TOPIC: pollination.

CLASS: Level 11.

SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Define and explain the meaning and types of pollination.
ii. Describe the features that favours self and cross pollination.
iii. Describe the characteristics of insect and wind pollinated flowers.

Step 1: Meaning and types of pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from a male part (anther) of a plant to a female part
(stigma) of a plant, enabling fertilization and the production of seeds and fruits.
In angiosperms, after the pollen grain (gametophyte) has landed on the stigma, it germinates and
develops a pollen tube which grows down the style until it reaches an ovary. Its
two gametes travel down the tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes
are held within the carpel. After entering an ovum cell through the micropyle, one male nucleus
fuses with the polar bodies to produce the endosperm tissues, while the other fuses with
the ovule to produce the embryo. Hence the term: "double fertilization". This process would
result in the production of a seed made of both nutritious tissues and embryo.
In gymnosperms, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, but exposed on the surface of a dedicated
support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the penetration of carpel tissue is unnecessary.
Details of the process vary according to the division of gymnosperms in question. Two main
modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that
swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm that are
unable to swim but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube.
Process of pollination:
Pollen germination has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen
grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced enabling it to be more easily transported
from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature
germination does not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the
pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic
membrane. Activation involves the development of actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm of
the cell, which eventually become concentrated at the point from which the pollen tube will
emerge. Hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow.
In conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones
(male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are monoecious and others dioecious. A
pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on (or borne on) reproductive structures
called sporophylls. Spore mother cells in the microsporangia divide by meiosis to form haploid
microspores that develop further by two mitotic divisions into immature male gametophytes
(pollen grains). The four resulting cells consist of a large tube cell that forms the pollen tube, a
generative cell that will produce two sperm by mitosis, and two prothallial cells that degenerate.
These cells comprise a very reduced microgametophyte, that is contained within the resistant
wall of the pollen grain.
The pollen grains are dispersed by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is made up of many
overlapping scales (sporophylls, and thus megasporophylls), each protecting two ovules, each of
which consists of a megasporangium (the nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the
integument and the cupule, that were derived from highly modified branches of ancestral
gymnosperms. When a pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule, it is drawn in
through the micropyle (a pore in the integuments covering the tip of the ovule) often by means of
a drop of liquid known as a pollination drop. The pollen enters a pollen chamber close to the
nucellus, and there it may wait for a year before it germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows
through the wall of the megasporangium (=nucellus) where fertilization takes place. During this
time, the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells, three of which
degenerate. The surviving one develops as a megaspore and divides repeatedly to form an
immature female gametophyte (egg sac). Two or three archegonia containing an egg then
develop inside the gametophyte. Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year two sperm cells are
produced by mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. The pollen tube elongates and
pierces and grows through the megasporangium wall and delivers the sperm cells to the female
gametophyte inside. Fertilization takes place when the nucleus of one of the sperm cells enters
the egg cell in the megagametophyte's archegonium.
In flowering plants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis. These undergo
mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two haploid cells. Meanwhile, the
ovules produce megaspores by meiosis, further division of these form the female gametophytes,
which are very strongly reduced, each consisting only of a few cells, one of which is the egg.
When a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it germinates, developing a pollen tube that
grows through the tissues of the style, entering the ovule through the micropyle. When the tube
reaches the egg sac, two sperm cells pass through it into the female gametophyte and fertilization
takes place.
Types of pollination:
1 Self-pollination: It is a type of pollination in which pollen grains from the same plant arrives
at the stigma of a flower (in flowering plants) or at the ovule (in gymnosperms). There are two
types of self-pollination: in autogamy, pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same flower;
in geitonogamy, pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower on the same flowering plant, or from microsporangium to ovule within a single
(monoecious) gymnosperm. Some plants have mechanisms that ensure autogamy, such as
flowers that do not open (cleistogamy), or stamens that move to come into contact with the
stigma.
Advantages of self-pollination
(i) Firstly, if a given genotype is well-suited for an environment, self-pollination helps to
keep this trait stable in the species.
(ii) Not being dependent on pollinating agents allows self-pollination to occur when bees
and wind are nowhere to be found.
(iii) Self-pollination can be an advantage when the number of flowers is small or they are
widely spaced.
(iv) During self-pollination, the pollen grains are not transmitted from one flower to another.
As a result, there is less wastage of pollen.
(v) Also, self-pollinating plants do not depend on external carriers. They also cannot make
changes in their characters and so the features of a species can be maintained with purity.
(vi) Self-pollination also helps to preserve parental characters as the gametes from the same
flower are evolved.
(vii) It is not necessary for flowers to produce nectar, scent, or to be colourful in order to
attract pollinators.
Disadvantages of self-pollination
(i) Seeds produced by self-pollination are less healthy than seeds produced by cross-
pollination.
(ii) Plants produced by self-pollination are likely to survive less when conditions of the
environment changes.
(iii) There is little or no variation among species.
(iv) The rate of evolution is slower in self-pollinated plants.
2 Cross-pollination: It is a type of pollination in which the pollen grains from the anther of
a flower is transferred to the stigma of a flower of another plant.
Cross-pollination refers to the mode of fertilization wherein the sperm from the pollen (from the
anther) of a plant is transferred to the stigma of the flower of another plant.

Advantages of cross-pollination
(i) In cross-pollination, new genotypes are produced more than in self-pollination.
(ii) It helps increase genetic diversity.
(iii) It also prevents inbreeding depression, i.e. when the biological fitness in a given
population is reduced as a result of inbreeding.
(iv) it helps reduce the probability of a plant species producing offspring subject to
disease or genetic disadvantages due to unfavorable recessive alleles. The more
diverse the genes or alleles in the gene pool, the better they are protected against
extinction.
(v) It leads to the production of more seeds.

Disadvantages of cross-pollination
(i) It is not always certain as a pollinating agent is always required, and it may or may
not be available at the suitable time.
(ii) Pollen grains have to be produced in abundance to ensure chances of pollination. This
results in lot of wastage of pollen.
(iii) It is uneconomical for plants as they have to produce flowers that are large, perfumed
and with nectar to attract insects.
Step 2: Features that favours self and cross pollination.
Features favouring self-pollination:
1. Homogamy: It is when the anthers and the stigma of a bisexual flower are being matured
at the same time. The action of self-pollination guides the plant to homozygosity,
causing a specific gene to be received from each of the parents leading to the possession
of two exact formats of that gene. This condition favours self-pollination in the following
ways;
(i) The filaments of the anthers may bind and bring the anthers near the stigmas e.g.
Four O’clock plant (Mirabilis), or in other, the stigmas bind to touch the matured
anthers e.g., Sunflower and Hibiscus flower.
(ii) In tubular flowers, e.g., Periwinkle plant (Vinca) and Ixora, the anthers are
arranged at the mouth of the corolla (petals) tube. As the carpels matures, the
stigma pushes their way out through the tube, brushing against the matured
anthers as they do so.

2. Cleistogamy: It is a type of automatic self-pollination of certain plants that can be

propagated by using non-opening, self-pollinating bisexual flowers. Especially well
known in peanuts, peas, and pansy. This feature is most widespread in the grass family.
However, the largest genus of cleistogamous plants is Viola.
 Cleistogamy has the advantage that the plant produces assured seed set even in the
absence of pollinators and disadvantage is that self-pollination occur which reduces
chances of variation and evolution of genetically superior progeny.

Features favouring cross-pollination:

1. Unisexuality: A flower that possesses either stamens or carpels but not both. A plant
may be unisexual (dioecious), e.g. pawpaw plant possessing only male flowers or female
flowers; or it may be monoecious with male and female reproductive organs borne in the
same flower or in different unisexual flowers but on the same plant. Unisexuality aid
cross-pollination. In monoecious plants, like pumpkin, oil palm and maize, it is difficult
for cross-pollination to occur.

2. Dichogamy: Dichogamy is a condition in which the maturity time of the androecium and
gynoecium differs. Sometimes the male organ matures first and sometimes the female.
So, self-pollination is prevented. During this time if pollen grains of another plant of the
 same species fall on the stigma of the dichotomous flower, then pollination will occur
which is cross pollination. So dichogamy favours cross pollination. The condition of
flowers whose male parts mature before the female ones is known as protandry and
protogyny is the condition in which the female reproductive organs (carpels) of a flower
mature before the male ones (stamens), thereby ensuring that self-fertilization does not
occur.

3. Self-incompatibility or self-sterility: It is a condition in which some plants make

themselves sterile. The presence of pollen grains of a flower has no fertilizing effect on
the stigma of the same flower. However, when pollen grains come from other plants,
fertilization can take place in such a plant. E.g., passion flower (Passiflora). Tea, and
Mallow (Malva).

4. Heterostyly: It is a genetic polymorphism in which flowers differ between individual

plants of a species in heights at which the stamens and style are positioned. Distylous
species have short- and long-style flowers, and long and short anthers, respectively.
 5. Herkogamy: The spatial separation of sexual organs within flowers, is a widespread
floral mechanism that is thought to be an adaptive trait reducing self-pollination in
hermaphroditic plants. E.g. Bleeding heart (Clerodendrum thomsonae).

Step 3: Agents of pollination.

Pollinators range from physical agents, especially the wind (wind pollination is called
anemophily), water (hydophily) or biotic agents such as insects, birds, bats and other animals
(pollination by insects is called entomophily, by birds ornithophily, by bats chiropterophily).
Characteristics of insect pollinated flower: Insect pollinated flowers are called entomophilous
flower. They have the following features:
(i) Insect-pollinated flowers are often sweetly-scented.
(ii) They are large and have brightly colored petals.
(iii) They usually contain nectar- to attract insects.
(iv) They have pollen grains that are often sticky and spiky so that they can stick to the
legs and body of insects.
(v) The flowers are bisexual.
(vi) The flowers are usually scented.
(vii) They usually show elaborate structural modifications.
 (viii) The stamen lies within the flowers.
(ix) The stigmas are usually enclosed within the flower.
(x) Anthers produces little quantity of pollen grains.
Characteristics of wind pollinated flower: Wind pollinated flowers are called anemophilous
flower. They have the following features:
(i) They have an inconspicuous petals and sepals.
(ii) They are scentless.
(iii) They have no nectary. i.e., they do not produce nectar.
(iv) Their calyx and are reduced to perianth segment or sometimes absent.
(v) Their anthers are comparatively large and loosely attached to long filaments which
are freely exposed to the air.
(vi) The male inflorescence is usually in an upper most position where there is no obstacle
to wind action.
(vii) The anthers produce large quantities of pollen grains, most of which is wasted since
pollination by wind cannot be controlled.
(viii) The pollen grains are usually tiny, light and smooth (powdery) so that they can easily
be carried by air current.
(ix) The styles are elongated to keep the stigmas in the best position to receive the pollen
grains.
(x) The stigmas are large, feathery and or with sticky surfaces to retain any pollen grain
which falls on them.
TOPIC: Fruits.
CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Define and explain the meaning and structure of fruit.
ii. Describe the classes of fruits.
iii. Describe the agents of dispersal of fruits and seeds.
Step 1: Meaning and structure of fruit
A fruit is the fleshy or dry ripened ovary of a flowering plant, enclosing the seed or seeds.
Thus, apricots, bananas, and grapes, as well as bean pods, corn grains, tomatoes, cucumbers, and
(in their shells) acorns and almonds, are all technically fruits.
Botanically, a fruit is a mature ovary and its associated parts. It usually contains seeds, which
have developed from the enclosed ovule after fertilization, although development
without fertilization, called parthenocarpy, is known, for example, in bananas. Fertilization
induces various changes in a flower: the anthers and stigma wither, the petals drop off, and the
sepals may be shed or undergo modifications; the ovary enlarges, and the ovules develop into
seeds, each containing an embryo plant. The principal purpose of the fruit is the protection
and dispersal of the seed.
Fruits are important sources of dietary fibre, vitamins (especially vitamin C), and antioxidants.
Although fresh fruits are subject to spoilage, their shelf life can be extended by refrigeration or
by the removal of oxygen from their storage or packaging containers. Fruits can be processed
into juices, jams, and jellies and preserved by dehydration, canning, fermentation, and pickling.

Structure of the fruit:

A fruit results from the fertilizing and maturing of one or more flowers; the gynoecium of the
flower(s) forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary(ies) are one or more ovules where
a megagametophyte —the female gametophyte, also called the embryo sac— produces an egg
cell for the purpose of fertilization. After double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds.
The ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination, which involves the movement
of pollen from the stamens to the stigma-style-ovary system within the flower-head. After
pollination, a pollen tube grows from the (deposited) pollen through the stigma down the style
into the ovary to the ovule; two sperm are transferred from the pollen to a megagametophyte.
Within the megagametophyte one sperm unites with the egg, forming a zygote, while the second
sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, completing the double
fertilization process. Later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm
mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo.
Position of insertion of the ovary at the base of a flower: I superior; II half-inferior; III inferior.
The 'insertion point' is where the androecium parts (a), the petals (p), and the sepals (s) all
converge and attach to the receptacle (r). (Ovary= gynoecium (g).)
As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, the pericarp, may
become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or it may form a hard outer covering (as in nuts). In
some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which a fleshy structure develops is proportional to the
number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers
called the exocarp (outer layer, also called epicarp), mesocarp (middle layer),
and endocarp (inner layer).
In some fruits the sepals, petals, stamens and/or the style of the flower fall off as the fleshy fruit
ripens. In other cases, especially for simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary —one that
lies below the attachment of other floral parts, other parts of the flower, (including petals, sepals,
and stamens) fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. When floral parts other than the ovary are a
significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit.
Step 2: Classification of fruit (types)
Consistent with the three modes of fruit development plant scientists have classified fruits into
three main groups: simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and composite or multiple fruits. The
groupings reflect how the flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop; they are not
evolutionarily relevant as diverse plant taxa may be in the same group.
1. Simple fruit

A dry simple fruit: milkweed (Asclepias syriaca); dehiscence of the follicular fruit reveals seeds
within.
A fruit, classified as simple, always develops from a single ovary containing one or more carpels
and may or may not include additional modified accessory floral structures. Simple fruits are
either fleshy or dry. Dry fruits are classified as either dehiscent or indehiscent. Dry
dehiscent fruits crack open along two seams and shed their seeds into the environment when the
fruit is ripe. We will examine three common kinds of dry fruit. Types of dry simple fruits (and
examples) include:
Simple Dry Dehiscent Fruits
1. The Legume

The legume splits along two lines of dehiscence following maturation and drying. The legume
type fruit is derived from a simple ovary (one carpel) with two rows of ovules. This type of fruit
structure is characteristic of peas, beans and peanuts. The peanut is one of the few legumes that
does not split open when ripe. This is probably because the fruit of the peanut develops in the
soil rather than in the air.

2. The Capsule

The capsule is another type of dry dehiscent fruit. Unlike the legume, the capsule is composed of
more than one carpel. Fruits like the lily split length-wise into sections corresponding to the number
of carpels. The Sweet Gum fruit, being a cluster of capsules, releases winged seeds as each ovary
cracks open at maturity.
3. The Follicle
Columbine and milkweed plants produce fruit that is known as a follicle. Fruit of the Follicle
type develop from a single ripened ovary and split once to release their seeds. The split is always
lengthwise, along one edge of the carpel. Legumes you remember split along two edges of the
carpel. Follicles may occur singly (milkweed) or in clusters (columbine). When the fruit opens it
resembles a dry leaf and reminds us that carpels are modified leaves that first produce spores,
then gametes and finally seeds.

Simple Dry Indehiscent Fruit

1. The Achene
The achene consists of a single seed that is attached to the wall of the ovary at only one point.
The wall of the mature ovary is also thin and undeveloped so when it dries out the fruit formed
has a seed-like appearance. Examples of achenes include sunflowers, dandelions and
buckwheat. Do not be confused to learn that the sunflower "seed" is actually a fruit. Remove
the dried-up wall of the fruit and the sunflower seed is found underneath.

2. The Grain

If the wall of the dry indehiscent fruit is thin, transparent and firmly attached to all points of the
seed coat the fruit is a grain. Grain type fruits are produced by members of the grass family
which include important food crops such as rice, corn and wheat.
3. The Samara
The Samara is a wind-borne fruit containing a single seed. It is much like an achene except for
the paper-like wing which develops from the ovary wall of the flower. Winged Samara fruits
are characteristic of elms, maples and ashes.

4. The Nut

Except for its larger size, the nut is very similar in structure to the achene. In nuts such as the
acorn and chestnut the shell is the coat of the fruit. It, the coat, develops from the ovary wall
after fertilization. Some nuts have a husk covering the hard shell. In this case the husk is
formed from the outer layer of the ovary wall and the hard coat of the nut is formed from the
 inner layer of the ovary wall. Walnuts and pecans are examples of the later type of maturation.

Aggregate fruit

Raspberry

Lilium unripe capsule fruit; an aggregate fruit.

An aggregate fruit is also called an etaerio; it develops from a single flower that presents
numerous simple pistils. Each pistil contains one carpel; together they form a fruitlet. The
ultimate development of the aggregation of pistils as fruitlets is called an aggregate fruit, etaerio
fruit, or simply an etaerio.
Four types of aggregate fruits can present four different etaerios, such as achenes, drupelets,
follicles, and berries. For example, the Ranunculaceae species,
including Clematis and Ranunculus, presents an etaerio of achenes; the Rubus species including
raspberry: drupelets; Calotropis species: follicles; Annona species: berries.
Some other broadly recognized species and their etaerios are:
 Teasel; fruit is an aggregation of cypselas.
 Tuliptree; fruit is an aggregation of samaras.
 Magnolia and peony; fruit is an aggregation of follicles.
 American sweet gum; fruit is an aggregation of capsules.
 Sycamore; fruit is an aggregation of achenes.
The raspberry; the pistils are called drupelets because each pistil is like a small drupe attached to
the receptacle. In some bramble fruits such as blackberry the receptacle elongates and also
develops as part of the fruit, called an accessory part, making the blackberry an aggregate-
accessory fruit. The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, of which the seeds are
contained in achenes. In all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower with
numerous pistils.
Multiple fruits

The fruit of a pineapple includes tissue from the sepals as well as the pistils of many
flowers. It is a multiple-accessory fruit.
A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster, 'a multiple', of flowers —(called an inflorescence).
Each flower produces a single fruitlet, but as they mature they all merge into one mass of fruit.
Examples are the pineapple, fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.
Table of fleshy fruit examples

Types of fleshy fruits

Multi
Hesperi Accessor
True berry Pepo Aggregate fruit ple
dium y fruit
fruit

Apple, R
Banana, Blackcurrant, Blueber Fig, H ose
ry, Chili Cucumb Grapefr Boysenberry, Liliu edge hip, Ston
pepper, Cranberry, Eggplant, G er, Gour uit, Lem m, Magnolia, Rasp apple, e
ooseberry, Grape, Guava, Kiwi d, Melon on, Lim berry, Pawpaw, Bl Mulbe fruit, Pine
fruit, Lucuma, Pomegranate, R , Pumpki e, Oran ackberry, Strawber rry, Pi apple, Bl
edcurrant, Tomato, Watermelo n ge ry neappl ackberry,
n e Strawberr
y

Step 3: Dispersal of Fruits and seeds

After the maturation of fruits, an abscission layer is formed at the point of attachment of the
fruits to the stems. This layer later dries up and the fruits drop from the plant. Sometimes the
fruits split up to release the seeds before the fruit walls finally drop. The pericarps of indehiscent
fruits have to decay off before their seeds are exposed to conditions necessary for germination.
Supposing that all the fruits and seeds formed in a plant dropped to the ground just below the
parent plant, and that all the seeds germinated, the area would easily become overcrowded. Very
serious competition will set in between the young plants and their parents. The plants compete
for nutrients, water, light and space. The young plants are likely to die soon after. To avoid
such adverse situations, the fruits and the seeds of many plants have got certain means by which
they can be carried to different directions, some distance from the parent plants. The scattering of
fruits and seeds to different directions from the parent plants is known as dispersal.

Advantages of Dispersal of fruits and seeds

Fruits and seeds are dispersed:
1. To prevent overcrowding of plants
2. To reduce the degree of unhealthy competitions between plants
3. To introduce the plant species into new environments where they may be better adapted.

Agents of Dispersal
Fruits and seeds can be dispersed:
1. By wind
2. By animals (including man)
3. By water
4. By explosive mechanism or explosion.
Fruits and seeds are especially adapted to suit their dispersal by any of these agents. It is either
the fruits which are dispersed while the seeds are still enclosed in them, or for the dehiscent
fruits, the fruits break up to liberate the seeds which are dispersed along. Their various structural
adaptations are designed to carry them over a short or long distance from the parent plants.
ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the evolution of pollination methods.
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. What is a fruit?
2. Discuss the classes of fruit.
3. Describe the agents of dispersal of fruits and seeds.
.
TOPIC: Sense organs
CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Describe the organ of smell, its structure and functions.
ii. Describe the organ of taste, its structure and functions.
iii. Describe the organ of touch, its structure and functions.
Introduction
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering
information about the world and responding to stimuli. Although traditionally around five human
senses were known (namely sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing), it is now recognized that
there are many more. Senses used by other non-human organisms are even greater in variety and
number. During sensation, sense organs collect various stimuli (such as a sound or smell)
for transduction, meaning transformation into a form that can be understood by the brain.
Sensation and perception are fundamental to nearly every aspect of an
organism's cognition, behavior and thought.
In organisms, a sensory organ consists of a group of interrelated sensory cells that respond to a
specific type of physical stimulus. Via cranial and spinal nerves, the different types of sensory
receptor cells (such as mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors) in
sensory organs transduces sensory information from these organs towards the central nervous
system, finally arriving at the sensory cortices in the brain, where sensory signals are processed
and interpreted (perceived).
Sensory systems, or senses, are often divided into external (exteroception) and internal
(interoception) sensory systems. Human external senses are based on the sensory organs of
the eyes, ears, skin, nose, and mouth. Internal sensation detects stimuli from internal organs and
tissues. Internal senses possessed by humans include the vestibular system (sense of
balance) sensed by the inner ear, as well as others such as spatial orientation, proprioception
(body position) and nociception (pain). Further internal senses lead to signals such
as hunger, thirst, suffocation, and nausea, or different involuntary behaviors, such
as vomiting. Some animals are able to detect electrical and magnetic fields, air moisture,
or polarized light, while others sense and perceive through alternative systems, such
as echolocation. Sensory modalities or sub modalities are different ways sensory information is
encoded or transduced.
Step 1: Organ of smell
The sense of smell, or olfaction, is the special sense through which smells (or odours) are
perceived. The sense of smell has many functions, including detecting hazards, and pheromones,
and plays a role in taste.
It occurs when an odour binds to a receptor within the nasal cavity, transmitting a signal through
the olfactory system. Glomeruli aggregate signals from these receptors and transmit them to
the olfactory bulb, where the sensory input will start to interact with parts of the brain
responsible for smell identification, memory, and emotion. There are many different causes for
alteration, lack, or disturbance to a normal sense of smell, and can include damage to the nose or
smell receptors, or central problems affecting the brain. Some causes include upper respiratory
infections, traumatic brain injury, and neurodegenerative disease.
In vertebrates, smells are sensed by olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium. The
olfactory epithelium is made up of at least six morphologically and biochemically different cell
types. The proportion of olfactory epithelium compared to respiratory epithelium (not
innervated, or supplied with nerves) gives an indication of the animal's olfactory sensitivity.
Humans have about 10 cm2 (1.6 sq in) of olfactory epithelium, whereas some dogs have
170 cm2 (26 sq in). A dog's olfactory epithelium is also considerably more densely innervated,
with a hundred times more receptors per square centimeter. Molecules of odourants passing
through the superior nasal concha of the nasal passages dissolve in the mucus that lines the
superior portion of the cavity and are detected by olfactory receptors on the dendrites of the
olfactory sensory neurons. This may occur by diffusion or by the binding of the odourant
to odourant-binding proteins.The mucus overlying the epithelium contains mucopolysaccharides,
salts, enzymes, and antibodies (these are highly important, as the olfactory neurons provide a
direct passage for infection to pass to the brain). This mucus acts as a solvent for odour
molecules, flows constantly, and is replaced approximately every ten minutes.
 The olfactory system
Structure:
The peripheral olfactory system consists mainly of the nostrils, ethmoid bone, nasal cavity, and
the olfactory epithelium (layers of thin tissue covered in mucus that line the nasal cavity). The
primary components of the layers of epithelial tissue are the mucous membranes, olfactory
glands, olfactory neurons, and nerve fibers of the olfactory nerves.
Odor molecules can enter the peripheral pathway and reach the nasal cavity either through the
nostrils when inhaling (olfaction) or through the throat when the tongue pushes air to the back of
the nasal cavity while chewing or swallowing (retro-nasal olfaction). Inside the nasal cavity,
mucus lining the walls of the cavity dissolves odor molecules. Mucus also covers the olfactory
epithelium, which contains mucous membranes that produce and store mucus and olfactory
glands that secrete metabolic enzymes found in the mucus.

Function:
The major function of the organ of smell (olfactory system) is to detect chemical substances that
are diffused in air.
Step 2: Organ of taste.
The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth of a typical vertebrate. It manipulates food
for mastication and swallowing as part of the digestive process, and is the primary organ of taste.
The tongue's upper surface (dorsum) is covered by taste buds housed in numerous lingual
papillae. It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva and is richly supplied with nerves and blood
vessels. The tongue also serves as a natural means of cleaning the teeth. A major function of the
tongue is the enabling of speech in humans and vocalization in other animals.
Structure:
The human tongue is divided into two parts, an oral part at the front and a pharyngeal part at the
back. The left and right sides are also separated along most of its length by a vertical section
of fibrous tissue (the lingual septum) that results in a groove, the median sulcus, on the tongue's
surface. There are two groups of muscles of the tongue. The four intrinsic muscles alter the shape
of the tongue and are not attached to bone. The four paired extrinsic muscles change the position
of the tongue and are anchored to bone.

There are four primary tastes, salty, sweet, sour and bitter. A potential fifth primary taste
molecule mono-sodium-glutamate induces savoury taste or umami, which has been suggested by
some sensory physiologists.
Each of the 10,000 taste buds on the upper surface of the tongue, the lips and the throat respond
in varying degrees to the four primary tastes, but generally respond to one taste is more than the
others.
Taste buds that respond most to sweet taste are grouped on the tip of the tongue, salty and sour
taste buds are along the sides of the tongue, while taste buds for bitter taste are at the back of the
tongue.

Step 3: Organ of touch.

The human skin is the outer covering of the body and is the largest organ of the integumentary
system. The skin has up to seven layers of ectodermal tissue and guards the
underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs. Human skin is similar to most of the
other mammals' skin, and it is very similar to pig skin. Though nearly all human skin is covered
with hair follicles, it can appear hairless. There are two general types of skin, hairy and glabrous
skin (hairless). Because it interfaces with the environment, skin plays an
important immunity role in protecting the body against pathogens and excessive water loss. Its
other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, synthesis of vitamin D, and the
protection of vitamin B folates. Severely damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue.
This is often discoloured and depigmented.
In humans, skin pigmentation varies among populations, and skin type can range from dry to
non-dry and from oily to non-oily. Such skin variety provides a rich and diverse habitat
for bacteria.
Structure:
Skin is composed of three primary layers: the epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis.
Epidermis
Epidermis, "epi" coming from the Greek meaning "over" or "upon", is the outermost layer of the
skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body's surface which also serves as a
barrier to infection and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying basal
lamina.
The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished almost
exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air and to a far lesser degree by blood
capillaries extending to the outer layers of the dermis. The main type of cells that make up the
epidermis are Merkel cells, keratinocytes, with melanocytes and Langerhans cells also present.
The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following strata (beginning with the outermost
layer): corneum, lucidum (only in palms of hands and bottoms of feet), granulosum, spinosum,
and basale. Cells are formed through mitosis at the basale layer. The daughter cells move up the
strata changing shape and composition as they die due to isolation from their blood source. The
cytoplasm is released and the protein keratin is inserted. They eventually reach the corneum and
slough off (desquamation). This process is called "keratinization". This keratinized layer of skin
is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals
and pathogens out, making skin a natural barrier to infection.
Dermis
The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and
cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by
a basement membrane. It also harbours many nerve endings that provide the sense of touch and
heat. It contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, apocrine glands, lymphatic
vessels and blood vessels. The blood vessels in the dermis provide nourishment and waste
removal from its own cells as well as from the stratum basale of the epidermis.
Subcutaneous tissue
The subcutaneous tissue (also hypodermis and subcutis) is not part of the skin, but lies below the
dermis of the cutis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as
supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue
and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (subcutaneous
tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.
Functions:
Skin performs the following functions:
1. Protection: An anatomical barrier from pathogens and damage between the
internal and external environment in bodily defence; Langerhans cells in the skin
are part of the adaptive immune system. Perspiration contains lysozyme that
break the bonds within the cell walls of bacteria.
2. Sensation: Contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat and cold, touch,
pressure, vibration, and tissue injury; see somatosensory system and haptics.
3. Heat regulation: The skin contains a blood supply far greater than its
requirements which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection
and conduction. Dilated blood vessels increase perfusion and heat loss, while
constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat.
4. Control of evaporation: The skin provides a relatively dry and semi-
impermeable barrier to fluid loss. Loss of this function contributes to the massive
fluid loss in burns.
5. Aesthetics and communication: Others see our skin and can assess our mood,
physical state and attractiveness.
6. Storage and synthesis: Acts as a storage centre for lipids and water, as well as a
means of synthesis of vitamin D by action of UV on certain parts of the skin.
7. Excretion: Sweat contains urea, however its concentration is 1/130th that
of urine, hence excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to
temperature regulation.
 8. Absorption: The cells comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40 mm of the skin is
"almost exclusively supplied by external oxygen", although the "contribution to
total respiration is negligible". In addition, medicine can be administered through
the skin, by ointments or by means of adhesive patch, such as the nicotine
patch or iontophoresis. The skin is an important site of transport in many other
organisms.
9. Water resistance: The skin acts as a water-resistant barrier so essential nutrients
are not washed out of the body.
ASSIGNMENT: 1. Discuss how skin prevent pathogens from entering the body. 2. How does
nose and tongue differentiates different chemicals in the air and in food? 3. Discuss how the
olfactory system distinguishes different odours.
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. Describe the organ of smell
2. Discuss the role of the tongue in sensation.
3. Describe the functions of the skin.

TOPIC: Sense organs

CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Describe the organ of sound, its structure and functions.
ii. Describe the organ of sight, its structure and parts.
iii. Describe the defects of the eye and their corrections.
Step 1: Organ of sound.
The ear is the organ that enables hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is
usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer
ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the
ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone. The middle ear
includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles. The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and
contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable
balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when
stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat
symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation.
The ear may be affected by disease, including infection and traumatic damage. Diseases of the
ear may lead to hearing loss, tinnitus and balance disorders such as vertigo, although many of
these conditions may also be affected by damage to the brain or neural pathways leading from
the ear.

Structure:
The human ear consists of three parts—the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. The ear canal of
the outer ear is separated from the air-filled tympanic cavity of the middle ear by the eardrum.
The middle ear contains the three small bones—the ossicles—involved in the transmission of
sound, and is connected to the throat at the nasopharynx, via the pharyngeal opening of
the Eustachian tube. The inner ear contains the otolith organs—the utricle and saccule—and
the semicircular canals belonging to the vestibular system, as well as the cochlea of the auditory
system.

Outer ear
The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the fleshy visible pinna (also called
the auricle), the ear canal, and the outer layer of the eardrum (also called the tympanic
membrane).
The pinna consists of the curving outer rim called the helix, the inner curved rim called
the antihelix, and opens into the ear canal. The hollow region in front of the ear canal is called
the concha. The ear canal stretches for about 1 inch (2.5 cm). The first part of the canal is
surrounded by cartilage, while the second part near the eardrum is surrounded by bone. This
bony part is known as the auditory bulla and is formed by the tympanic part of the temporal
bone. The skin surrounding the ear canal contains ceruminous and sebaceous glands that produce
protective ear wax. The ear canal ends at the external surface of the eardrum.
The pinna consists of a single piece of elastic cartilage with a complicated relief on its inner
surface and a fairly smooth configuration on its posterior surface.

Middle ear

The middle ear

The middle ear lies between the outer ear and the inner ear. It consists of an air-filled cavity
called the tympanic cavity and includes the three ossicles and their attaching ligaments;
the auditory tube; and the round and oval windows. The ossicles are three small bones that
function together to receive, amplify, and transmit the sound from the eardrum to the inner ear.
The ossicles are the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup). The stapes is the
smallest named bone in the body. The middle ear also connects to the upper throat at
the nasopharynx via the pharyngeal opening of the Eustachian tube.
The three ossicles transmit sound from the outer ear to the inner ear. The malleus receives
vibrations from sound pressure on the eardrum, where it is connected at its longest part (the
manubrium or handle) by a ligament. It transmits vibrations to the incus, which in turn transmits
the vibrations to the small stapes bone. The wide base of the stapes rests on the oval window. As
the stapes vibrates, vibrations are transmitted through the oval window, causing movement of
fluid within the cochlea.
The round window allows for the fluid within the inner ear to move. As the stapes pushes
the secondary tympanic membrane, fluid in the inner ear moves and pushes the membrane of the
round window out by a corresponding amount into the middle ear. The ossicles help amplify
sound waves by nearly 15–20 times.

Inner ear

The outer ear receives sound, transmitted through the ossicles of the middle ear to the inner ear,
where it is converted to a nervous signal in the cochlear and transmitted along
the vestibulocochlear nerve.

The inner ear sits within the temporal bone in a complex cavity called the bony labyrinth. A
central area known as the vestibule contains two small fluid-filled recesses, the utricle and
saccule. These connect to the semicircular canals and the cochlea. There are three semicircular
canals angled at right angles to each other which are responsible for dynamic balance. The
cochlea is a spiral shell-shaped organ responsible for the sense of hearing. These structures
together create the membranous labyrinth.
The bony labyrinth refers to the bony compartment which contains the membranous labyrinth,
contained within the temporal bone. The inner ear structurally begins at the oval window, which
receives vibrations from the incus of the middle ear. Vibrations are transmitted into the inner ear
into a fluid called endolymph, which fills the membranous labyrinth. The endolymph is situated
in two vestibules, the utricle and saccule, and eventually transmits to the cochlea, a spiral-shaped
structure. The cochlea consists of three fluid-filled spaces: the vestibular duct, the cochlear duct,
and the tympanic duct. Hair cells responsible for transduction—changing mechanical changes
into electrical stimuli are present in the organ of Corti in the cochlea.

Functions:
Hearing
Sound waves travel through the outer ear, are modulated by the middle ear, and are transmitted
to the vestibulocochlear nerve in the inner ear. This nerve transmits information to the temporal
lobe of the brain, where it is registered as sound.
Balance
Providing balance, when moving or stationary, is also a central function of the ear. The ear
facilitates two types of balance: static balance, which allows a person to feel the effects
of gravity, and dynamic balance, which allows a person to sense acceleration.
Ear Conditions
1. Earache: Pain in the ear can have many causes. Some of these are serious, some are not
serious.
2. Otitis media (middle ear inflammation): Inflammation or infection of the middle ear (behind
the eardrum). Usually, this is caused by an infection.
3. Swimmer’s ear (Otitis externa): Inflammation or infection of the outer ear (pinna and ear
canal). Sudden cases are usually infections; chronic otitis is often a skin condition
(dermatitis).
4. Meniere’s disease: A condition in which the inner ear on one side malfunctions. Vertigo,
tinnitus, hearing loss, and pain are common symptoms.
5. Tinnitus: Ringing in one or both ears. Usually this is due to damage from noise exposure, or
from aging.
6. Cerumen (ear wax) impaction: Ear wax may block the ear canal and adhere to the eardrum.
The eardrum’s reduced vibrations impair hearing.
7. Ruptured eardrum: Very loud noises, sudden changes in air pressure, infection, or foreign
objects can tear the eardrum. The small haole usually heals within a few weeks.
8. Acoustic neuroma: A noncancerous tumor that grows on the nerve traveling from the ear to
the brain. Hearing loss, vertigo, and tinnitus can be symptoms.
9. Mastoiditis: Infection of the mastoid bone, just behind the ear. Mastoiditis can result from
untreated middle ear infections.
10. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV): A disruption of function in the inner ear,
causing episodes of vertigo. Although not medically serious, its symptoms can be distressing.
11. Cholesteatoma: This is a benign condition. It is the abnormal buildup of skin within the
middle ear and surrounding bones. Often there is a foul-smelling discharge associated with
hearing loss. The condition usually requires surgery in order to prevent hearing loss.
Care for ear
1. Do not insert anything into your ears
2. Clean your ears safely
3. See your audiologist regularly
4. Apply sunscreen to your ears when outdoors
5. Wear hearing protection in noisy environments
6. Take precautions during air travel
7. Keep your hearing aids dry and clean
Step 2: Organ of sight.
Structure:
Human eyes are roughly spherical organs located in the eye sockets, or orbits, cavities formed by
the bones of the skull. The eye is attached to the orbit by six small muscles that control eye
movement.
The Sclera and Cornea. The wall of the human eye consists of three layers. The outermost is
a durable fibrous layer, which consists of the sclera, the white of the eye, and the cornea, the
clear part in front, which lets light into the interior of the eye. Tendons of the extrinsic eye
muscles attach to the sclera.
The Choroid, Ciliary Body, and Iris. The middle layer consists of three parts: the choroid, the
ciliary body, and the iris. The choroid is the largest portion of the middle layer. It contains a
large amount of melanin, a pigment that absorbs stray light the way the black interior of a camera
does. The blood vessels of the choroid supply nutrients to the eye. Anteriorly, the choroid forms
the ciliary body. The ciliary body contains smooth muscle fibers that control the shape of the
lens. Like the lens of a camera, it permits us to focus incoming light. This helps us view objects
at different distances. The iris is the colored portion of the eye visible through the cornea.
Looking in a mirror, you can see a dark opening in the iris called the pupil. The pupil allows
light to penetrate the eye. The blackness you see through the pupil is the choroid layer and the
pigmented section of the retina. Like the ciliary body, the iris contains smooth muscle cells. The
smooth muscle of the iris regulates the diameter of the pupil. Opening the pupil lets more light
in; narrowing it reduces the amount of light that enters. The pupils open and close reflexively in
response to light intensity. This reflex is an adaptation that protects the light-sensitive inner
layer, the retina. It also allows more light rays to enter to improve vision in dark conditions and
restricts light when too much is present, protecting the eye from damage.
The Retina, Rods, and Cones. The innermost layer of the eye is the retina. The retina consists
of an outer, pigmented layer and an inner layer consisting of photoreceptors (modified nerve
cells that detect light) and associated nerve cells. The retina is weakly attached to the choroid and
can become separated from it as a result of trauma to the head. A detached retina can lead to
blindness if not quickly repaired by laser surgery. The photoreceptors of the retina are highly
modified nerve cells. Two types of photoreceptors are present in the retina: rods and cones. The
rods, so named because of their shape, are sensitive to low light. Rods function at night and
produce grayish, somewhat vague, black-and-white images. The cones, also named because of
their shape, operate only in brighter light. They are responsible for visual acuity—sharp vision—
and color vision. The rods and cones synapse with the bipolar neurons in the retina. These, in
turn, synapse with ganglion cells, also located in the retina. The axons of the ganglion cells unite
at the back of the eye in a central location to form the optic nerve. Because this area contains no
photoreceptors, it is insensitive to light. Eye doctors call this the blind spot. The blood vessels
that enter and leave the eye do so with the optic nerve. Rods and cones are found throughout the
retina, but the rods are most abundant. There are an estimated 150 million rods in each eye and
only about 6 million cones. However, the cones are concentrated in a tiny region of each eye. In
the center of this region is a small depression, about the size of the head of a pin, known as the
fovea centralis, which contains only cones. The sharpest vision occurs at the fovea because
cones are responsible for visual acuity. The number of cones in the retina decreases
progressively from the fovea outward, whereas the number of rods increases. The greatest
concentration of rods thus is found in the periphery of the retina. Images from our visual field are
cast onto the retina, creating bioelectric impulses that are transmitted to the visual cortex of the
brain. Some processing of the image occurs in the retina. The rest takes place in the brain.
 The Retina (a) Cross section through the wall of the eye, showing (b)
arrangement of the cellular components of the retina. (c) The structure of
the rods and cones.
The Lens. Light is focused on the retina by the lens. The lens is a transparent, flexible structure
that lies behind the iris. The lens is attached to the ciliary body by thin fibers. This connection
allows the smooth muscle of the ciliary body to alter the shape of the lens, an action necessary
for focusing the eye. As we age, the lens may develop cloudy spots, or cataracts, that obstruct
vision. This condition is most commonly encountered in people who have been exposed to
excessive ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, although other factors may also be responsible for the
disease, including genetics. The lens separates the interior of the eye into two cavities of unequal
size. Everything in front of the lens is the anterior chamber; everything behind it is the
posterior chamber. The posterior cavity is filled with a clear, gelatinous material, the vitreous
humor. The anterior cavity contains a thin liquid, chemically similar to blood plasma, called the
aqueous humor (“watery fluid”). The aqueous humor provides nutrients to the cornea and lens
and carries away cellular wastes. In normal, healthy individuals, aqueous humor production is
balanced by absorption. If the outflow is blocked, however, the aqueous humor builds up inside
the anterior chamber, creating internal pressure. This disease, called glaucoma, progresses
gradually and imperceptibly. If untreated, the pressure inside the eye can damage the retina and
optic nerve, causing blindness.
Accommodation and binocular vision:
The ability of the eye to change its focus from distant to near objects (and vice versa).
This process is achieved by the lens changing its shape. Accommodation is the adjustment of the
optics of the eye to keep an object in focus on the retina as its distance from the eye varies. It is
the process of adjusting the focal length of a lens.

Binocular vision: The ability to maintain visual focus on an object with both eyes, creating a
single visual image. Lack of binocular vision is normal in infants. Adults without binocular
vision experience distortions in depth perception and visual measurement of distance.
Advantages of having two eyes rather than just one:
1. It gives a creature a "spare eye" in case one is damaged.
2. It gives a wider field of view. For example, humans have a maximum horizontal field of
view of approximately 190 degrees with two eyes, approximately 120 degrees of which
makes up the binocular field of view (seen by both eyes) flanked by two uniocular fields
(seen by only one eye) of approximately 40 degrees.
3. It can give stereopsis in which binocular disparity (or parallax) provided by the two eyes'
different positions on the head gives precise depth perception. This also allows a creature
to break the camouflage of another creature.
4. It allows the angles of the eyes' lines of sight, relative to each other (vergence), and those
lines relative to a particular object (gaze angle) to be determined from the images in the
two eyes. These properties are necessary for the third advantage.
5. It allows a creature to see more of, or all of, an object behind an obstacle.
6. It gives binocular summation in which the ability to detect faint objects is enhanced.
Step 3: Defects of the eye:

Myopia (nearsightedness): This is a defect of vision in which far objects appear blurred but near
objects are seen clearly. The image is focused in front of the retina rather than on it usually
because the eyeball is too long or the refractive power of the eye’s lens too strong. Myopia can
be corrected by wearing glasses/contacts with concave lenses these help to focus the image on
the retina.

Hyperopia (farsightedness): This is a defect of vision in which there is difficulty with near
vision but far objects can be seen easily. The image is focused behind the retina rather than upon
it. This occurs when the eyeball is too short or the refractive power of the lens is too weak.
Hyperopia can be corrected by wearing glasses/contacts that contain convex lenses.

Astigmatism: This defect is when the light rays do not all come to a single focal point on the
retina, instead some focus on the retina and some focus in front of or behind it. This is usually
caused by a non-uniform curvature of the cornea. A typical symptom of astigmatism is if you are
looking at a pattern of lines placed at various angles and the lines running in one direction appear
sharp whilst those in other directions appear blurred. Astigmatism can usually be corrected by
using a special spherical cylindrical lens; this is placed in the out-of-focus axis.
Presbyopia: Presbyopia, commonly known as aging eyes, is an eye condition in which the lens
of your eye may gradually lose its flexibility. Subsequently, it will become harder for you to
focus clearly on objects placed close-by, such as printed words in newspapers. On the other
hand, your ability to see distant objects is usually not affected or remains same as it was before
Presbyopia
Presbyopia is inevitable with ageing. Thus, you cannot prevent it through dietary or lifestyle
improvements. However, the condition is treatable with different types of contact lenses and
glasses (such as bifocals, trifocals, progressives, multifocal contact lenses, single-vision reading
glasses, and monovision therapy).

Cataract: A cataract is a clouding of the lens, which prevents a clear, sharp image being
produced. A cataract forms because the lens is sealed in a capsule and as old cells die they get
trapped in the capsule, with time this causes a clouding over of the lens. This clouding results in
blurred images.

Glaucoma:The eye produces a clear fluid (aqueous humor) that fills the space between the
cornea and the iris. This fluid filters out through a complex drainage system. It is the balance
between the production and drainage of this fluid that determines the eyes intraocular pressure
(IOP). Glaucoma is a disease caused by increased IOP usually resulting from a malfunction in
the eye’s drainage system. Increased IOP can cause irreversible damage to the optic nerve and
retinal fibers and if left untreated can result in a permanent loss of vision.

Colour blindness (colour vision deficiency): is the decreased ability to see color or differences
in color. Color blindness often happens when someone cannot distinguish between certain colors.
In the retina, there are two types of cells that detect light. They are called rods and cones. Rods
detect only light and dark and are very sensitive to low light levels. Cone cells detect color and
are concentrated near the center of your vision. There are three types of cones that see color: red,
green and blue. These defects are due to partial or complete lack of cones in the retina. Cones
help you to distinguish the colors red, green, and blue.
Amblyopia: Amblyopia, also referred to as “lazy eye,” is the most common cause of vision
impairment in children. Amblyopia is the medical term used when the vision in one of the eyes is
reduced because the eye and the brain are not working together properly. The eye itself looks
normal, but it is not being used normally because the brain is favoring the other eye.

Night blindness (nyctalopia): It is an eye defect due to the deficiency of vitamin A, the
substance used to make rhodopsin. People with night blindness experience poor vision at night or
in dimly lit environments. It is corrected by the intake of vitamin A.

Conjunctivitis: Conjunctivitis, or pink eye, is an irritation or inflammation of the conjunctiva,

which covers the white part of the eyeball. It can be caused by allergies or a bacterial or viral
infection. Conjunctivitis can be extremely contagious and is spread by contact with eye
secretions from someone who is infected.
Xerophthalmia: Abnormal dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye, with inflammation
and ridge formation, typically associated with vitamin A deficiency. It can lead to permanent
blindness of the eye.
ASSIGNMENT: 1. Discuss the similarities and differences between the human eye and a
camera. 2. Describe why a person is dazzled in a dark room for some seconds when exposed to
bright light?
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. Describe the organ of sound
2. Discuss the role of the parts of the eye.
3. Describe the defects of the eye and their corrections.

TOPIC: Co-ordination and response

CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Describe the organ organization of the nervous system.
ii. Describe the human brain, its parts and functions.
iii. Describe the spinal cord and its functions.
Step 1: Organization of the nervous system:
The human nervous system governs many functions in the body. It controls muscles, glands, and
organs. It also controls heartbeat and breathing. Even digestion and urination are under its
control. The nervous system also helps regulate blood flow through the body as well as maintain
the concentration of chemicals in the blood. As such, the nervous system plays a major role in
maintaining homeostasis. The nervous system does not act in isolation. Like the various branches
of government, it receives input from a large number of sources. This input helps it “manage”
body functions. The human nervous system also provides functions not seen in other animal
species. For example, the brain is the site of ideation—the formation of ideas. Our brain allows
us to think about and plan for the future. It enables us to reason—that is, to judge right from
wrong and logical from illogical. (In other words, to think critically.) The nervous system also
allows us to change our environment to better serve our needs.
In a complex multicellular organism, many activities go on almost simultaneously. These
activities are coordinated by the endocrine and nervous system. The two systems are linked by
the hypothalamus. The basic structural unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell (neurons). The
nervous system is made up of millions of neurons. The main parts of the nervous system are the
central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Below is a chart showing the
organization of the nervous system.

Subdivisions of the Nervous System The nervous system is divided into

two parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). The PNS consists of autonomic and somatic divisions. The
activities of the autonomic and somatic divisions often overlap. The PNS
consists of the somatic and autonomic subdivisions.

The central nervous system (CNS):

The human nervous system consists of three components: the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves.
The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system (CNS). They are housed in the
skull and vertebral canal, respectively. Three layers of connective tissue, known as the
meninges, surround the brain and spinal cord. The space between the middle and inner layers is
filled with a liquid called cerebrospinal fluid. The brain and spinal cord receive an enormous
amount of sensory information from the body. Right now, for instance, your brain and spinal
cord are being sent information from various receptors in your body that alert you to the room
temperature, traffic sounds, people talking, music playing, and the touch of the page. The
information is transmitted along sensory nerves. This massive inflow of information is managed
by the CNS. Some information may be stored in memory. Some incoming information is
ignored. Other information may elicit a response. Responses are produced when the brain and
spinal cord send nerve impulses to muscles and glands (effectors) via the nerves.
The CNS has millions of interconnected nerves which are of two types;
i. the cranial nerves come out of the brain and enter mainly structures in the head (e.g.
the eyes and ears).
ii. The spinal nerves come out of the spinal cord and go into the arms, legs and various
structures in the trunk.

The Nervous System The human nervous system is a network of nerves

connected to the brain and spinal cord. Nerves comprise the peripheral
nervous system. The spinal cord and brain make up the central nervous
system.

Step 2: The brain.

The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord
makes up the central nervous system. The brain consists of the cerebrum, the brainstem and the
cerebellum. It controls most of the activities of the body, processing, integrating, and
coordinating the information it receives from the sense organs, and making decisions as to the
instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the skull
bones of the head.
The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, consists of two cerebral hemispheres. Each
hemisphere has an inner core composed of white matter, and an outer surface – the cerebral
cortex – composed of grey matter. The cortex has an outer layer, the neocortex, and an inner
allocortex. The neocortex is made up of six neuronal layers, while the allocortex has three or
four. Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into four lobes – the frontal, temporal, parietal,
and occipital lobes. The frontal lobe is associated with executive functions including self-control,
planning, reasoning, and abstract thought, while the occipital lobe is dedicated to vision. Within
each lobe, cortical areas are associated with specific functions, such as the sensory, motor and
association regions. Although the left and right hemispheres are broadly similar in shape and
function, some functions are associated with one side, such as language in the left and visual-
spatial ability in the right. The hemispheres are connected by commissural nerve tracts, the
largest being the corpus callosum.
The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.2–1.4 kg which is about 2% of the total body
weight, with a volume of around 1260 cm3 in men and 1130 cm3 in women. There is substantial
individual variation, with the standard reference range for men being 1,180–1,620 g and for
women 1,030–1,400 g.
The human brain is made up of billions of neurones which form the grey matter (nerve fibres).
The grey matter occupies the peripheral region, while the white matter is situated in the central
portion of the brain.
Within the white matter lie hollow chambers called ventricles. The ventricles contain
cerebrospinal fluid and are continuous with the spinal cord.
The cerebrospinal fluid is formed from the blood and returns to the blood stream after bathing
the neurons, supplying them with oxygen and nutrients as well as removing wastes. The fluid
also acts as a shock absorber, so the brain is cushioned from damage when a person jumps
around or bangs the head against an object.

Human Brain

The vertebrate brain is made up of three regions;

1. The Fore brain,
2. The Mid brain
3. The Hind brain.

1. The fore brain

This is associated with higher brain functions like intelligence and speech. It is made up of three
main parts, namely,
 i. The Cerebrum,
ii. The Thalamus and
iii. The Hypothalamus.

i. Cerebrum:
This is made up of two halves, the right and left cerebral hemispheres. The two halves are bound
by fibres called the corpus callosum, which keeps each hemisphere informed about the other.
Each hemisphere has four distinct lobes namely;
1. Frontal lobe (in front)
2. Parietal lobe (at the top)
3. Temporal lobe (at the side)
4. Occipital lobe (at the back)

The most active part of the cerebrum is its outer layer, the cerebral cortex, which is composed of
grey matter. It is highly convoluted to increase its surface area and consequently the number of
neurons; thus, increasing the capabilities of the cerebrum.
The cerebral cortex is the seat of intelligence, speech, memory, learning, imagination and
creativity. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body while the right hemisphere
controls the left part of the body.

The cerebrum of the brain showing the four lobes.

ii. The Thalamus
There are two thalami, each one is an oval body attached to the back end of the cerebrum. They
act as the relay centres for receiving and transmitting sensory information to relevant parts of the
cerebral cortex. They also transmit outgoing motor impulses from the cerebral cortex.

iii. The Hypothalamus

This is an ovoid body projecting below the thalami. It is a controlling centre for the autonomic
nervous system. It plays a homeostatic role by regulating temperature and endocrine secretions.
Signals from it also trigger feelings of hunger and thirst. It also influences emotions like anger,
pain and pleasure.
Structure of the Brain A cross section through the brain showing the gray
and white matter of the cortex and deeper structures, notably the thalamus
and hypothalamus.

1. The midbrain
This is the portion between the fore-brain and hind-brain. Specific portions control the reflexes
of sight and hearing. Associated with these are the movements of the head when focusing on an
object and the detection of sound.

2. The hindbrain
It is composed of three parts;
i. The Cerebellum,
ii. The Pons varolli and
iii. The Medulla oblongata.

i. The Cerebellum
The Cerebellum is tri-lobed structure. There is one median lobe and two lateral cerebellar
hemispheres. It controls and coordinates body posture and muscular movements, especially those
that maintain the body’s balance.
ii. The Pons varolli
The Pons varolli is a wide band of fibres that connect the lateral cerebellar hemispheres.

iii. The Medulla oblongata

The medulla oblongata is the posterior portion of the brain and continues into the spinal cord. It
has an outer region of white matter and an inner region of grey matter. It controls involuntary
movements like those involving respiration, digestion, heartbeat, constriction and dilation of
blood vessels.
 The Stem of the brain
Step 3: The spinal cord
The spinal cord is composed of a soft white tissue running from the medulla oblongata to the tail
region. It is protected by the bones of the vertebral column and passes through the neural canal.
It is enveloped by three membranes called the meninges which further protect it. A narrow spinal
canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid runs through the centre of the spinal cord. The spinal cord
has an inner area of grey matter and an outer region of white matter. The grey matter is
composed of the cell bodies of the neurones in the spinal cord while the white matter is made up
of the nerve fibres which emanate from the cell bodies. Many of the nerve fibres leave the spinal
cord at intervals as spinal nerves and run to all parts of the body. Some others run longitudinally
along the spinal cord to the brain. The nerve fibres may be concerned with spinal reflexes or may
carry sensory impulses to the brain or motor impulses from the brain to the muscles and other
organs of the body.
The Spinal Cord and Dorsal Root Ganglia Spinal nerves are attached to
the spinal cord by two roots: the dorsal and ventral roots. The dorsal root
carries sensory information into the spinal cord. The ventral root carries
motor information out of the spinal cord. Spinal nerves often contain both
sensory and motor fibers.

Functions of the Spinal Cord

1. It coordinates simple reflex actions such as knee jerk and automatic reflexes such as sweating.
2. It connects all peripheral pathways to the brain.
ASSIGNMENT: 1. Discuss dog salivation using the concept of condition reflex. 2. Describe in
a tabular form the difference between the nervous system and the hormonal system.
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. Describe the organization of the nervous system.
2. Discuss the role of the parts of the brain.
3. Describe the spinal cord and its functions.
TOPIC: Co-ordination and response
CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Describe the peripheral nervous system and its types.
ii. Describe the neurone and its types and function.

PROCEDURE:
Step 1: The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the division of the nervous system containing all the
nerves that lie outside of the central nervous system (CNS). The primary role of the PNS is to
connect the CNS to the organs, limbs, and skin. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the
vertebral column and skull, or by the blood–brain barrier, which leaves it exposed to toxins and
mechanical injuries.
The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system, and the autonomic
nervous system. The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control, and transmits signals
from the brain to end organs such as muscles. The sensory nervous system is part of the somatic
nervous system and transmits signals from senses such as taste and touch (including fine touch
and gross touch) to the spinal cord and brain. The autonomic nervous system is a 'self-regulating'
system which influences the function of organs outside voluntary control, such as the heart rate,
or the functions of the digestive system.

Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system includes the sensory nervous system and the somatosensory system
and consists of sensory nerves and somatic nerves, and many nerves which hold both functions.
In the head and neck, cranial nerves carry somatosensory data. There are twelve cranial nerves,
ten of which originate from the brainstem, and mainly control the functions of the anatomic
structures of the head with some exceptions. One unique cranial nerve is the vagus nerve, which
receives sensory information from organs in the thorax and abdomen.
For the rest of the body, spinal nerves are responsible for somatosensory information. These arise
from the spinal cord. Usually these arise as a web ("plexus") of interconnected nerves roots that
arrange to form single nerves. These nerves control the functions of the rest of the body. In
humans, there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1
coccygeal. These nerve roots are named according to the spinal vertebrata which they are
adjacent to. In the cervical region, the spinal nerve roots come out above the corresponding
vertebrae (i.e., nerve root between the skull and 1st cervical vertebrae is called spinal nerve C1).
From the thoracic region to the coccygeal region, the spinal nerve roots come out below the
corresponding vertebrae.
The nerves of the SNS principally serve the parts of the body which take part in responses to
external stimuli (e.g. sense organs, limb muscles and glands) and voluntary activities. Nerve
fibres without synapses extend from the brain through the spinal cord to the skeletal muscles.
The motor neurones stimulate the effectors. The SNS also controls the emptying of the bladder
and the opening of the anal sphincters.

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary responses to regulate physiological
functions. The brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system are connected with organs that
have smooth muscle, such as the heart, bladder, and other cardiac, exocrine, and endocrine
related organs, by ganglionic neurons. The most notable physiological effects from autonomic
activity are pupil constriction and dilation, and salivation of saliva. The autonomic nervous
system is always activated, but is either in the sympathetic or parasympathetic state. Depending
on the situation, one state can overshadow the other, resulting in a release of different kinds of
neurotransmitters.
Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic system is activated during a “fight or flight” situation in which mental stress or
physical danger is encountered. Neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, and epinephrine are
released, which increases heart rate and blood flow in certain areas like muscle, while
simultaneously decreasing activities of non-critical functions for survival, like digestion. The
systems are independent to each other, which allows activation of certain parts of the body, while
others remain rested.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Primarily using the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) as a mediator, the parasympathetic
system allows the body to function in a “rest and digest” state. Consequently, when the
parasympathetic system dominates the body, there are increases in salivation and activities in
digestion, while heart rate and other sympathetic response decrease. Unlike the sympathetic
system, humans have some voluntary controls in the parasympathetic system. The most
prominent examples of this control are urination and defecation.
 Autonomic Nervous System: The ANS controls involuntary functions in
many organ systems. As shown here, the parasympathetic and sympathetic
divisions have opposite effects

Step 2: The Neurone

The neurone is the fundamental structural unit of the nervous system. This highly specialized
cell generates bioelectric impulses and transmits them from one part of the body to another. Such
signals alert us to a variety of internal and external stimuli and permit us to respond to them.

The Structure of the Neurone:

Neurons come in several shapes and sizes, but they all share several characteristics. All
neurones, for example, consist of a more or less spherical central portion, the cell body. It houses
the nucleus, most of the cell’s cytoplasm, and numerous organelles. Metabolic activities provide
energy and synthesize materials necessary for proper cell function, thus sustaining the entire
neuron. All nerve cells contain processes called dendrites that transmit bioelectric impulses
toward the cell body. Nerve cells also contain processes called axons that transmit impulses
away from the cell body. When an axon reaches its destination, it often branches, giving off
many small fibers. These fibers terminate in tiny swellings known as axon terminals. Terminal
axon serve as a communication link with other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands. That is, they
transmit impulses from one nerve cell to another or from a nerve cell to an effector such as a
muscle fiber.

The Neurone
The Myelin Sheath
The axons of many multipolar neurons in both the central and peripheral nervous systems are
coated with a protective layer called the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath consists of many
layers, and is mostly made of lipid. It appears glistening white when viewed with the naked eye.
As shown above, segments of myelin are separated by small unmyelinated segments known as
the nodes of Ranvier. The myelin sheath permits nerve impulses to travel with great speed along
axons, “jumping” from node to node like a stone skipping along the surface of water. Although
most axons are covered with myelin, some are unmyelinated. The unmyelinated axons conduct
impulses much more slowly than their myelinated counterparts. As a rule, the most urgent types
of information are transmitted via myelinated fibers; less urgent information is transmitted via
unmyelinated fibers.

Types of neurones
i. Based on their functions
ii. Based on number of axons they possess

i. Based on their functions

a. Sensory (afferent) neurone: this receives impulses from receptors and passes them towards
the CNS.
b. Motor (efferent) neurone: this receives impulses from the CNS and passes them to the
effector.
c. Relay/ association neurone: this transfers impulses from the sensory neurones to the motor
neurones.

ii. Based on number of axons they possess

Neurones may also be grouped according to the number of axons they possess, thus, there
are
i. Unipolar (one axon)
ii. Bipolar and (two axons)
iii. Multipolar neurons (more than two)
 Step 3: Nerve impulses
A nerve impulse is a wave of electrical activity travelling along a neurone. Nerve impulses are
transmitted along a neurone in two main ways;
i. Electrical and
ii. Ionic (chemical) means.

i. Electrical Transmission

Action Potential (a) Stimulating the neuron creates a bioelectric impulse,

which is recorded as an action potential.
The resting potential shifts from 270 millivolts to 130 millivolts. The
membrane is said to be depolarized. This graph shows the shift in potential
and the change in the permeability of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+)
ions, which is largely responsible for the action potential. (b) The influx of
sodium ions and the depolarization that occur at the point of stimulation. (c)
The impulse travels along the membrane as a wave of depolarization. (d)
The efflux of potassium ions restores the resting potential, allowing the
neuron to transmit additional impulses almost immediately.

When an axon is at rest, the membrane is polarized i.e., its outside is positively charged and the
inside is negatively charged. A resting neuron actively pumps out sodium ions (Na +) out through
the cell membrane and retains chloride ions (Cl -). As each sodium ion is pumped out a potassium
ion (k+) is pumped into the cell. The potassium ions leak out again but the sodium ions cannot
move in because the sodium gates are closed. This results in the polarization of the neurone. An
electric potential difference thus exists across the membrane of the neurone.
When an impulse passes along the axon, the membrane suddenly becomes depolarized and
permeable to sodium ions. This reverses the resting potential i.e., the inside of the axon becomes
positively charged and the outside negatively charged, thus an action potential is set up. Small
local currents on both sides of the membrane (at the leading end of the region of polarization)
excite the next part of the axon, so that an action potential is propagated along the whole length
of the axon.
Impulses are set up in nerve cells as a result of excitation of the receptors. Nerves are stimulated
by mechanical, osmotic, chemical, thermal and electrical stimuli. If the strength of a stimulus is
below certain threshold intensity no action potential is evoked. Further increase in intensity of
the stimulus however does not give a larger potential. A stimulated neurone therefore acts in an
all-or-none manner.
i. Ionic (chemical) Transmission
Transmission of the impulse across the synapse occurs by chemical means. When an impulse
arrives at a synapse a chemical substance, acetylcholine, is released. This diffuses across the gap
and causes excitation of the adjacent nerve cell.

The synapse prevents impulses from going in the wrong direction i.e., an impulse can only go in
one direction across a synapse but it can go in either direction along an axon.

Reflex and voluntary actions

Actions are responses to stimuli. They involve the nervous and endocrine system. There are two
main action patterns;
i. The Reflex action
ii. The Voluntary action.
1. Reflex Action
Responses to a stimulus that are not controlled by will i.e., involuntary responses are called
reflex actions. We are often not aware of our reflex actions though sometimes we may become
aware of them shortly after doing them. Reflex actions help to protect us against danger and also
to maintain equilibrium in both our internal and external environment.
Other examples of reflex actions are;
i. blinking of the eyes.
ii. Withdrawing the hand from a hot object.
 iii. The knee jerk etc.
The Reflex Arc
The reflex arc is the simplest pathway taken by a nerve impulse in mediating a simple response.
In the simplest form it involves only two neurones; a sensory neurone and a motor neurone. For
example, in knee jerk, a sensory neurone synapse directly with a motor neurone.

The structures which take part in a reflex arc are;

i. The sensory receptor that detects the stimulus.
ii. The afferent neurone along which the sensory impulse is transmitted.
iii. The relay neurone in the central nervous system which passes the impulse from the
afferent neurone to the motor neurone.
iv. The motor neurone which receives the impulse from the relay neurone
v. The effector muscle or gland which responds to the motor impulse with an appropriate
action.
Some reflex actions involve only the spinal cord and are known as spinal reflexes e.g., the knee
jerk while others involve the brain and are called cranial reflexes e.g., contraction of the pupils
when a light source approaches them.

Complex Reflex Actions

A reflex action could be complex when the actions involve neurones at different levels of the
spinal cord or the brain. Complex reflexes are also fast and automatic and produce stereotyped
activities like simple reflexes, but they involve ascending and descending nerve fibres within and
between the spinal cord and the brain.

Reflex Arc When you accidentally touch a hot pan on the stove, you
withdraw your hand before your brain even knows what’s happening. This
occurs because of a reflex arc. Sensory fibers send impulses to the spinal
cord. The sensory impulses stimulate motor neurons in the spinal cord. This
causes muscle contraction in the flexor muscles and inhibits muscle
contraction in the extensor muscles, allowing you to withdraw your hand.
Nerve impulses also ascend to the brain to let it know what is happening.

i. Voluntary Actions
These are actions which we think about first before doing them. These actions involve the brain
and are usually the acts of will. They are consciously carried out e.g. a sudden withdrawal of the
foot from a sharp object is a reflex action but going back to examine the foot and extract the
object is a conscious or voluntary action.

Voluntary actions therefore;

i. Involve higher centres of the brain.
ii. Involve numerous neurones.
iii. Bring about comparatively sloe responses.
iv. Bring about responses that vary with circumstances.

The brain may also initiate a voluntary action without any sensory stimulation.

Animal behaviour
An animal’s response to the changes in its environment is referred to as its behavior.
There are two main patterns of behavior;
i. Instinctive behavior.
ii. learned behavior.

i. Instinctive Behaviour
Reflexes which originate from birth are described as instinctive or innate. Example are the
sucking reflex of an infant and the pecking action of a newly-hatched chick.

ii. Learned Behaviour

Behaviours which are not innate/ instinctive develop through use. These are learned from
experience. When a reflex action is modified by experience, it becomes a conditioned reflex.
The conditioned reflex was first demonstrated by a Russian scientist, Pavlov (1910) who noticed
that a dog will salivate when food was presented to it. Pavlov changed the experience by ringing
a bell just before food was presented to the dog. This was repeated several times, and then he
decided to ring the bell without presenting food. He noticed that the dog salivated on hearing the
bell. Thus in a conditioned reflex the stimulus and response do not have to be related, just like
the bell was in no way related to the food.

Many simple reflex actions are consciously modified by manipulating conditions; the results are
learned (conditioned) behaviours. With time these become almost automatic.
The learned behaviours of walking, speaking, typing, swimming, playing on an instrument and
driving a car are almost automatic.
ASSIGNMENT: In a tabular form, differentiate between the reflex action and conditioned
reflex.
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. What are the divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
 2. Discuss the role of the neurone in the transmission of nerve impulses.
3. Describe the reflex arc.

TOPIC: Inheritance (genetics)

CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Describe the meaning of genetics and inheritance.
ii. Describe the transmittable characters in plants and animals.
iii. Describe how characters manifest from generation to generation.
Step 1: Meaning of genetics and inheritance
Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and
heredity in organisms. Though heredity had been observed for millennia, Gregor Mendel,
Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brunn, was the first to
study genetics scientifically. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are
handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by
way of discrete "units of inheritance" called genes.
Inheritance is the transmission of traits or information from one generation of individuals or cells
to the next. Scientists who study genetics are known as geneticists.
Genetic terminology:
Allele
An alternative form of a gene that occurs at the same locus on homologous
chromosomes, e.g., A, B, and O genes are alleles.
Aneuploidy
Having an abnormal number of chromosomes, i.e., not an exact multiple of the haploid
number. For example, Downs syndrome (three #21 chromosomes) or Klinefelter
syndrome (XXY males).
Anticodon
A sequence of three bases in tRNA that is complementary to a codon in mRNA. Enables
tRNA to sequence amino acids in the order specified by mRNA.
Autosome
A non-sex chromosome. Synonymous with somatic chromosomes (chromosome pairs 1-
22).
Chromosome
Rod-shaped structures within the cell nucleus that carry genes encoded by DNA.
Co-dominant
Genes are co-dominant if both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous state, e.g., K and
k genes.
Codon
A sequence of three bases in DNA or RNA that codes for a single amino acid. Enables
specific proteins to be made by specific genes.
Crossing over
The exchange of genetic material between members of a pair of homologous
chromosomes. For example, if a mating between a male (MS/Ns) and a female (MS/MS)
results in an offspring who is MS/Ms, the recombinant child has occurred due to crossing
over in the father.
Diploid number of chromosomes
The number of chromosomes found in somatic cells, which in humans is 46.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid. Composed of nucleic acids, these molecules encode the genes
that allow genetic information to be passed to offspring.
Dominant gene
A gene is dominant if it is expressed when heterozygous but its allele is not, e.g. in the
Lewis system the Le gene is dominant (expressed in both Le Le and Le le genotypes) and
the le gene is recessive.
Gamete
A reproductive sex cell (ovum or sperm) with the haploid number (23) of chromosomes
that results from meiosis.
Gene
A segment of a DNA molecule that codes for the synthesis of a single polypeptide.
Gene flow
Changes in gene frequencies that occur over long periods of time due to migration in
which different populations interbreed.
Genome
Term used to denote the entire DNA sequence (gene content) of a gamete, person,
population, or species.
Genotype
All of the alleles present at the locus (or closely linked loci) of a blood group system,
indicating chromosomal alignment if appropriate, e.g., AO in the ABO.
Haploid number of chromosomes
The number of chromosomes found in sex cells, which in humans is 23.
Heterozygous
The situation in which allelic genes are different, e.g. the Kk genotype or the Fya Fyb
genotype.
Homologous chromosomes
A matched pair of chromosomes, one from each parent, e.g., two #6 chromosomes.
Homozygous
The situation in which allelic genes are identical, e.g., the KK genotype or the Fya Fya
genotype.
Linkage
Genes are linked if they are on the same chromosome within a measurable distance of
each other and are normally inherited together.
Locus
The location of allelic genes on the chromosome, e.g., A, B, and O genes occur at the
ABO locus. (Plural = loci)
Meiosis
 The type of cell division that occurs in sex cells by which gametes having the haploid
number of chromosomes are produced from diploid cells.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Type of RNA polymerase using DNA as a template. Contains the codons that encompass
the genetic codes to be translated into protein.
Mitosis
Cell division that results in the formation of two cells, each with the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cells, i.e., cell division that forms all new cells except sex
cells.
Mutation
A permanent inheritable change in a single gene (point mutation) that results in the
existence of two or more alleles occurring at the same locus. Blood group polymorphism
has been caused by mutations occurring over long periods of time.
Nucleic acids
Polymers of phosphorylated nucleosides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA.
Nucleoside
The building blocks of RNA and DNA. Compounds consisting of a purine (adenine or
guanine) or pyrimidine (thymine or cytosine) attached to ribose (in RNA) or deoxyribose
(in DNA) at the 11 carbon.
Pedigree
A diagram representing a family tree.
Phenotype
The antigens (traits) that result from those genes that are directly expressed (can be
directly antigen typed), e.g., group A in the ABO BGS or D+C+E- c+e+ in the Rh BGS.
Polymorphism
The existence of two or more different phenotypes resulting from two or more alleles,
each with an appreciable frequency. Most blood group systems are polymorphic.
Recessive
Genes are recessive if the phenotype that they code for is only expressed when the genes
are homozygous, e.g., le le genes, in the Lewis system or h h genes in the ABO BGS.
RNA
Ribonucleic acid. Nucleic acids that are formed using DNA as a template. Similar to
DNA except has ribose in place of deoxyribose and uracil in place of thymine. (Also see
messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA.)
Sex chromosomes
The chromosomes that determine sex. XX in females and XY in males.
Sex-linked
An outdated term for genes on the X chromosome. Historically synonymous for X-linked
since, apart from genes essential for male sex determination, the Y chromosome appears
to have few recognized gene loci.
Somatic chromosome
A non-sex chromosome (soma=body). Synonym is autosome.
Step 2: Transmittable characters in plants and animals:
The chromosomes in diploid cells exist in homologous pairs. In many organisms, one pair are the
sex chromosomes, the rest are called autosomes or autosomal chromosomes. Gregor Johann
Mendel, an Austrian monk, was the first to discover how genes carried by autosomal
chromosomes are inherited.
A transmitted character is character or trait that can be passed from parents to their offspring. In
other words, they are traits which are inheritable.
Transmittable Characters in Human Beings
Transmittable characters in human beings include:
i. body stature or shape ii. Shape of head, nose and ear iii. Size of nose, head and ear iv. Colour
of skin, hair and eye v. Characteristic of voice or speech vi. Intelligence vii. Height of human
viii. Blood grouping ix. Baldness x. Tongue rolling xi. Sickle cell anaemia xii. Haemophilia xiii.
Colour blindness xiv. Fingerprints xv. Ability to taste (PTC)
Transmittable Characters in Plants
i. Height of plant ii size or weight of fruit iii. size of leaf iv. taste of fruit v. food content of fruit
vi colour of leaf; flower fruits or seeds vii resistance to environmental factors like diseases, pests
of drought. viii. shape of leaf, fruit and flower ix. leaf texture x. life span or habit of growth.
Step 3: How Characters manifest from Generation to Generation
Mendelian laws of inheritance:
Gregor Mendel (1822 – 1884) was an Austrian monk who carried out simple experiments on
heredity for nine years (1856 – 1865) using the common garden pea (Pisum sativum). Mendel
observed the colour difference in the plant, and thereby carried out several experiments on how
characters are transmitted from parents to offspring from generation to generation. He chooses
the garden pea plant because the plant has the following characteristics;
1. It is self-pollinated
2. It has a very short life span, because they are annual plant
3. The plant has several unique features which exist in contrasting pairs such as:
i. Some seeds are round, while others are wrinkled
ii. Some plants are tall, others are short
iii. Some seeds are yellowish, others are greenish
iv. Some flowers are axial, others are terminal
v. Some pods are green, others are yellow
vi. Some flowers are whitish, others are reddish
vii. Some pods are smooth, others are constricted.
He published his research findings “Experiments on Hybridization” in the journal of Natural
History in Austria in 1866/67. He formulated two principles of inheritance;
(i) First Mendelian law
The law of segregation of gene: The law states that “Genes are responsible for the development
of the individual and that they are independently transmitted from one generation to generation
separately without undergoing any alteration”.
To understand how characters behave when transmitted from generation to generation, the
inheritance pattern of a character controlled by a single pair of genes can be investigated. This is
referred to as a single factor or monohybrid inheritance. An example is the flower colour of
pea plants which is determined by two alleles; one for red colour (R) and the other for white
colour (r).
If a red flowered pea plant (RR) and the cross produces only red-flowered offspring (RR), the
red flowered parent is said to breed true. The plant is said to produce a pure stock or pure line.
The red flowered parent plant has two genes, RR for red colour. Similarly, the white flowered
pea plant that breeds true has two genes for white colour (rr).
Parent Generation

(a) RR x RR (b) rr x rr
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
R R r r
Sperm (n) egg cell (n) sperm (n) egg cell (n)
↘↙ ↘↙
↓ ↓
F1 generation RR rr
(Offspring 2n)

All these pea plants that breed true are said to be homologous for flower colour because the
genes controlling the flower colour in either case are identical i.e., RR or rr.
When a pure stock of red flowered pea plants is crossed with a pure stock of white flowered
plants (monohybrid cross), the offspring are all red flowered pea plants (Rr) and they form the
F1 generation. The character for red colour is said to be dominant. The white colour which does
not appear in the F1 generation is said to be recessive. This is known as a test-cross.

(a) Parental gametes

RR x rr
↓ ↓
R r
Sperm (n) egg cell (n)
↘↙
↓
F1 generation Rr
(Offspring 2n, all red flowered)

A back-cross is the crossing of an organism with the homozygous recessive organisms from the
original parental generation.
The result of this type of cross shows that the dominant form of a character masks the recessive
form in the F1 generation. The white flowered colour can only appear when the plant has
identical alleles (rr) for that colour i.e., the dominant allele R, for red colour is absent.

(b) F1 Parents Rr x Rr

↓ ↓

Gametes R r R r

F2 generation RR Rr Rr rr

In the F2 generation the phenotype shows three red flowered and one white flowered pea plant.
The genotype however reveals one homozygous and two heterozygous red flowered pea plants
and one homozygous white flowered pea plant.
In the F2 generation, there are two types of red flowered pea plants;
(i) one in which the two alleles for red flower colour are identical (RR) i.e., it is
homozygous for red colour.
(ii) one in which the two alleles for red flower colour are different (Rr), i.e., it is
heterozygous for red flower colour.

An individual is said to be heterozygous for a character that has more than one form of
expression, if the two copies of the gene controlling that character are different.

The homozygous and heterozygous red-flowered pea plants are said to show the same
phenotype but different genotypes. These heterozygous plants are referred to as hybrids.

Crossing the hybrids will produce a mixture of red and white flowered pea plants with roughly
three quarters bearing red flowers and one quarter bearing white flowers. These results show
that;

(i) Heterozygotes do not breed through.

(ii) The recessive form of the flower colour masked in the F1 generation can appear in the F2
generation (a recessive gene can skip some generations and appear in a latter one).
(iii) The majority of members of the F1 and F2 generations exhibit the dominant form of flower
colour (more members of a population exhibit the dominant form of a character).
A test-cross and back-cross are used to determine the genotype of organisms.

(ii) Second Mendelian law

The law of independent assortment: This law states that “Each character (genes) behaves as a
separate unit and is inherited independently of any other character (gene)”. In other words, a
member of a pair of genes can combine separately with any other member of another pair. It acts
randomly and it is thus inherited.

Mendel arrived at this law from his findings on the experiment he carried out with two pairs of
contrasting characters (dihybridization). For example, in the crossing of round yellow seeds
with wrinkled green seeds, the F1 generation showed the dominant character of round and
yellow (RRYY), but the F2 generation showed a proportion that was the square of 3: 1.

The result was 16 combinations with four phenotypes in the ratio 9:3:3:1
i. Nine round yellow
ii. Three round yellow
iii. Three wrinkled green
iv. One wrinkled green.
There were nine genotypes which include four homozygous and five heterozygous conditions.
This crossing to determine the F2 generation in a dihybrid inheritance is called the Punnett
square method.
ASSIGNMENT: 1. Differentiate between autosomes and sex chromosomes 2. Describe how
genes are synthesized from the chromosomes.
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. Describe the meaning of inheritance.
2. What is a zygote?
3. Describe the Mendelian laws of inheritance.

TOPIC: Inheritance (genetics)

CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Describe how sexes are determined in humans.
ii. Describe the chromosome as the basis of inheritance.
iii. Describe the mutation and the application of genetics.
Step 1: Sex Determination
A person can have a male sex or a female sex. The process by which the sex of a person is
determined is called sex determination. Genetics is involved in the determination of the sex of
a person. This can be explained as follows.
The chromosomes which determine the sex of a person are called sex chromosomes. There
are two types of sex chromosomes, one is called X chromosome and the other is called Y
chromosome.
(i) A male (man or father) has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. This means that half
the male gametes or half the sperms will have X chromosomes and the other half will have Y
chromosomes.
(ii) A female (woman or mother) has two X chromosomes (but no Y chromosomes). This means
that all the female gametes called ova (or eggs) will have only X chromosomes.
The sex of a child depends on what happens at fertilisation : (a) If a sperm carrying X
chromosome fertilises an ovum (or egg) which carries X chromosome, then the child born will
be a girl (or female). This is because the child will have XX combination of sex chromosomes.
(b) If a sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilises an ovum (or egg) which carries X chromosome,
then the child born will be a boy (or male). This is because the child will have XY combination
of sex chromosomes.
Please note that it is the sperm which determines the sex of the child.
This is because half of the sperms have X chromosomes and the other half have Y chromosomes.
Thus, there is a 50 per cent chance of a boy and a 50 per cent chance of a girl being born to the
parents. This is why the human population is roughly half males and half females. From the
above discussion we conclude that if the father (man or husband) contributes X sex chromosome
at fertilisation through his sperm, the baby born will be a girl. On the other hand, if the father
(man or husband) contributes a Y sex chromosome at fertilisation through his sperm, then the
baby born will be a boy. This means that it is the sex chromosome contributed by father (man or
husband) which decides the sex of the baby which the mother (woman or wife) will give birth to.
Thus, father (man or husband) is responsible for the sex of the baby (boy or girl) which is
born.
Step 2: Chromosomes; the basis of heredity
Chromosomes are rod-like or thread-like structures located in the nucleus of living cells of plants
and animals.
All plants and animals possess two types of cells;
(a) somatic or vegetative cells and
(ii) germ-line or sex cells

i. Somatic cells are the body cells which are not concerned with reproduction. They carry the
diploid (2n) set of chromosomes. They are obtained as a result of fertilization, i.e., the
contribution of a set of chromosomes from a male and a female individual. Nuclear division in
somatic cells is referred to as mitosis.

ii. Sex cells (gametes) are cells which are found in the reproductive organs of male and female
organisms. The gametes (e.g., sperm, Ovum, pollen grain, ovule) are haploid i.e., they carry half
the number of chromosomes of somatic cells. Nuclear division which results in their formation is
referred to as meiosis (reduction division).
Structure of Chromosomes
Each chromosome is thread like in appearance and made up of two nuclear threads called
chromatids held in the middle by a centromere. Homologous or identical chromosomes occur in
pairs. Each chromosome has several transverse bands along its length. A chromosome is made
up of a DNA molecule combined with a protein called histone. Numerous hereditary materials
(genes) are located on these bands. Genes are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) segments. It is
estimated that there are 2-3million genes in every human cell.
The DNA consists of a double chain formed by repeating small chemical units called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a deoxyribose sugar (S), a phosphate group (-PO 4-)
and four types of nitrogenous base compound which may be Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine
(C) or Thymine (T). sometimes a fifth one called Uracil (U) is present. These nucleotides are
arranged in a structure depicting a ladder. Each pair of the ladder consists of a pair of
nitrogenous bases linked together by a hydrogen bond. Adenine pairs only with Thymine (A-T),
and Guanine with Cytosine (G-C). The two chains are coiled like a spring to give a double helix
structure.

The structure of the chromosome

DNA double helix structure

During cell division, the chromosomes reproduce themselves. This is achieved by the replication
of DNA molecules. As the two strands unwind, free nucleotides in the cell are joined to each
strand appropriately to form two new double helices of DNA. When T is exposed, only A is
added from the nuclear fluids (cytoplasm). Similarly, when C is exposed, only G is added.
Heredity information exists in coded form in the DNA. The DNA determines the makeup of
proteins, enzymes and other substances in a cell. It controls the physical and chemical activities
of each cell as well as the entire organism. The DNA molecule is structurally the same in all
organisms but instruction or genetic codes are arranged in different sequences for every species.
It is these codes that determine the pattern of growth and behaviour of every member of a
species.
Number of chromosomes:
All organisms of the same species have the same number of chromosomes (n) in their cells. The
number of chromosomes when doubled in the cell of an organism is known as the diploid
number (2n), when halved is known as the haploid number (n/2). Every human has 23 pairs
(46) of chromosomes in each somatic cell, while each gamete has half i.e., 23 chromosomes.
Drosophila (fruit fly) has 4 pairs, tomato plant has 10 pairs of chromosomes each, dogs have 52
chromosomes (26pairs), cats 38 (19pairs), domestic fowl 18 (9pairs), garden pea 14 (7pair),
house fly 12 (6pairs). Each pair of chromosomes is known as homologous chromosome.

Role of Chromosomes in Transmission of Hereditary Characters

There is a segregation of genes at meiosis to produce haploid gametes. These genes (from the
parents) recombine during sexual reproduction (fertilization) to produce a zygote that develops
into an offspring.

The role of chromosomes in making this possible is as follows;

(a) Formation of gametes
As a result of the meiotic division of cells, gametes are formed.
During meiosis, members of a homologous pair of chromosomes separate first, then the sister
chromatids of each chromosome separate. The result is one diploid cell giving rise to four
haploid cells (gametes); thus, meiosis is a reduction division. Each gamete has one set of
chromosomes and hence one copy of genes.

(b) Crossing Over

During the process of meiosis, exchange of genetic materials takes place between chromatids of
a homologous pair of chromosomes; this is referred to as crossing over. This process gives rise to
a new combination of alleles on a chromosome and hence more types of allele combinations in
gametes.

(c) Fertilization
The process of fertilization also shows the role of chromosomes in transmitting hereditary
characters. When a sperm fertilizes an egg to form a zygote, only the nuclei of the two cells fuse.
This shows that chromosomes are the actual structural materials that transmit genes from the
parents to the offspring.
Fertilization restores the homologous pair of chromosomes. Fertilization occurs randomly and
brings about new chromosome combinations, hence new allele combinations.

Multiple alleles:
A population or species of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among
various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the number of alleles
(polymorphism) present, or the proportion of heterozygotes in the population. A null allele is a
gene variant that lacks the gene's normal function because it either is not expressed, or the
expressed protein is inactive.
For example, at the gene locus for the ABO blood type carbohydrate antigens in
humans, classical genetics recognizes three alleles, IA, IB, and i, which determine compatibility
of blood transfusions. Any individual has one of six possible genotypes (IAIA, IAi, IBIB, IBi, IAIB,
and ii) which produce one of four possible phenotypes: "Type A" (produced by IAIA homozygous
and IAi heterozygous genotypes), "Type B" (produced by IBIB homozygous and IBi heterozygous
genotypes), "Type AB" produced by IAIB heterozygous genotype, and "Type O" produced by ii
homozygous genotype. (It is now known that each of the A, B, and O alleles is actually a class of
multiple alleles with different DNA sequences that produce proteins with identical properties:
more than 70 alleles are known at the ABO locus. Hence an individual with "Type A" blood may
be an AO heterozygote, an AA homozygote, or an AA heterozygote with two different "A"
alleles.)
In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have
a genotype IAIA or IAi. A person with Type B blood displays B-antigens and may have the
genotype IBIB or IBi. A person with Type AB blood displays both A- and B-antigens and has the
genotype IAIB and a person with Type O blood, displaying neither antigen, has the genotype ii.
Rhesus blood grouping (Rh factor):
The Rh blood group system is a human blood group system. It contains proteins on the surface
of red blood cells. It is the second most important blood group system, after the ABO blood
group system. The Rh blood group system consists of 49 defined blood group antigens, among
which the five antigens D, C, c, E, and e are the most important. There is no d antigen. Rh(D)
status of an individual is normally described with a positive or negative suffix after the ABO type
(e.g., someone who is A Positive has the A antigen and the Rh(D) antigen, whereas someone
who is A Negative lack the Rh(D) antigen). The terms Rh factor, Rh positive, and Rh
negative refer to the Rh(D) antigen only. Antibodies to Rh antigens can be involved
in haemolytic transfusion reactions and antibodies to the Rh(D) and Rh antigens confer
significant risk of haemolytic disease of the faetus and newborn.
The haemolytic condition occurs when there is an incompatibility between the blood types of the
mother and faetus. There is also potential incompatibility if the mother is Rh negative and the
father is positive. When any incompatibility is detected, the mother often receives an injection at
28 weeks gestation and at birth to avoid the development of antibodies towards the faetus. These
terms do not indicate which specific antigen-antibody incompatibility is implicated. The disorder
in the faetus due to Rh D incompatibility is known as erythroblastosis fetalis.
Step 2: Mutation and application of genetics
A mutation is a heritable change in the genetic material that is not due to genetic
recombination. Mutation alters the structure or number of genes or entire chromosomes.
Types of Mutations
There are a variety of types of mutations. Two major categories of mutations are germline
mutations and somatic mutations.

 Germline mutations occur in gametes. These mutations are especially significant

because they can be transmitted to offspring and every cell in the offspring will have the
mutation.
 Somatic mutations occur in other cells of the body. These mutations may have little
effect on the organism because they are confined to just one cell and its daughter cells.
Somatic mutations cannot be passed on to offspring.
Mutations are caused by environmental factors known as mutagens. Types of mutagens include
radiation, chemicals, and infectious agents.
Applications of genetic studies:
1. Disease diagnosis and characterization.
2. Identification of pathogenic mutations.
3. Preserving biodiversity.
4. Identification and characterization of microbes.
5. Studying inheritance pattern.
6. Creating advanced plant species.
7. Creating genetically modified organisms.
8. DNA fingerprinting.
ASSIGNMENT: 1. Describe the following: (i) gene mutation (ii) chromosomal mutation. 2.
Describe the following: (i) gene flow (ii) gene drift (iii) inbreeding (iv) outbreeding
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. Describe how is sex determined in humans.
2. Discuss how the chromosome is the basis of inheritance.
3. Describe the applications of genetics in crime detection.

TOPIC: Variation and selection

CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
i. Describe the meaning and types of variations in living organisms.
ii. Describe the causes of variations in living organisms.
 iii. Describe the application of variation.
Step 1: Meaning and types of variations
Variation, in biology, is defined as any difference between cells, individual organisms, or groups
of organisms of any species caused either by genetic differences (genotypic variation) or by the
effect of environmental factors on the expression of the genetic potentials (phenotypic variation).
Genetic variation is the difference in DNA among individuals or the differences between
populations. There are multiple sources of genetic variation, including mutation and genetic
recombination.
Types of variation: There are mainly two types of variation, which are morphological and
physiological variation.
Morphological variation:
These are the noticeable differences in an individual. It is the physical appearance within a
population of the same species. E.g., size, height, weight, shape, finger print and colour. These
physical differences are widely seen in animal and plant populations.
Morphological variation gives rise to differences that are continuous from one extreme to the
other. This kind of variation is known as continuous variation. For example, height, weight,
intelligence, colour are continuous variations in human (animals), in plants, plant height, leaf
size, root area etc., are examples of continuous variation.

Physiological variation:
These are the differences in genetic make-up of individuals of the same species that shows the
way they react or behave in their environment. E.g., ability to roll the tongue, ability to taste
phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), blood grouping, ability to close one eye and keep the other open,
ability to move the ear (pinnae) without moving the head etc.
Physiological variations in reaction and behaviour show a discontinuous form e.g., a person is
either aggressive or non-aggressive, excitable or calm, caring or uncaring, intelligent or stupid,
timid or brave etc. this kind of physiological differences is known as discontinuous variation.
Skin colour variation:
Colour is one major characteristics by which human beings have been classified into race, s.
There are four principal races with colour variation:
1. Caucasoid: They are generally fair-skinned with variable eye and hair colours. E.g., the
Europeans and people of European origin.
2. Mongoloid: They are yellowish to yellowish-brown skinned with dark eyes. E.g., the
Chinese and Japanese.
3. Negroid: They are dark-brown, chocolate, or black skinned with dark eyes. E.g., black
Africans and people of African origin.
4. Australoid: Brown skinned with curly hair, broad nose. E.g., Australians.
Finger print variation:
A fingerprint is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of
partial fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method of forensic science. Moisture and
grease on a finger result in fingerprints on surfaces such as glass or metal. Deliberate impressions
of entire fingerprints can be obtained by ink or other substances transferred from the peaks of
friction ridges on the skin to a smooth surface such as paper.
Human fingerprints are detailed, nearly unique, difficult to alter, and durable over the life of an
individual, making them suitable as long-term markers of human identity. They may be
employed by police or other authorities to identify individuals who wish to conceal their identity,
or to identify people who are incapacitated or deceased and thus unable to identify themselves, as
in the aftermath of a natural disaster.
Finger print are majorly classified into four main groups called; arches, loops, whorls and the
compounds.

Compound
Step 2: Causes of variation
Individuals in a population are usually similar to each other, but not identical. Some of
this variation within a species is genetic, some is environmental, and some is a combination of
both.
Genetic causes of variation
Children usually look like their mother and father, but they will not be identical to either one of
them. This is because they get half of their inherited features from each parent.
Each sperm cell and egg cell contain half of the genetic information needed for an individual.
Each one is haploid, i.e., it has half the normal number of chromosomes. When these join
at fertilisation, a new cell is formed. This zygote has all the genetic information needed for an
individual. It is diploid, ie it has the normal number of chromosomes.
Examples of genetic variation in humans include blood group, skin colour and eye colour.
Whether you have lobed or lobe-less ears is due to genetic causes. Gender is also an inherited
variation – whether you are male or female is a result of the genes you inherited from your
parents.
Environmental causes of variation
Characteristics of animal and plant species can be affected by factors such as climate, diet,
accidents, culture and lifestyle. For example, if you eat too much food you will gain weight, and
if you eat too little you will lose weight. Another example is that of a plant that grows in the
shade of a big tree - it will grow taller to reach more light.
Other examples of features that show environmental variation include:

 a scar or accent
 flower colour in hydrangeas (these plants produce blue flowers in acidic soil and pink
flowers in alkaline soil)
Advantages of the variation:
1. It leads to appearance of new varieties of species
2. variation allows survival of the fittest
3. It leads to competition among the species
4. It leads to nature selects of the most adapted varieties
5. It bring about more resistant varieties to diseases
6. It leads to better adapted varieties to changes in the environment.
7. It brings changes in the gene pool which is beneficial for the members of the species for
survival.
8. It provides the best traits to the organism so that it can get mates and reproduce a greater
number of offspring.
Differences between continuous and discontinuous variation

Continuous Discontinuous
caused by co-dominance caused by complete dominance
Intermediates are present No intermediate characteristic
Affected by the environment not affected by the environment
They are controlled by genes /polygenes Not polygenic
Follow the normal distribution
curve/frequency of characteristics evenly Not evenly distributed
distributed

Step 3: Application of variation

Certain variation that are morphological or physiological are applied in solving certain human
problems in the society i.e., solving certain human society problems. Such problems include:

(1) Crime Detection:

Finger prints are use in detecting criminals as no two individuals even of the same parents have
the same finger prints.

(2) Blood Transfusion: The knowledge of blood group has successively help in the transfer of
blood from one individual to another. To avoid agglutination during blood transfusion, a
preliminary step has to be taken by carrying out a blood test or blood matching. The table below
shows the blood group that donates blood to another blood group and receives blood from
another blood group.

Under emergency, blood group AB can receive blood from all the blood groups and therefore is
regarded as universal recipient while blood group O can donate blood to all the blood groups
and therefore is regarded as universal donor.

Please Note:

i. Blood group A have antigen A in their red blood cells and antibody B in the blood serum.
ii. Blood group B have antigen B in their red blood cell and antibody A in their blood
serum.
iii. Blood group AB have antigen A and B in their red blood cell but do not have antibody in
their blood serum.
iv. Blood group O have no antigen in the red blood cell but have antibody A and B in their
blood serum.

(3) Determination of Paternity: The knowledge of chromosomes and the genes or the DNA
molecules they carry tremendously help in determining the father of a child through their
genotype.
(4) Medicine: In the field of medicine, genetic or hereditary principles are applied through
genetic counselling so as to remove from the human world population the inheritance diseases
such as sickle cell anaemia that are of great scourge to man.

(5) Agriculture: In the field of agriculture, the principles of heredity are applied through genetic
engineering involving the use of DNA molecules to improve or crop and animal production.

In Crop Production: Genetic or hereditary principles are applied in

i. Increasing crop quality. E.g., maize.
ii. Increasing crop yield.
iii. Improvement in crop variety. E.g., variety of beans, rice, maize etc.
iv. Production of crops that show resistance to adverse or unfavourable environmental
condition and diseases. E.g., winter wheat that grows under severe cold condition.

In Animal Production or Husbandry: hereditary principles are applied in

i. Increasing quality of meat.
ii. Increasing egg yield e.g., the poultry birds.
iii. Increasing milk production.
iv. Breeding of animals used for sports e.g., birds, dogs.
v. Production of farm animals that are resistance to attract adverse environmental condition
and disease.

INTERACTION PATTERN: Explanatory and interactive.

ASSIGNMENT: 1. Differentiate between genetics and variation 2. Describe how new species
are formed.
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. Describe the meaning and types of variation.
2. Outline and discuss the causes of variation.
3. Describe the applications of variation in agriculture.
EVALUATION-TEACHER: The lesson was well delivered as students were practical
involved.

TOPIC: Variation and selection

CLASS: Level 11.
SUBSIDIARY AIMS: By the end of the lesson, students should be to;
 i. Describe the meaning of natural selection.
ii. Describe the competition and its types.
iii. Describe social animals and their economic importance.
Step 1: Natural selection and competition
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences
in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic
of a population over generations. Charles Darwin popularised the term "natural selection",
contrasting it with artificial selection, which in his view is intentional, whereas natural selection
is not.
Natural selection acts on the phenotype, the characteristics of the organism which actually
interact with the environment, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype that gives that
phenotype a reproductive advantage may become more common in a population. Over time, this
process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches and may
eventually result in speciation (the emergence of new species). In other words, natural selection
is a key process in the evolution of a population.
Darwinian fitness
The term "fitness" in evolutionary biology means the ability of an organism to pass on its genetic
material to its offspring. Biological or "Darwinian" fitness is being able to live long enough to
reproduce and keep the population or species alive. The concept of fitness is central to natural
selection. In broad terms, individuals that are more "fit" have better potential for survival, as in
the well-known phrase "survival of the fittest". A distinction must be made between the concept
of "survival of the fittest" and "improvement in fitness". "Survival of the fittest" does not give an
"improvement in fitness", it only represents the removal of the less fit variants from a population.

Competition
In biology, competition is an interaction between organisms in which the fitness of one is
lowered by the presence of another. This may be because both rely on a limited supply of a
resource such as food, water, or territory. Competition may be within or between species, and
may be direct or indirect. Species less suited to compete should in theory either adapt or die out,
since competition plays a powerful role in natural selection.
Intraspecific competition
Intraspecific competition occurs when members of the same species compete for the same
resources in an ecosystem. A simple example is a stand of equally-spaced plants, which are all of
the same age. The higher the density of plants, the more plants will be present per unit ground
area, and the stronger the competition will be for resources such as light, water or nutrients.
Interspecific competition
Interspecific competition may occur when individuals of two separate species share a limiting
resource in the same area. If the resource cannot support both populations, then lowered growth,
or survival may result in at least one species. Interspecific competition has the potential to alter
populations, communities and the evolution of interacting species. An example among animals
could be the case of cheetahs and lions; since both species feed on similar prey, they are
negatively impacted by the presence of the other because they will have less food, however they
still persist together, despite the prediction that under competition one will displace the other. In
fact, lions sometimes steal prey items killed by cheetahs. Potential competitors can also kill each
other, in so-called 'intraguild predation'.
Competition has been observed between individuals, populations and species, but there is little
evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups.
Species Extinction
Competition can have consequences beyond the typical predator-and-prey interactions that keep
populations in check. When a species loses food and habitat, it can become endangered or
extinct. Hunting and urbanization have played a role in species loss.
For example, passenger pigeons once numbered in the billions from New York to California
before they were hunted and forced out of their native nesting areas.
Step 2: Competition and Evolution
Competition plays a decisive role in natural selection and evolution. Well-adapted organisms
have an edge in maintaining their spot in the ecosystem. Organisms with less favorable traits and
characteristics decline in the population. Weaker competitors tend to die off before propagating
their genes, or they relocate to a place where the odds of surviving and thriving appear more
promising.
To reduce competition for particular resources, finch species developed different sizes and
shapes of beaks adapted to eating certain seed varieties that other species had trouble reaching or
cracking.

Factors responsible for competition:

Human activity, invasive species, climate change, and environmental pressure are constant
stressors on ecosystems, making resources less available and of less quality. These stressors
affect the way that organisms compete with each other and their ability to survive and co-exist.
Selective breeding:
Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal
breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics)
by choosing which typically animal or plant males and females will sexually reproduce and have
offspring together. Domesticated animals are known as breeds, normally bred by a professional
breeder, while domesticated plants are known as varieties, cultigens, cultivars, or breeds. Two
purebred animals of different breeds produce a crossbreed, and crossbred plants are called
hybrids.
Differences between Natural selection and Artificial selection
Basis for Comparison Natural selection Artificial selection
Artificial selection, also called
Natural selection is a process
selective breeding, is the process
of adaptation by an organism
where humans identify desirable
to the changing environment
Definition traits in animals and plants and
by bringing selective changes
use these traits to develop
to its genotype or genetic
desirable phenotypic traits by
composition.
breeding.
Natural selection is a natural Artificial selection is an artificial
Process
process. or human-made process.
Natural selection takes place in Artificial selection takes place in
Occurs in natural populations within domesticated populations put
natural conditions. together by humans.
The chances of survival of a fit The chance of survival of an
Chances of survival organism increase as a result of organism might be at risk if not
natural selection. performed correctly.
Artificial selection is a faster
Natural selection is a slow
process that completes within
Rate process that completes after
days or weeks with more
many generations.
apparent effects.
Natural selection is not as
Artificial selection can be more
Controlled by controlled as artificial selection
controlled as humans control it.
as natural processes control it.
Artificial selection can be
Natural selection might occur
selective and can be performed
Performed on on all organisms living on the
on selected groups of animals
earth.
and plants.
Natural selection is based on Artificial selection is based on
the adaptive characteristics of the desirable characters selected
animals. by humans.
Traits Only beneficial or favorable
Artificial selection only allows
traits are inherited over the
the selected traits to be passed
successive generations by
through successive generations.
natural selection.
Natural selection affects the Artificial selection only affects
Affects
entire population of a species. the selected individuals.
Diversity Natural selection results in a Artificial selection only brings
 desirable changes and desirable
large amount of biological
traits and brings a decrease in
diversity.
genetic diversity.
Natural selection facilitates
Artificial selection doesn’t
Evolution speciation and evolution over
facilitate evolution.
many generations.
Natural selection exerts on a Artificial selection exerts only
Scale wide-scale on the natural on selected individuals that are
environment. economically important.
Hybrid vigor is seen in Hybrid vigor is lost during
Hybrid vigor offsprings after natural artificial selection due to the
selection. preservation of desired traits.
Natural selection is a natural
The artificial selection might be
Effort process, so no human effort is
labor-intensive and expensive.
required.
After natural selection, the After artificial selection, the
Genotype proportion of heterozygous proportion of homozygous
genotype becomes high. genotype becomes high.
Some examples of natural
Some examples of artificial
selection include the selection
selection include dog breeding
of long-necked giraffes and the
Examples to produce new breeds of dogs
changes in the size and shape
and cross-breeding in cash crops
of beaks of birds according to
like wheat and rice.
their feeding habits.

Step 3: Social animals

Social animals are group or types of animals in which individuals of the species live together co-
operatively in an orderly communities known as societies or colonies.
A society or colony can be defined as a group of individuals belonging to the same species and
that live together in an organized manner. Examples are termites, bees or wasps, ants, wolves,
foxes, baboons etc.

Different castes of termites and their roles

Termites are social animals. They live in highly organized groups. They usually live-in
underground tunnels called anthills or termitarium. Termites are also known as white ant.
Termites feed on cellulose thereby damaging wooden materials, crops and young trees. They are
saprophytic in nature. They help in maintaining soil fertility by breaking down dead materials
into humus.
 Termites in a colony
A colony of termites is made up of the following castes:

1. Queen and King: These are the reproductive members of the castes with the responsibility of
mating and laying eggs. There is always only one king and one queen at any point in time though
there could be other fertile potential kings and queens. A fully grown queen is about 9cm long.

2. Workers: They are sterile females with no eyes, soft and pale exoskeleton and well-developed
mouthparts. Workers are responsible for building the termitarium, searching for and bringing in
food for other members in the colony. They also tend fungal gardens, collect eggs and care for
the nymph’s structural adaptations for regulating body temperature.
After eating they regurgitate the partially digested food to feed the other members of the colony.

3. Soldiers: These are sterile, blind and wingless males with large heads, thick exoskeletons and
huge mandibles. They are responsible for protecting the colony from invaders and also protect
the workers as they gather food for the colony.

Economic importance of termites:

i. The clay obtained from the termitarium is used to build the surface of tennis court
 ii. They help in loosening and aerating the soil
iii. They are saprophytes that add humus to the soil
iv. They serve as pest that destroys wood, furniture and plant parts
v. They are a good source of protein and fat

Different castes of bees and their functions

A honey bee colony lives in a hive. It is composed of:
i. a single queen,
ii. a few hundred drones and
iii. several thousand workers.

Bees undergo complete metamorphosis unlike termites which undergo incomplete

metamorphosis. Drones hatch from unfertilized eggs. The drones are responsible for fertilizing
eggs. The queen and workers hatch from fertilized eggs. Larvae feeding on pollen grains and
honey become workers. If fed on royal jelly which contains vitamins, a larva develops into a
queen. The queen then secretes a queen substance that suppresses the development of ovaries in
the workers. The queen does the service of reproduction to replenish the castes. The workers
labour for the colony.

Economic importance of the honey bees:

1. They serve as pollinators of flowers.
2. They are source of honey called royal jelly which has several health benefits.
3. It has venom attached to its mouth for defense.
4. Bee brood – the eggs, larvae or pupae of honey bees which is nutritious and seen as a
delicacy in countries such as Indonesia, Mexico, Thailand, and many African countries; it
has been consumed since ancient times by the Chinese and Egyptians.
5. Worker bees combine pollen, honey and glandular secretions and allow it to ferment in
the comb to make bee bread.
6. Worker bees of a certain age secrete beeswax from a series of exocrine glands on their
abdomens. They use the wax to form the walls and caps of the comb. As with honey,
beeswax is gathered by humans for various purposes such as candle making,
waterproofing, soap and cosmetics manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, art, furniture polish
and more.
 Bees in a colony
INTERACTION PATTERN: Explanatory and interactive.
ASSIGNMENT: 1. Discuss how a climax community is formed in an abandoned farmland. 2.
Describe the different caste of the honey bee
EVALUATION-LEARNER.
1. Describe natural selection and competition.
2. Discuss how competition affects evolution of new species.
3. Describe the importance of social animals to the ecosystem.