plot, that he rejects the notion
of modern society being an advancement of the pre-modern one (something for there is a
consensus in orthodox Islam also, in a particular context) and that he believes that the best the
modern seeker can do in the current situation is best served by sticking to traditional values and
commentaries which may be out of date outwardly, but inwardly contain traces of now fast
disappearing wisdom. Thirdly, despite the best of his intentions, Schuon is not able to get rid of
his inherent Western background in his writings; he is chiefly addressing Westerners - so much
so that in a lot of his writings he takes great pains to explain positions which would appear a
priory true to the Eastern reader.
At any rate, it is certain that Schuon was one of the brilliant thinkers of the preceding century; as
has been said "his writings can be ignored but not dismissed", and any serious scholar of Islam
will be well served by reading him.

Works by Schuon related to Islam used as reference for the essay:

1. Understanding Islam

2. Dimensions of Islam

3. The Essential Frithjof Schuon (Selected chapters)

4. Islamic Spirituality (Chapter "The Spiritual Significance on the Substance of the Prophet")

5. Sufism: Veil and Quintessence