Object Oriented Programming with C 2 e Second Edition Sahay - Get instant access to the full ebook with detailed content
Object Oriented Programming with C 2 e Second Edition Sahay - Get instant access to the full ebook with detailed content
com
https://ebookgate.com/product/object-oriented-programming-
with-c-2-e-second-edition-sahay/
OR CLICK BUTTON
DOWLOAD EBOOK
https://ebookgate.com/product/object-oriented-programming-in-c-7th-
print-with-corrections-edition-lafore/
ebookgate.com
https://ebookgate.com/product/object-oriented-programming-with-abap-
objects-1st-edition-james-wood/
ebookgate.com
https://ebookgate.com/product/beginning-c-3-0-an-introduction-to-
object-oriented-programming-1st-edition-jack-purdum/
ebookgate.com
https://ebookgate.com/product/object-oriented-analysis-and-design-
understanding-system-development-with-uml-2-0-first-edition-mike-
odocherty/
ebookgate.com
Object Oriented Oracle Wenny Rahayu
https://ebookgate.com/product/object-oriented-oracle-wenny-rahayu/
ebookgate.com
https://ebookgate.com/product/actionscript-3-0-design-patterns-object-
oriented-programming-techniques-1st-ed-edition-william-sanders/
ebookgate.com
https://ebookgate.com/product/programming-arcobjects-with-vba-a-task-
oriented-approach-chang/
ebookgate.com
https://ebookgate.com/product/programming-in-objective-c-2-print-with-
corr-nachdr-edition-kochan/
ebookgate.com
https://ebookgate.com/product/the-principles-of-object-oriented-
javascript-zakas/
ebookgate.com
Object Oriented
Programming with
C++
SECOND EDITION
Sourav Sahay
Lead Consultant
Capgemini
Detroit, Michigan
1
3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.
Published in India by
Oxford University Press
YMCA Library Building, 1 Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001, India
ISBN-13: 978-0-19-806530-2
ISBN-10: 0-19-806530-2
C++ made its advent in the early 1980s and enabled programmers to write their programs
the object-oriented way. For this reason, the language quickly gained popularity and became
a programming language of choice. Despite the development of a number of competing
object-oriented languages including Java, C++ has successfully maintained its position of
popularity.
C++ starts where C stops. C++ is a superset of C. All the language features of C language
appear in C++ with little or no modi¿cation. Over and above such features, C++ provides a
number of extra features, which provide the language its object-oriented character.
The continued popularity of C++ has led to considerable literature. Innumerable books, journals,
magazines, and articles have been written on C++. So, why another book on C++?
The aim of the book is to thoroughly explain all aspects of the language constructs provided
by C++. While doing full justice to the commonly explained topics of C++, the book does
not neglect the advanced and new concepts of C++ that are not widely taught.
This book is a power-packed instruction guide for Object-Oriented Programming and C++.
The purpose of this book is two-fold:
x To clarify the fundamentals of the Object-Oriented Programming System
x To provide an in-depth treatment of each feature and language construct of C++
This book emphasizes the Object-Oriented Programming System—its bene¿ts and its
superiority over the conventional Procedure-Oriented Programming System.
This book starts directly with C++ since the common features of C and C++ are anyway
covered in books on C language. Each feature of C++ is covered from the practical point of
view. Instead of brief introductions, this book gives an in-depth explanation of the rationale
and proper use of each object-oriented feature of C++.
To help the readers assimilate the large volume of knowledge contained in this book, an
adequate number of example programs, well-designed diagrams, and analogies with the real
world have been given. Some program examples given in this book are abstract in nature to
help readers focus on the concept being discussed.
Preface to the First Edition vii
Acknowledgements
First, I thank my parents for teaching me a number of valuable lessons of life including the
value of hardwork and the value of good education (neither of which I have learnt yet!). I also
thank my wife Madhvi for her patience, her encouragement, and also for having tolerated my
long periods of silence and temper tantrums! Thanks (rather apologies) to my little daughters,
Surabhi and Sakshi, who tolerated Papa’s frequent refusals to take them on outings.
I thank Dr David Mulvaney and Dr Sekharjit Datta of the University of Loughborough for
their valuable guidance, encouragement, and inspiration. My teachers always encouraged me
to think big and to think independently. My sincerest gratitude to each one of them.
The editorial team of Oxford University Press deserves my heartfelt thanks for their
guidance and for their timely reminders about the deadlines I would have de¿nitely missed
otherwise!
Feedback about the book is most welcome. Readers are requested and encouraged to send
their feedback to the author’s mail id [email protected].
Sourav Sahay
Preface to the Second Edition
x Expanded glossary.
x Accompanying CD contains all the program codes given in the text.
Key Features
x Simple and concise language eases the understanding of complex concepts that have
made C++ powerful but enigmatic.
x Plenty of solved examples with complete program listings and test cases to reinforce
learning.
x Review questions and program writing exercises at the end of each chapter to provide
additional practice.
x Self-tests at the end of the book to prepare the students for examinations.
conversions. New style casts for implementing type conversions are explained next. This
chapter ends with a treatment of run time type information (RTTI).
Chapter 9 explains and illustrates the most important data structures—linked lists and trees.
It includes full-Àedged programs that can be used to create various data structures.
Chapter 10 contains a detailed description of templates. The importance of function
templates and class templates and their utilization in code reuse is explained. This chapter
also provides an overview of the Standard Template Library (STL) of C++.
Chapter 11 explains the concept of exception handling. It begins with a section on
conventional methods and their drawbacks. This is followed by an explanation of the try-catch-
throw mechanism provided by C++ and its superiority over the conventional methods.
The appendices in the book include a case study, comparison of C++ with C, comparison
of C++ with Java, an overview of object-oriented analysis and design, and self tests.
Acknowledgements
The blessings of my parents continue to give me the courage I need to overcome the obstacles
that are associated with dif¿cult ventures like writing books. Every achievement of my life,
including this book, is because of the valuable education they gave me early in my life. Thanks
to my wife Madhvi against whose wishes I decided to spend most of the weekends over the
last 2 years on my laptop writing this edition. My daughters Surabhi and Sakshi continue to
inspire and motivate me.
Thanks to Professor Shanmuka Swamy, Assistant Professor in the Sridevi Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Tumkur, for pointing out a couple of printing mistakes in the
¿rst edition. These have been corrected.
The editorial staff members of the Oxford University Press deserve a special mention for
its support and prompt responses.
Please continue to send your valuable feedback and questions to my e-mail id
[email protected].
Sourav Sahay
Brief Contents
Detailed Contents xi
1. Introduction to C++ 1
2. Classes and Objects 31
3. Dynamic Memory Management 78
4. Constructors and Destructors 92
5. Inheritance 117
6. Virtual Functions and Dynamic Polymorphism 153
7. Stream and File Handling 172
8. Operator Overloading, Type Conversion, New Style Casts, and RTTI 211
9. Data Structures 283
10. Templates 372
11. Exception Handling 393
Bibliography 460
Index 461
Detailed Contents
1. Introduction to C++ 1
1.1 A Review of Structures 1
1.1.1 The Need for Structures 1
1.1.2 Creating a New Data Type Using Structures 4
1.1.3 Using Structures in Application Programs 5
1.2 Procedure-Oriented Programming Systems 5
1.3 Object-Oriented Programming Systems 7
1.4 Comparison of C++ with C 8
1.5 Console Input/Output in C++ 9
1.5.1 Console Output 9
1.5.2 Console Input 12
1.6 Variables in C++ 13
1.7 Reference Variables in C++ 14
1.8 Function Prototyping 19
1.9 Function Overloading 21
1.10 Default Values for Formal Arguments of Functions 23
1.11 Inline Functions 25
5. Inheritance 117
5.1 Introduction 117
5.1.1 Effects of Inheritance 118
5.1.2 Bene¿ts of Inheritance 120
5.1.3 Inheritance in Actual Practice 120
5.1.4 Base Class and Derived Class Objects 121
5.1.5 Accessing Members of the Base Class in the Derived Class 121
5.2 Base Class and Derived Class Pointers 122
5.3 Function Overriding 127
5.4 Base Class Initialization 129
5.5 Protected Access Speci¿er 132
5.6 Deriving by Different Access Speci¿ers 133
5.6.1 Deriving by the Public Access Speci¿er 133
5.6.2 Deriving by the Protected Access Speci¿er 135
5.6.3 Deriving by the Private Access Speci¿er 136
5.7 Different Kinds of Inheritance 139
5.7.1 Multiple Inheritance 139
5.7.2 Ambiguities in Multiple Inheritance 141
Detailed Contents xiii
8. Operator Overloading, Type Conversion, New Style Casts, and RTTI 211
8.1 Operator Overloading 211
8.1.1 Overloading Operators—The Syntax 212
8.1.2 Compiler Interpretation of Operator-Overloading Functions 214
8.1.3 Overview of Overloading Unary and Binary Operators 216
8.1.4 Operator Overloading 216
8.1.5 Rules for Operator Overloading 219
8.2 Overloading Various Operators 221
8.2.1 Overloading Increment and Decrement Operators
(Pre¿x and Post¿x) 221
8.2.2 Overloading Unary Minus and Unary Plus Operator 224
8.2.3 Overloading Arithmetic Operators 225
8.2.4 Overloading Relational Operators 230
8.2.5 Overloading Assignment Operator 234
8.2.6 Overloading Insertion and Extraction Operators 240
8.2.7 Overloading new and delete Operators 244
8.2.8 Overloading Subscript Operator 261
8.2.9 Overloading Pointer-to-member (->) Operator (Smart Pointer) 265
8.3 Type Conversion 267
8.3.1 Basic Type to Class Type 267
8.3.2 Class Type to Basic Type 268
8.3.3 Class Type to Class Type 269
8.4 New Style Casts and the typeid Operator 271
8.4.1 dynamic_cast Operator 271
8.4.2 static_cast Operator 275
8.4.3 reinterpret_cast Operator 276
8.4.4 const_cast Operator 276
8.4.5 typeid Operator 277
Bibliography 460
Index 461
1 Introduction to C++
O This chapter introduces the reader to the fundamentals of object-oriented programming systems
(OOPS).
V The chapter begins with an overview of structures, the reasons for their inclusion as a
E language construct in C language, and their role in procedure-oriented programming systems.
Use of structures for creating new data types is described. Also, the drawbacks of structures
R and the development of OOPS are elucidated.
The middle section of the chapter explains OOPS, supplemented with suitable examples
V and analogies to help in understanding this tricky subject.
I The concluding section of the chapter includes a study of a number of new features that are
implemented by C++ compilers but do not fall under the category of object-oriented features.
E (Language constructs of C++ that implement object-oriented features are dealt with in the
W next chapter.)
Here ‘d’, ‘m’, and ‘y’ represent the day of the month, the month, and the year, respectively.
Observe carefully. Although these three variables are not grouped together in the code, they
actually belong to the same group. The value of one variable may inÀuence the value of the
other two. In order to understand this clearly, consider a function next_day() that accepts
the addresses of the three integers that represent a date and changes their values to represent
the next day. The prototype of this function will be
void next_day(int *,int *,int *); //function to calculate
//the next day
2 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
Suppose,
d=1;
m=1;
y=2002; //1st January, 2002
Now, if we write
next_day(&d,&m,&y);
‘d’ will become 2, ‘m’ will remain 1, and ‘y’ will remain 2002.
But if
d=28;
m=2;
y=1999; //28th February, 1999
‘d’ will become 1, ‘m’ will become 3, and ‘y’ will remain 1999.
Again, if
d=31;
m=12;
y=1999; //31st December, 1999
‘d’ will become 1, ‘m’ will become 1, and ‘y’ will become 2000.
As you can see, ‘d’, ‘m’, and ‘y’ actually belong to the same group. A change in the value
of one may change the value of the other two. But there is no language construct that actually
places them in the same group. Thus, members of the wrong group may be accidentally sent
to the function (Listing 1.1)!
As can be observed in Listing 1.1, there is nothing in the language itself that prevents the
wrong set of variables from being sent to the function. Moreover, integer-type variables that
are not meant to represent dates might also be sent to the function!
Let us try arrays to solve the problem. Suppose the next_day() function accepts an array
as a parameter. Its prototype will be
void next_day(int *);
The values of ‘date[0]’, ‘date[1]’, and ‘date[2]’ will be correctly set to 1, 3, and 1999,
respectively. Although this method seems to work, it certainly appears unconvincing. After
all any integer array can be passed to the function, even if it does not necessarily represent
a date. There is no data type of date itself. Moreover, this solution of arrays will not work if
the variables are not of the same type. The solution to this problem is to create a data type
called date itself using structures
struct date //a structure to represent dates
{
int d, m, y;
};
Now, the next_day() function will accept the address of a variable of the structure date
as a parameter. Accordingly, its prototype will be as follows:
void next_day(struct date *);
‘d1.d’, ‘d1.m’, and ‘d1.y’ will be correctly set to 1, 3, and 1999, respectively. Since the
function takes the address of an entire structure variable as a parameter at a time, there is no
chance of variables of the different groups being sent to the function.
Structure is a programming construct in C that allows us to put together variables that
should be together.
Library programmers use structures to create new data types. Application programs and
other library programs use these new data types by declaring variables of this data type.
struct date d1;
They call the associated functions by passing these variables or their addresses to them.
d1.d=31;
d1.m=12;
d1.y=2003;
next_day(&d1);
Finally, they use the resultant value of the passed variable further as per requirements.
printf(“The next day is: %d/%d/%d\n”, d1.d, d1.m, d1.y);
Output
The next day is: 01/01/2004
4 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
Step 2: As shown in Listing 1.4, put the de¿nition of the associated functions in a source
code and create a library.
/*Beginning of date.c*/
/*This file contains the definitions of the associated
functions*/
#include “date.h”
void next_day(struct date * p)
{
//calculate the date that immediately follows the one
//represented by *p and set it to *p.
}
void get_sys_date(struct date * p)
{
//determine the current system date and set it to *p
}
/*
Definitions of other useful and relevant functions to work upon variables
of the date structure
*/
/*End of date.c*/
Step 3: Provide the header ¿le and the library, in whatever media, to other programmers who
want to use this new data type.
Creation of a structure and creation of its associated functions are two separate steps that
together constitute one complete process.
Introduction to C++ 5
Step 2: Declare variables of the new data type in the source code.
/*Beginning of dateUser.c*/
#include“date.h”
void main( )
{
struct date d;
. . . .
. . . .
}
/*End of dateUser.c*/
Step 3: As shown in Listing 1.5, embed calls to the associated functions by passing these
variables in the source code.
/*Beginning of dateUser.c*/
#include“date.h”
void main()
{
struct date d;
d.d=28;
d.m=2;
d.y=1999;
next_day(&d);
. . . .
. . . .
}
/*End of dateUser.c*/
In the procedure-oriented programming system, procedures are dissociated from data and
are not a part of it. Instead, they receive structure variables or their addresses and work upon
them. The code design is centered around procedures. While this may sound obvious, this
programming pattern has its drawbacks.
The drawback with this programming pattern is that the data is not secure. It can be
manipulated by any procedure. Associated functions that were designed by the library
programmer do not have the exclusive rights to work upon the data. They are not a part of
the structure de¿nition itself. Let us see why this is a problem.
Suppose the library programmer has de¿ned a structure and its associated functions as
described above. Further, in order to perfect his/her creation, he/she has rigorously tested
the associated functions by calling them from small test applications. Despite his/her best
efforts, he/she cannot be sure that an application that uses the structure will be bug free. The
application program might modify the structure variables, not by the associated function he/
she has created, but by some code inadvertently written in the application program itself.
Compilers that implement the procedure-oriented programming system do not prevent
unauthorized functions from accessing/manipulating structure variables.
Now, let us look at the situation from the application programmer’s point of view. Consider
an application of around 25,000 lines (quite common in the real programming world), in
which variables of this structure have been used quite extensively. During testing, it is found
that the date being represented by one of these variables has become 29th February 1999!
The faulty piece of code that is causing this bug can be anywhere in the program. Therefore,
debugging will involve a visual inspection of the entire code (of 25000 lines!) and will not
be limited to the associated functions only.
The situation becomes especially grave if the execution of the code that is likely to corrupt
the data is conditional. For example,
if(<some condition>)
d.m++; //d is a variable of date structure… d.m may
//become 13!
The condition under which the bug-infested code executes may not arise during testing.
While distributing his/her application, the application programmer cannot be sure that it would
run successfully. Moreover, every new piece of code that accesses structure variables will
have to be visually inspected and tested again to ensure that it does not corrupt the members
of the structure. After all, compilers that implement procedure-oriented programming systems
do not prevent unauthorized functions from accessing/manipulating structure variables.
Let us think of a compiler that enables the library programmer to assign exclusive rights to
the associated functions for accessing the data members of the corresponding structure. If this
happens, then our problem is solved. If a function which is not one of the intended associated
functions accesses the data members of a structure variable, a compile-time error will result.
To ensure a successful compile of his/her application code, the application programmer will
be forced to remove those statements that access data members of structure variables. Thus,
the application that arises out of a successful compile will be the outcome of a piece of code
that is free of any unauthorized access to the data members of the structure variables used
therein. Consequently, if a run-time error arises, attention can be focused on the associated
library functions.
It is the lack of data security of procedure-oriented programming systems that led to object-
oriented programming systems (OOPS). This new system of programming is the subject of
our next discussion.
Introduction to C++ 7
a variable of the new structure. For this, the address/name of a variable of the new structure
is passed to the associated functions of the existing structure.
In inheritance, data and interface may both be inherited. This is expected as data and
interface complement each other. The parent structure can be given the general common
characteristics while its child structures can be given the more speci¿c characteristics. This
allows code reusability by keeping the common code in a common place—the base structure.
Otherwise, the code would have to be replicated in all of the child structures, which will
lead to maintenance nightmares. Inheritance also enables code extensibility by allowing
the creation of new structures that are better suited to our requirements as compared to the
existing structures.
Polymorphism, as the name suggests, is the phenomena by virtue of which the same entity
can exist in two or more forms. In OOPS, functions can be made to exhibit polymorphic
behaviour. Functions with different set of formal arguments can have the same name.
Polymorphism is of two types: static and dynamic. We will understand how this feature enables
C++ programmers to reuse and extend existing code in the subsequent chapters.
/*Beginning of Date.h*/
class Date //class instead of structure
{
private:
int d,m,y;
public:
Date();
void get_sys_date(); //associated functions appear
//within the class definition
void next_day();
};
/*End of Date.h*/
The following differences can be noticed between Date structure in C (Listing 1.3) and C++
(Listing 1.6):
x The keyword class has been used instead of struct.
x Two new keywords—private and public—appear in the code.
x Apart from data members, the class constructor also has member functions.
x A function that has the same name as the class itself is also present in the class. Incidentally,
it has no return type specified. This is the class constructor and is discussed in Chapter 4
of this book.
Introduction to C++ 9
The next chapter contains an in-depth study of the above class construct. It explains the
meaning and implications of this new feature. It also explains how this and many more
new features implement the features of OOPS, such as data hiding, data encapsulation, data
abstraction, and a guaranteed initialization of data. However, before proceeding to Chapter
2, let us digress slightly and study the following:
x Console input/output in C++
x Some non-object-oriented features provided exclusively in C++ (reference variables,
function overloading, default arguments, inline functions)
Remember that C++ program ¿les have the extension ‘.cpp’ or ‘.C’. The former extension
is normally used for Windows or DOS-based compilers while the latter is normally used
for UNIX-based compilers. The compiler’s manual can be consulted to ¿nd out the exact
extension.
/*Beginning of cout.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int x;
x=10;
cout<<x; //outputting to the console
}
/*End of cout.cpp*/
Output
10
The third statement in the main() function (Listing 1.7) needs to be understood.
cout (pronounce see-out) is actually an object of the class ostream_withassign (you can
think of it as a variable of the structure ostream_withassign). It stands as an alias for the
console output device, that is, the monitor (hence the name).
The << symbol, originally the left shift operator, has had its de¿nition extended in C++.
In the given context, it operates as the insertion operator. It is a binary operator. It takes
two operands. The operand on its left must be some object of the ostream class. The operand
on its right must be a value of some fundamental data type. The value on the right side of
the insertion operator is ‘inserted’ (hence the name) into the stream headed towards the
device associated with the object on the left. Consequently, the value of ‘x’ is displayed on
the monitor.
The ¿le iostream.h needs to be included in the source code to ensure successful compilation
because the object cout and the insertion operator have been declared in that ¿le.
10 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
Another object endl allows us to insert a new line into the output stream. Listing 1.8
illustrates this.
/*Beginning of endl.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int x,y;
x=10;
y=20;
cout<<x;
cout<<endl; //inserting a new line by endl
cout<<y;
}
/*End of endl.cpp*/
Output
10
20
One striking feature of the insertion operator is that it works equally well with values of
all fundamental types as its right-hand operand. It does not need the format speci¿ers that are
needed in the printf() family of functions. Listing 1.9 exempli¿es this.
/*Beginning of cout.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int iVar;
char cVar;
float fVar;
double dVar;
char * cPtr;
iVar=10;
cVar=‘x’;
fVar=2.3;
dVar=3.14159;
cPtr=“Hello World”;
cout<<iVar;
cout<<endl;
cout<<cVar;
cout<<endl;
cout<<fVar;
cout<<endl;
cout<<dVar;
cout<<endl;
cout<<cPtr;
cout<<endl;
}
/*End of cout.cpp*/
Introduction to C++ 11
Output
10
x
2.3
3.14159
Hello World
Just like the arithmetic addition operator, it is possible to cascade the insertion operator.
Listing 1.10 is a case in point.
/*Beginning of coutCascade.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int x;
float y;
x=10;
y=2.2;
cout<<x<<endl<<y; //cascading the insertion operator
}
/*End of coutCascade.cpp*/
Output
10
2.2
It is needless to say that we can pass constants instead of variables as operands to the insertion
operator, as shown in Listing 1.11.
/*Beginning of coutMixed.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
cout<<10<<endl<<“Hello World\n”<<3.4;
}
/*End of coutMixed.cpp*/
Ouput
10
Hello World
3.4
In Listing 1.11, note the use of the new line character in the string that is passed as one of the
operands to the insertion operator.
It was mentioned in the beginning of this section that cout is an object that is associated
with the console. Hence, if it is the left-hand side operand of the insertion operator, the
value on the right is displayed on the monitor. You will learn in the chapter on stream handling
that it is possible to pass objects of some other classes that are similarly associated with disk
12 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
¿les as the left-hand side operand to the insertion operator. In such cases, the values on
the right get stored in the associated ¿les.
/*Beginning of cin.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int x;
cout<<“Enter a number: ”;
cin>>x; //console input in C++
cout<<“You entered: ”<<x;
}
/*End of cin.cpp*/
Output
Enter a number: 10<enter>
You entered: 10
The third statement in the main() function of Listing 1.12 needs to be understood.
cin (pronounce see-in) is actually an object of the class istream_withassign (you can
think of it as a variable of the structure istream_withassign). It stands as an alias for the
console input device, that is, the keyboard (hence the name).
The >> symbol, originally the right-shift operator, has had its de¿nition extended in C++.
In the given context, it operates as the extraction operator. It is a binary operator and takes
two operands. The operand on its left must be some object of the istream_withassign class.
The operand on its right must be a variable of some fundamental data type. The value for the
variable on the right side of the extraction operator is extracted (hence the name) from the
stream originating from the device associated with the object on the left. Consequently, the
value of ‘x’ is obtained from the keyboard.
The ¿le iostream.h needs to be included in the source code to ensure successful compilation
because the object cin and the extraction operator have been declared in that ¿le.
Again, just like the insertion operator, the extraction operator works equally well
with variables of all fundamental types as its right-hand operand. It does not need the format
speci¿ers that are needed in the scanf() family of functions. Listing 1.13 exempli¿es this.
/*Beginning of cin.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int iVar;
Introduction to C++ 13
char cVar;
float fVar;
cout<<“Enter a whole number: ”;
cin>>iVar;
cout<<“Enter a character: ”;
cin>>cVar;
cout<<“Enter a real number: ”;
cin>>fVar;
cout<<“You entered: ”<<iVar<<“ ”<<cVar<<“ ”<<fVar;
}
/*End of cin.cpp*/
Output
Enter a whole number: 10<enter>
Enter a character: x<enter>
Enter a real number: 2.3<enter>
You entered: 10 x 2.3
Just like the insertion operator, it is possible to cascade the extraction operator. Listing
1.14 is a case in point.
/*Beginning of cinCascade.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int x,y;
cout<<“Enter two numbers\n”;
cin>>x>>y; //cascading the extraction operator
cout<<“You entered ”<<x<<“ and ”<<y;
}
/*End of cinCascade.cpp*/
Output
Enter two numbers
10<enter>
20<enter>
You entered 10 and 20
It was mentioned in the beginning of this section that cin is an object that is associated with
the console. Hence, if it is the left-hand side operand of the extraction operator, the variable
on the right gets its value from the keyboard. You will learn in the chapter on stream handling
that it is possible to pass objects of some other classes that are similarly associated with disk
¿les as the left-hand side operand to the extraction operator. In such cases, the variable on
the right gets its value from the associated ¿les.
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int x;
x=10;
cout<<“Value of x= ”<<x<<endl;
int * iPtr; //declaring a variable in the middle of a
//function
iPtr=&x;
cout<<“Address of x= ”<<iPtr<<endl;
}
Output
Value of x=10
Address of x= 0x21878163
Especially, you must remember that the expression on the left of the assignment operator
must be capable of being evaluated to a valid address at which data can be written.
Now, let us study reference variables. A reference variable is nothing but a reference for
an existing variable. It shares the memory location with an existing variable. The syntax for
declaring a reference variable is as follows:
<data-type> & <ref-var-name>=<existing-var-name>;
For example, if ‘x’ is an existing integer-type variable and we want to declare iRef as a
reference to it the statement is as follows:
int & iRef=x;
iRef is a reference to ‘x’. This means that although iRef and ‘x’ have separate entries in the
OS, their addresses are actually the same!
Thus, a change in the value of ‘x’ will naturally reflect in iRef and vice versa.
Listing 1.16 illustrates this.
/*Beginning of reference01.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int x;
x=10;
cout<<x<<endl;
int & iRef=x; //iRef is a reference to x
iRef=20; //same as x=10;
cout<<x<<endl;
x++; //same as iRef++;
cout<<iRef<<endl;
}
/*End of reference01.cpp*/
Output
10
20
21
Reference variables must be initialized at the time of declaration (otherwise the compiler will
not know what address it has to record for the reference variable).
Reference variables are variables in their own right. They just happen to have the address
of another variable. After their creation, they function just like any other variable.
We have just seen what happens when a value is written into a reference variable. The
value of a reference variable can be read in the same way as the value of an ordinary variable
is read. Listing 1.17 illustrates this.
/*Beginning of reference02.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
16 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
int x,y;
x=10;
int & iRef=x;
y=iRef; //same as y=x;
cout<<y<<endl;
y++; //x and iRef unchanged
cout<<x<<endl<<iRef<<endl<<y<<endl;
}
/*End of reference02.cpp*/
Output
10
10
10
11
A reference variable can be a function argument and thus change the value of the parameter
that is passed to it in the function call. Listing 1.18 is an illustrative example.
/*Beginning of reference03.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
void increment(int &); //formal argument is a reference
//to the passed parameter
void main()
{
int x;
x=10;
increment(x);
cout<<x<<endl;
}
void increment(int & r)
{
r++; //same as x++;
}
/*End of reference03.cpp*/
Output
11
/*Beginning of reference04.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
int & larger(int &, int &);
int main()
{
int x,y;
x=10;
y=20;
int & r=larger(x,y);
r=-1;
cout<<x<<endl<<y<<endl;
}
Introduction to C++ 17
Output
10
–1
In the foregoing listing, ‘a’ and ‘x’ refer to the same memory location while ‘b’ and ‘y’
refer to the same memory location. From the larger() function, a reference to ‘b’, that is,
reference to ‘y’ is returned and stored in a reference variable ‘r’. The larger() function does
not return the value ‘b’ because the return type is int& and not int. Thus, the address of ‘r’
becomes equal to the address of ‘y’. Consequently, any change in the value of ‘r’ also changes
the value of ‘y’. Listing 1.19 can be shortened as illustrated in Listing 1.20.
/*Beginning of reference05.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
int & larger(int &, int &);
int main()
{
int x,y;
x=10;
y=20;
larger(x,y)=-1;
cout<<x<<endl<<y<<endl;
}
int & larger(int & a, int & b)
{
if(a>b) //return a reference to the larger parameter
return a;
else
return b;
}
/*End of reference05.cpp*/
Output
10
–1
The name of a non-constant variable can be placed on the left of the assignment operator
because a valid address—the address of the variable—can be determined from it. A call to
a function that returns by reference can be placed on the left of the assignment operator for
the same reason.
If the compiler ¿nds the name of a non-constant variable on the left of the assignment
operator in the source code, it writes instructions in the executable to
x determine the address of the variable,
x transfer control to the byte that has that address, and
18 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
x write the value on the right of the assignment operator into the block that begins with
the byte found above.
A function that returns by reference primarily returns the address of the returned variable.
If the call is found on the left of the assignment operator, the compiler writes necessary
instructions in the executable to
x transfer control to the byte whose address is returned by the function and
x write the value on the right of the assignment operator into the block that begins with
the byte found above.
The name of a variable can be placed on the right of the assignment operator. A call to
a function that returns by reference can be placed on the right of the assignment operator
for the same reason.
If the compiler ¿nds the name of a variable on the right of the assignment operator in the
source code, it writes instructions in the executable to
x determine the address of the variable,
x transfer control to the byte that has that address,
x read the value from the block that begins with the byte found above, and
x push the read value into the stack.
A function that returns by reference primarily returns the address of the returned variable.
If the call is found on the right of the assignment operator, the compiler writes necessary
instructions in the executable to
x transfer control to the byte whose address is returned by the function,
x read the value from the block that begins with the byte found above, and
x push the read value into the stack.
A constant cannot be placed on the left of the assignment operator. This is because
constants do not have a valid address. Moreover, how can a constant be changed? Functions
that return by value, return the value of the returned variable, which is a constant. Therefore,
a call to a function that returns by value cannot be placed on the left of the assignment
operator.
You may notice that the formal arguments of the larger() function in the foregoing listing
have been declared as constant references because they are not supposed to change the values
of the passed parameters even accidentally.
We must avoid returning a reference to a local variable. For example, see Listing 1.21.
/*Beginning of reference06.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
int & abc();
void main()
{
abc()=-1;
}
int & abc()
{
int x;
return x; //returning reference of a local variable
}
/*End of reference06.cpp*/
Introduction to C++ 19
The problem with the above program is that when the abc() function terminates, ‘x’ will
go out of scope. Consequently, the statement
abc()=-1;
in the main() function will write ‘–1’ in an unallocated block of memory. This can lead to
run-time errors.
This prototype indicates that the add() function returns a value of integer type and takes two
parameters both of integer type.
Since a function prototype is also a statement, a semicolon must follow it.
Providing names to the formal arguments in function prototypes is optional. Even if
such names are provided, they need not match those provided in the function de¿nition. For
example, see Listing 1.22.
/*Beginning of funcProto.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
int add(int,int); //function prototype
void main()
{
int x,y,z;
cout<<“Enter a number: ”;
cin>>x;
cout<<“Enter another number: ”;
cin>>y;
z=add(x,y); //function call
cout<<z<<endl;
}
int add(int a,int b) //function definition
{
return (a+b);
}
/*End of funcProto.cpp*/
Output
Enter a number: 10<enter>
Enter another number: 20<enter>
30
The prototype tells the compiler that the add() function returns an integer-type value. Thus,
the compiler knows how many bytes have to be retrieved from the place where the add()
function is expected to write its return value and how these bytes are to be interpreted.
In the absence of prototypes, the compiler will have to assume the type of the returned
value. Suppose, it assumes that the type of the returned value is an integer. However, the
called function may return a value of an incompatible type (say a structure type). Now,
suppose an integer-type variable is equated to the call to a function where the function call
precedes the function de¿nition. In this situation, the compiler will report an error against
the function de¿nition and not the function call. This is because the function call abided by
its assumption, but the de¿nition did not. However, if the function de¿nition is in a different
¿le to be compiled separately, then no compile-time errors will arise. Instead, wrong results
will arise during run time as Listing 1.23 shows.
/*Beginning of def.c*/
/*function definition*/
struct abc
{
char a;
int b;
float c;
};
struct abc test()
{
struct abc a1;
a1.a=‘x’;
a1.b=10;
a1.c=1.1;
return a1;
}
/*End of def.c*/
/*Beginning of driver.c*/
void main()
{
int x;
x=test(); //no compile time error!!
printf(“%d”,x);
}
/*End of driver.c*/
Output
1688
A compiler that does not enforce prototyping will de¿nitely compile the above program.
But then it will have no way of knowing what type of value the test() function returns.
Introduction to C++ 21
Therefore, erroneous results will be obtained during run time as the output of Listing 1.23
clearly shows.
Since the C++ compiler necessitates function prototyping, it will report an error against
the function call because no prototype has been provided to resolve the function call. Again,
if the correct prototype is provided, the compiler will still report an error since this time the
function call does not match the prototype. The compiler will not be able to convert a struct
abc to an integer. Thus, function prototyping guarantees protection from errors arising out
of incorrect function calls.
What happens if the function prototype and the function call do not match? Such a situation
cannot arise. Both the function prototype and the function de¿nition are created by the same
person, that is, the library programmer. The library programmer puts the function’s prototype in
a header ¿le. He/she provides the function’s de¿nition in a library. The application programmer
includes the header ¿le in his/her application program ¿le in which the function is called. He/
she creates an object ¿le from this application program ¿le and links this object ¿le to the
library to get an executable ¿le.
The function’s prototype also tells the compiler that the add() function accepts two
parameters. If the program fails to provide such parameters, the prototype enables the compiler
to detect the error. A compiler that does not enforce function prototyping will compile a
function call in which an incorrect number and/or type of parameters have been passed. Run-
time errors will arise as in the foregoing case.
Finally, function prototyping produces automatic-type conversion wherever appropriate.
We take the case of compilers that do not enforce prototyping. Suppose, a function expects an
integer-type value (assuming integers occupy four bytes) but a value of double type (assuming
doubles occupy eight bytes) is wrongly passed. During run time, the value in only the ¿rst
four bytes of the passed eight bytes will be extracted. This is obviously undesirable. However,
the C++ compiler automatically converts the double-type value into an integer type. This
is because it inevitably encounters the function prototype before encountering the function
call and therefore knows that the function expects an integer-type value. However, it must
be remembered that such automatic-type conversions due to function prototypes occur only
when it makes sense. For example, the compiler will prevent an attempted conversion from
a structure type to integer type.
Nevertheless, can the same bene¿ts not be realized without prototyping? Is it not possible
for the compiler to simply scan the rest of the source code and ¿nd out how the function has
been de¿ned? There are two reasons why this solution is inappropriate. They are:
x It is inefficient. The compiler will have to suspend the compilation of the line containing
the function call and search the rest of the file.
x Most of the times the function definition is not contained in the file where it is called. It
is usually contained in a library.
Such compile-time checking for prototypes is known as static-type-checking.
will be invoked. For this, function prototypes should be provided to the compiler for matching
the function calls. Accordingly, the linker, during link time, links the function call with the
correct function de¿nition. Listing 1.24 clari¿es this.
/*Beginning of funcOverload.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
int add(int,int); //first prototype
int add(int,int,int); //second prototype
void main()
{
int x,y;
x=add(10,20); //matches first prototype
y=add(30,40,50); //matches second prototype
cout<<x<<endl<<y<<endl;
}
int add(int a,int b)
{
return(a+b);
}
int add(int a,int b,int c)
{
return(a+b+c);
}
/*End of funcOverload.cpp*/
Output
30
120
Just like ordinary functions, the de¿nitions of overloaded functions are also put in libraries.
Moreover, the function prototypes are placed in header ¿les.
The two function prototypes at the beginning of the program tell the compiler the two
different ways in which the add() function can be called. When the compiler encounters the
two distinct calls to the add() function, it already has the prototypes to satisfy them both.
Thus, the compilation phase is completed successfully. During linking, the linker ¿nds the
two necessary de¿nitions of the add() function and, hence, links successfully to create the
executable ¿le.
The compiler decides which function is to be called based upon the number, type, and
sequence of parameters that are passed to the function call. When the compiler encounters
the ¿rst function call,
x=add(10,20);
it decides that the function that takes two integers as formal arguments is to be executed.
Accordingly, the linker then searches for the de¿nition of the add() function where there are
two integers as formal arguments.
Similarly, the second call to the add() function
y=add(30,40,50);
/*Beginning of defaultArg.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
int add(int,int,int c=0); //third argument has default value
void main()
{
int x,y;
x=add(10,20,30); //default value ignored
y=add(40,50); //default value taken for the
//third parameter
cout<<x<<endl<<y<<endl;
}
int add(int a,int b,int c)
{
return (a+b+c);
}
/*End of defaultArg.cpp*/
Output
60
90
In the above listing, a default value—zero—has been speci¿ed for the third argument of the
add() function. In the absence of a value being passed to it, the compiler assigns the default
value. If a value is passed to it, the compiler assigns the passed value. In the ¿rst call
24 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
x=add(10,20,30);
the values of ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘c’ are 10, 20, and 30, respectively. But, in the second function call
y=add(40,50);
the values of ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘c’ are 10, 20, and 0, respectively. The default value—zero—for
the third parameter ‘c’ is taken. This explains the output of the above listing.
Default values can be assigned to more than one argument. Listing 1.26 illustrates this.
/*Beginning of multDefaultArg.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
int add(int,int b=0,int c=0); //second and third arguments
//have default values
void main()
{
int x,y,z;
x=add(10,20,30); //all default values ignored
y=add(40,50); //default value taken for the
//third argument
z=add(60); //default value taken for
//the second and the third
//arguments
cout<<x<<endl<<y<<endl<<z<<endl;
}
int add(int a,int b,int c)
{
return (a+b+c);
}
/*End of multDefaultArg.cpp*/
Output
60
90
60
There is no need to provide names to the arguments taking default values in the function
prototypes.
int add(int,int=0,int=0);
Default values must be supplied starting from the rightmost argument. Before supplying
default value to an argument, all arguments to its right must be given default values. Suppose
you write
int add(int,int=0,int);
you are attempting to give a default value to the second argument from the right without
specifying a default value for the argument on its right. The compiler will report an error that
the default value is missing (for the third argument).
Introduction to C++ 25
Default values must be speci¿ed in function prototypes alone. They should not be speci¿ed
in the function de¿nitions.
While compiling a function call, the compiler will de¿nitely have its prototype. Its de¿nition
will probably be located after the function call. It might be in the same ¿le, or it will be in a
different ¿le or library. Thus, to ensure a successful compilation of the function calls where
values for arguments having default values have not been passed, the compiler must be aware
of those default values. Hence, default values must be speci¿ed in the function prototype.
You must also remember that the function prototypes are placed in header ¿les. These are
included in both the library ¿les that contain the function’s de¿nition and the client program
¿les that contain calls to the functions. While compiling the library ¿le that contains the
function de¿nition, the compiler will obviously read the function prototype before it reads
the function de¿nition. Suppose the function de¿nition also contains default values for the
arguments. Even if the same default values are supplied for the same arguments, the compiler
will think that you are trying to supply two different default values for the same argument.
This is obviously unacceptable because the default value can be only one in number. Thus,
default values must be speci¿ed in the function prototypes and should not be speci¿ed again
in the function de¿nitions.
If default values are speci¿ed for the arguments of a function, the function behaves like
an overloaded function and, therefore, should be overloaded with care; otherwise ambiguity
errors might be caused. For example, if you prototype a function as follows:
int add(int,int,int=0);
int add(int,int);
This can confuse the compiler. If only two integers are passed as parameters to the function
call, both these prototypes will match. The compiler will not be able to decide with which
de¿nition the function call has to be resolved. This will lead to an ambiguity error.
Default values can be given to arguments of any data type as follows:
double hra(double,double=0.3);
void print(char=’a’);
x storing the address of the instruction to which the control should jump after the function
terminates.
The C++ inline function provides a solution to this problem. An inline function is a function
whose compiled code is ‘in line’ with the rest of the program. That is, the compiler replaces
the function call with the corresponding function code. With inline code, the program does
not have to jump to another location to execute the code and then jump back. Inline functions,
thus, run a little faster than regular functions.
However, there is a trade-off between memory and speed. If an inline function is
called repeatedly, then multiple copies of the function definition appear in the code
(see Figures 1.1 and 1.2). Thus, the executable program itself becomes so large that it occupies
a lot of space in the computer’s memory during run time. Consequently, the program runs
slow instead of running fast. Thus, inline functions must be chosen with care.
For specifying an inline function, you must:
x prefix the definition of the function with the inline keyword and
x define the function before all functions that call it, that is, define it in the header file
itself.
The following listing illustrates the inline technique with the inline cube() function that
cubes its argument. Note that the entire de¿nition is in one line. That is not a necessary
condition. But if the de¿nition of a function does not ¿t in one line, the function is probably
a poor candidate for an inlne function!
/*Beginning of inline.cpp*/
#include<iostream.h>
inline double cube(double x) { return x*x*x; }
void main()
{
double a,b;
double c=13.0;
a=cube(5.0);
b=cube(4.5+7.5);
cout<<a<<endl;
cout<<b<<endl;
cout<<cube(c++)<<endl;
cout<<c<<endl;
}
/*End of inline.cpp*/
28 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
Output
125
1728
2197
14
However, under some circumstances, the compiler, despite your indications, may not expand the
function inline. Instead, it will issue a warning that the function could not be expanded inline
and then compile all calls to such functions in the ordinary fashion. Those conditions are:
x The function is recursive.
x There are looping constructs in the function.
x There are static variables in the function.
Let us brieÀy compare macros in C and inline function in C++. Macros are a poor predecessor
to inline functions. For example, a macro for cubing a number is as follows:
#define CUBE(X) X*X*X
Here, a mere text substitution takes place with‘X’ being replaced by the macro parameter.
a=CUBE(5.0); //replaced by a=5.0*5.0*5.0;
b=CUBE(4.5+7.5); //replaced by
//b=4.5+7.5*4.5+7.5*4.5+7.5;
c=CUBE(x++); //replaced by c=x++*x++*x++;
Only the ¿rst statement works properly. An intelligent use of parentheses improves matters
slightly.
#define CUBE(X) ((X)*(X)*(X))
Even now, CUBE(c++) undesirably increments ‘c’ thrice. But the inline cube() function
evaluates ‘c’, passes the value to be cubed, and then correctly increments ‘c’ once.
It is advisable to use inline functions instead of macros.
Summary
Variables sometimes inÀuence each other’s values. be safe from unintentional modi¿cation by functions
A change in the value of one may necessitate a other than those de¿ned by him/her. Moreover, they do
corresponding adjustment in the value of another. It not guarantee a proper initialization of data members
is, therefore, necessary to pass these variables together of structure variables.
in a single group to functions. Structures enable us to Both of the above drawbacks are in direct
do this. contradiction with the characteristics possessed by
Structures are used to create new data types. This real-world objects. A real-world object has not only
is a two-step process. a perfect interface to manipulate its internal parts but
Step 1: Create the structure itself. also exclusive rights to do so. Consequently, a real-
world object never reaches an invalid state during its
Step 2: Create associated functions that work upon
lifetime. When we start operating a real-world object, it
variables of the structure.
automatically assumes a valid state. In object-oriented
While structures do fulfil the important need
programming systems (OOPS), we can incorporate
described above, they nevertheless have limitations.
these features of real-world objects into structure
They do not enable the library programmer to make
variables.
variables of the structure that he/she has designed to
Introduction to C++ 29
Inheritance allows a structure to inherit both data of the variable with which it is sharing memory. Calls
and functions of an existing structure. Polymorphism to functions that return by reference can be placed on
allows different functions to have the same name. It is the left of the assignment operator.
of two types: static and dynamic. Function prototyping is necessary in C++. Functions
Console output is achieved in C++ with the help can be overloaded. Functions with different signatures
of insertion operator and the cout object. Console can have the same name. A function argument can be
input is achieved in C++ with the help of extraction given a default value so that if no value is passed for it
operator and the cin object. in the function call, the default value is assigned to it.
In C++, variables can be de¿ned anywhere in a If a function is declared inline, its de¿nition replaces
function. A reference variable shares the same memory its call, thus, speeding up the execution of the resultant
location as the one of which it is a reference. Therefore, executable.
any change in its value automatically changes the value
Key Terms
creating new data types using structures - cin
lack of data security in structures - istream_withassign class
no guaranteed initialization of data in structures - extraction operator
procedure-oriented programming system - iostream.h header ¿le
object-oriented programming system - endl
data security in classes reference variable
guaranteed initialization of data in classes - passing by reference
inheritance - returning by reference
polymorphism importance of function prototyping
console input/output in C++ function overloading
- cout default values for function arguments
- ostream_withassign class inline functions
- insertion operator
Exercises
1. Which programming needs do structures ful¿ll? Why 10. State true or false.
does C language enable us to create structures? (a) Structures enable a programmer to secure the
2. What are the limitations of structures? data contained in structure variables from being
3. What is the procedure-oriented programming changed by unauthorized functions.
system? (b) The insertion operator is used for outputting
4. What is the object-oriented programming system? in C++.
5. Which class is ‘cout’ an object of? (c) The extraction operator is used for outputting
6. Which class is ‘cin’ an object of? in C++.
7. What bene¿ts does a programmer get if the compiler (d) A call to a function that returns by reference
forces him/her to prototype a function? cannot be placed on the left of the assignment
8. Why will an ambiguity error arise if a default value operator.
is given to an argument of an overloaded function? (e) An inline function cannot have a looping
9. Why should default values be given to function construct.
arguments in the function’s prototype and not in the 11. Think of some examples from your own experience in
function’s de¿nition? C programming where you felt the need for structures.
30 Object-Oriented Programming with C++
Do you see an opportunity for programming in OOPS on the left-hand side of the assignment operator.
in those examples? Experiment and ¿nd out whether such calls can be
12. Structures in C do not enable the library programmers chained. Consider the following:
to guarantee an initialization of data. Appreciate the
f(a, b) = g(c, d) = x;
implications of this limitation by taking the date
structure as an example. where ‘f’ and ‘g’ are functions that return by reference
13. Calls to functions that return by reference can be put while ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’, and ‘x’ are variables.
2 Classes and Objects
The previous chapter refreshed the reader’s knowledge of the structure construct provided
by C language—its use and usage. It also dealt with a critical analysis of structures along with
their pitfalls and limitations. The reader was made aware of a strong need for data security and
for a guaranteed initialization of data that structures do not provide.
This chapter is a logical continuation to the previous one. It begins with a thorough
explanation of the class construct of C++ and the ways by which it ful¿ls the above-mentioned
O needs. Superiority of the class construct of C++ over the structure construct of C language is
emphasized in this chapter.
V This chapter also deals with how classes enable the library programmer to provide exclusive
E rights to the associated functions.
A description of various types and features of member functions and member data ¿nds a
R prominent place in this chapter. This description covers:
x Overloaded member functions
V
x Default values for the arguments of member functions
I x Inline member functions
x Constant member functions
E x Mutable data members
W x Friend functions and friend classes
x Static members
A section in this chapter is devoted to namespaces. They enable the C++ programmer to
prevent pollution of the global namespace that leads to name clashes.
Example code to tackle arrays of objects and arrays inside objects form the penultimate
portion of this chapter.
The chapter ends with an essay on nested classes—their need and use.
Fast gleichzeitig mit der Gründung des Börsenvereins und des Aufschwu
Leipziger Buchhändler-Vereins war die grosse politische ng der
Pressgew
Bewegung infolge der Julirevolution in Paris 1830 und die erbe.
bedeutenden technischen Verbesserungen der Typographie
eingetreten. Die Produktion kam nun rasch in Fluss und trat in mancher
Beziehung in andere Bahnen ein. War der Buchhändler früher weniger ein
Spekulant gewesen, so wurde er jetzt vielfach ein Bücherfabrikant und
unterlag als solcher mehr als sonst den Schwankungen der
Zeitverhältnisse[160].
Die Zeitschriften, selbst die belletristischen, schlugen unter Die
Führung des jungen Deutschlands mehr oder weniger eine illustrierte
n Blätter.
tendenziös-politische Richtung ein. Daneben wucherte die
Broschürenlitteratur in üppigster Fülle.
Geradezu umwälzend wirkte 1832 das Erscheinen des Penny magazine
(S. 94) auf die deutsche Journallitteratur. Es entstanden die
verschiedensten Nachahmungen und selbst die Verleger der
nichtillustrierten Blätter waren wenigstens bemüht, diese durch
Bilderprämien, zuerst Stahlstiche und schwarze Lithographien, später
Chromolithographien, unter Zuhülfenahme der Colportage „bis in die
Hütten“ zu verbreiten. Den Pfennigblättern folgte 1843 die „Illustrierte
Zeitung“. Auch der Humor machte unter Vortritt der „Fliegenden Blätter“
(1845) seine Rechte in einer Reihe von periodischen Schriften geltend, in
welchen hauptsächlich die lithographische Federzeichnung, bei welcher
der Künstler ohne die Dazwischenkunft eines Anderen seiner Laune die
Zügel schiessen lassen konnte, Verwendung fand.
Im Gefolge der illustrierten Blätter und unterstützt durch die Die
grossen Fortschritte der Holzschneidekunst stellten sich die Kalenderli
tteratur.
zahlreichen Volkskalender ein, von denen der von Fr. W. Gubitz
(1833) herausgegebene der reichste an Inhalt sowie an Illustrationen,
zugleich der am weitesten verbreitete war. Leider wurde dieser
volkstümlichsten und bei ehrlichem Streben sehr beachtenswerten
Gattung von Presserzeugnissen nicht allein durch die Höhe der
daraufgelegten Stempelsteuer, sondern noch mehr durch die mit der
Erhebung derselben in der Zeit der Vielstaaterei und der ausgebildetsten
Zollplackerei verbundenen Schwierigkeiten sehr gehemmt und den
Verlegern eine Quelle des fortwährenden Verdrusses und Nachteils
eröffnet.
Die Illustration bemächtigte sich jedoch nicht nur der Die
Journallitteratur, sondern es entstanden auch illustrierte illustrierte
n
Lieferungswerke in grosser Zahl, welche bei der Heftwerk
Erscheinungsweise in Heften zu 2½, 5 oder höchstens 10 e.
Groschen leicht Eingang fanden, bis Missbrauch der Geduld und
der Kasse des Publikums sie in Misskredit brachte.
Den Reigen begannen Werke mit lithographischen, zumteil kolorierten
Bildern, dann folgten solche mit Stahlstichen, Holzschnitten und
Chromolithographien. Leipzig und Stuttgart gaben den Ton an. Österreich
blieb in der Produktion zurück, bildete aber das vorzüglichste
Absatzgebiet. Für Holzschnittwerke wurden zuerst namentlich französische
Clichés benutzt; bald aber konnte Deutschland Originale genug liefern und
gab bereits im Jahre der Jubelfeier von Gutenbergs Kunst vollgültige
Beweise seines selbständigen Schaffens. Die Stahlstichwerke wurden
hauptsächlich mit englischen Produkten illustriert; dann wagte man sich
daran, unter Beihülfe englischer Künstler, von denen viele sich in
Deutschland etablierten, die Stiche selbst zu liefern.
An die Stelle der Taschenbücher in bescheidenem Format traten nach
englischen Mustern die grossen Albums und Jahrbücher, die sich jedoch eben
so wenig in Deutschland wie in England hielten und den illustrierten
Dichterwerken Platz machten.
Ebenfalls eine andere von England nach Deutschland Die
verpflanzte, jedoch sehr schnell verschwindende Mode war die Klassiker-
Ausgaben
der Klassiker-Ausgaben in einem Bande grossen Formats mit .
gespaltenen Kolumnen. Dahingegen fanden die sogenannten
Schiller-Ausgaben (von 1845 ab) in einem kleinen breiten Sedez eine grosse
Verbreitung und andauernden Beifall. Jeder Verleger spürte in seinem
Verlagskataloge eifrigst nach, ob er nicht einen von ihm übersehenen
„Klassiker“ im Verlage habe und mancher wunderbare Klassiker-Heilige
zeigte sich mit der Schillerkutte angethan. Selbst umfangreichere
wissenschaftliche Werke fielen der Schillerformat-Manie anheim. Für die
epochemachende Tauchnitz-Collection war dies Format bereits 1842
angenommen.
Die Bedürfnisse nach allgemeinen encyklopädischen Konversat
Kenntnissen fanden reiche Nahrung durch die grosse Zahl von ionslexika
.
Konversationslexika mit oder ohne Illustrationen, die alle mehr
oder weniger in Brockhaus' Kielwasser mit einer von ihm in billigster Weise
entlehnten Ladung segelten. Sogar die Damen erhielten ein solches
Lexikon und es fehlte auch nicht einmal eins für Kinder.
Die Zensurplackereien in den Jahren 1830–1848 überschritten alle
Grenzen. Zwar waren Schriften über 20 Bogen zensurfrei geworden,
jedoch musste 24 Stunden vor der Herausgabe ein Exemplar der Polizei
überreicht werden, und diese Zeit genügte für die provisorische
Beschlagnahme, die in ihren Wirkungen für den Verleger einer Die
definitiven ziemlich gleichkam. Für die politische Poesie und den politische
Poesie.
politischen und sozialen Roman lag hierin ein Vorschub, da
diesen Erzeugnissen nicht so leicht beizukommen war als denjenigen eines
klar ausgesprochenen politischen Inhalts. Der Unterdrückte wird durch
strenge Massregeln seiner Überwacher nur erfinderischer in der Auswahl
seiner Mittel, diese zu umgehen, und die erwähnten Litteraturzweige
blühten.
So hatte es lange unter der Asche geglimmt, bevor der Brand Pressfreih
infolge der Pariser Februar-Revolution 1848 in Deutschland in eit.
hellen Flammen sich Luft machte. Eine Folge war die endliche Gewährung
der seit mehr als 30 Jahren verheissenen Pressfreiheit und die
unbehelligte Einfuhr der Bücher in Österreich, bei welcher jedoch der
Buchhandel pekuniär vorläufig wenig gewann, da der Reiz des Besitzes
des Verbotenen nunmehr aufhörte.
Für die erste Zeit nahmen Zeitungen und Broschüren[161] die Die
Zeitungen
Aufmerksamkeit des Publikums ausschliesslich in Anspruch. Viele und
Kontinuationswerke kamen ins Stocken; der Kredit des Broschüre
Buchhandels wurde beschnitten. Nur in der Zeitungslitteratur n.
herrschte frisches Leben, aber auch eine grosse Zersplitterung der Kräfte,
unter welcher die Erzielung grosser Resultate sehr schwer war. Jede
Parteischattierung, jede Stadt, jedes Städtchen wollte ein Blatt oder
Blättchen für sich haben.
Während die politischen Zeitungen mit ihren reichhaltigen litterarischen
und schönwissenschaftlichen Feuilletons die eigentliche
Unterhaltungslitteratur und auch die litterarischen Blätter ganz
zurückdrängten, gediehen die illustrierten, halb unterhaltenden, halb
belehrenden Wochenblätter, für welche die „Gartenlaube“ die
Bahnbrecherin gewesen war, vortrefflich.
Als ein bedeutendes Element trat die Mode hinzu. Die grossen Modezeit
Muster- und Modezeitungen, welchen zurseite die Frauen ungen.
standen, die zum Schrecken der Männer alles Mögliche und Unmögliche
behäkelten oder bestickten und in „Schnitten“ das Unglaublichste
leisteten, fanden eine mitunter kolossale Verbreitung und wurden selbst in
Paris massgebend.
Auch die politisch-soziale Satire hatte ihren Tummelplatz, auf welchem
der „Kladderadatsch“ sich als Vorturner auszeichnete.
Nachdem die Regierungen nach der Sturmperiode sich von Die
ihrem Schrecken erholt und wieder festeren Boden unter sich Reaktion.
fühlten, begann die Reaktion erst im stillen, dann offen ihr Spiel zu treiben
und die Verfolgungen gegen Schriftsteller, Verleger und Drucker gehörten
zur Tagesordnung. Von allen Seiten trat die Politikmüdigkeit ein, dagegen
stieg die Lust an Büchern in demselben Verhältnis wie die Unlust an
Zeitungen. Die Konkurrenz im Buchhandel erhob sich wieder mächtig.
Sprach jemand einen Gedanken aus, so fiel gleich ein halbes oder ganzes
Dutzend Verleger über denselben her und zeigte sich bereit, an der
Abhülfe eines längst gefühlten Bedürfnisses mitzuwirken. Die Die
Kollektiv-Unternehmungen aller Art schossen wie Pilze aus der Erde Kollektiv-
Unterneh
und fanden guten Absatz, mit Ausnahme der men.
Romansammlungen, denn trotz der Billigkeit und der zumteil
guten Auswahl derselben zog das Publikum doch vor, sich mit der schönen
Litteratur durch die Zahlung von fünf Pfennigen oder einem Groschen
Leihgebühren pro Band abzufinden.
Durch die Eisenbahnen war die Welt in eine fortwährende Bewegung
gekommen. Es musste also auch für die Bedürfnisse des reisenden
Publikums gesorgt werden, was in ergiebigster Weise durch
Reisehandbücher und Reiseatlanten, Parleurs etc. geschah.
Ein Tag von grosser Bedeutung in der Geschichte des Der 9.
Buchgewerbes war der 9. November 1867, an welchem die Novembe
r 1867.
Verlagsrechte an die Werke der seit 30 Jahren oder länger
verstorbenen Autoren Gemeingut wurden. Merkwürdigerweise hatten die
hauptsächlichsten Verleger der Werke, die von der Bestimmung getroffen
wurden, nicht versucht, der Gefahr beizeiten energisch zu begegnen, und
überliessen den Konkurrierenden eine zeitlang das Feld. Diese hatten aber
um so vorsorglicher gehandelt und sich zumteil vor Ablauf des Termins mit
einigen Verlegern geeinigt, sodass sie noch vor dem 9. November ihre
Kollektionen zu den wohlfeilsten Preisen beginnen konnten. Fast noch
einschneidender als im Buchhandel wirkte dieser Tag in dem
Musikalienhandel.
Neben den besseren Erzeugnissen der Unterhaltungs-Litteratur Der
florierte die Schmarotzer-Pflanze des Colportage-Romans und Colportag
e-Roman.
tötete teilweise den Sinn für ernstere Lektüre, brachte auch
nebenbei durch Beigabe grösstenteils mittelmässiger Prämienbilder die
jugendlich frisch aufblühende Kunst des Farbendruckes in Misskredit.
Die grossen Fortschritte der Typographie, der Xylographie und Die
der Chromolithographie in Verbindung mit der Photographie und Pracht-
Albums.
den verschiedenen Lichtdruckverfahren hatten den Geschmack
für schöne Bücher mächtig gefördert und riefen ARCHITEKTONISCHE und
technischeWerke von grossem Werte, sowie Mustersammlungen der besseren
Erzeugnisse alter, mittlerer und neuerer Zeit hervor. Es folgten prachtvolle
ethnographische Werke. Schliesslich entstand eine wahre Sintflut von
Albums, hauptsächlich mit photographischen Illustrationen zu Gedichten,
Romanen, Opern u. dgl.
Als jüngste Phase des Buchhandels, deren Resultate noch nicht Die
vorliegen können, müssen die Mark-bibliotheken bezeichnet „Mark-
Bibliothek
werden, in welchen ein hübsch gebundener Band für eine Mark en“.
geliefert wird. Diese Kollektionen beschränken sich nicht auf die
Unterhaltungs-Litteratur, sondern dehnen sich auch auf die
wissenschaftliche aus.
Zum Schluss sei noch die Landkarten-Produktion erwähnt. Diese Die
erhielt durch Hülfe der Chemitypie und der Zinkographie, sowie Landkarte
n-
der Vielfarben-Druckmaschine eine gewaltige Ausdehnung und Produktio
die Billigkeit der Erzeugnisse bei schöner Ausführung grenzt an n.
das Wunderbare. Da diese Branche der Aufklärung ohne jeden
bitteren Beigeschmack dient, so kann die Freude hierüber eine ungetrübte
sein.
Unter den Errungenschaften des Jahres 1848 war auch das Buchdruc
Associationsrecht. Es war selbstverständlich, dass die ker-
Gehülfen-
Buchdrucker-gehülfen dasselbe benutzten, um sich in Vereine zu Verband.
sammeln behufs Vertretung ihrer Interessen mit gemeinsamen
Kräften. Dass sie mässiger in der Benutzung ihrer Freiheiten hätten sein
sollen als alle anderen Klassen, war nicht zu verlangen. Die alte
„patriarchalische“ Zeit hatte ihnen durch willkürliche Berechnungs- und
unregelmässige Zahlungsweise manche Unbill gebracht, für welche sie
jetzt Revanche nahmen, dabei die Berechnung der Zinsen nicht
vergessend.
Eine erste allgemeine Versammlung der Gehülfen aus ganz Deutschland
fand in den Tagen vom 11. bis 14. Juni 1848 in Mainz statt. Die dort
gefassten Beschlüsse hatten zwar einen Protest von gegen 200 Prinzipalen
zur Folge, dabei blieb es jedoch und man liess den Verband der
Buchdrucker- und Schriftgiesser-Gehülfen, welcher die lebhafteste
Beteiligung fand, ruhig gewähren.
Erst nachdem der Verband fast unumschränkter Herr in den Der
Druckereien geworden, dachten die Prinzipale daran, sich auch Prinzipal-
Verein.
an einander zu schliessen und versammelten sich am 15. August
1869 ebenfalls in Mainz. Der dort konstituierte Verein wollte nicht nur
Front gegen den Gehülfen-Verein machen und die persönlichen
Beziehungen fördern und kräftigen, sondern auch in der Art des
Börsenvereins der deutschen Buchhändler die Interessen des Geschäfts in
allen Lagen vertreten. Zum Vorort wurde Leipzig bestimmt und ein
Vorstand von neun Mitgliedern gewählt. 1872 zählte der Prinzipal-Verein
mehr als 700 Mitglieder; der Gehülfen-Verband das Zehnfache (7295). Die
Gesamtzahl der Gehülfen mochte gegen 11000 betragen. Von den etwa
4000 Nichtverbandsmitgliedern hielt sich eine ziemliche Anzahl nur als
„Schlaumeier“ von den Verbandsbestrebungen zurück; im Herzen gönnten
sie selbstverständlich, wenn sie auch nicht immer das Vorgehen des
Verbandes im einzelnen billigten, wohl so ziemlich alle dem Verband die
grösstmöglichsten Vorteile, denn auch sie genossen ja in ihrer gedeckten
Position die errungenen Vorteile mit.
Nach einer langen Reihe von Differenzen und nach zahlreichen Differenz
Übergriffen seitens des Verbandes fand zu Anfang des Jahres en
zwischen
1873 eine allgemeine Kündigung der Gehülfen seitens der Prinzipalit
Prinzipale statt. Da jedoch nicht alle Druckereien dem Verein ät und
angehörten, denn auch unter den Prinzipalen gab es viele Gehülfens
chaft.
„Schlaumeier“, und ein grosser Teil der Mitglieder den gefassten
Beschlüssen nicht treu blieb, kam es nach vielen Verhandlungen zwischen
den beiden Vereinen am 12. Januar 1874 zu einem Abkommen, das mit
einem allgemein einzuführenden Tarif und dem Einsetzen eines
Einigungsamtes in Differenzfällen endigte.
Der Prinzipal-Verein hat seinen Zweck bis jetzt nur im beschränkten
Masse erreicht, weil er zu viel in einer zu kurzen Zeit erreichen wollte und
weil manche seiner Mitglieder direkte Hülfe in ihren besonderen
Angelegenheiten vom Verein erwarteten, während dieser nur für eine
Anbahnung besserer Zustände im allgemeinen wirksam sein konnte. Jetzt,
wo er seiner Thätigkeit engere Grenzen gesteckt hat, ist auch zu erwarten,
dass er, wennauch nur Schritt für Schritt, zum Ziel gelangen wird, um so
mehr, als die Gehülfen ihre prinzipielle Opposition gegen ihn aufgegeben
haben[162].
Die offenbar zu grossen Einräumungen der Prinzipale im Jahre 1874
sind durch die Praxis gemildert, denn auch die Gehülfen haben einsehen
gelernt, dass es im Geschäft gewisse Grenzen giebt, die man ohne sich
selbst zu schädigen nicht überschreiten kann.
So hat die beste Lehrmeisterin, die Erfahrung, am meisten Ruhigere
dazu beigetragen, das Verhältnis im allgemeinen befriedigender Verhältnis
se.
zu gestalten. Die Versuche der Gehülfen, kooperative Druckereien
zu begründen, haben aus den jedem Geschäftsmann leicht erklärlichen
Gründen fast nur Misserfolge gehabt. Diese Thatsache hat ebenfalls
gedient, die Gehülfen darüber aufzuklären, dass auch im Geschäft nicht
alles Gold ist, was glänzt, und sie mit dem Los der Abhängigkeit zu
versöhnen. Somit steht zu hoffen, dass künftig ein innigeres
Zusammenwirken von Prinzipalität und Gehülfenschaft dazu beitragen
wird, Gutenbergs Kunst stets mehr und mehr zu Ehren zu bringen.
Das bedeutendste Organ der Gehülfenschaft ist der, jetzt Die
dreimal wöchentlich erscheinende, 1862 gegründete Organe
der
„Correspondent für Deutschlands Buchdrucker und Gehülfens
Schriftgiesser“. Früher fast nur und oft in massloser Weise chaft.
polemisch wirkend, ist das Blatt mit den Verhältnissen auch
ruhiger geworden, bringt jetzt manche technische und belehrende Artikel
und hat namentlich um statistische Aufnahmen Verdienste. Der Leiter ist
seit einer langen Reihe von Jahren Richard Härtel, der, früher zugleich
Präsident des Verbandes, mit Klugheit und Geschick die Interessen
desselben wahrgenommen hat. Das Organ der österreichischen Gehülfen
ist „Vorwärts“ in Wien.
Fußnoten:
[150] Zwei wertvolle neuere Einlagen in der Streitfrage „Antiqua oder
Fraktur“ sind: F. Soennecken, Das deutsche Schriftwesen und die
Notwendigkeit seiner Reform, Bonn 1881, und Dr. Johann Kelle, Die
deutsche und die lateinische Schrift, Separatabdruck aus der
Rundschau 1882.
[151] Um zu einiger Klarheit über das Verhältnis der Antiqua zu der
Fraktur in der deutschen Typographie zu kommen, hat der Verfasser
dieses Buches eine Zählung der litterarischen Erzeugnisse des Jahres
1881 nach dem Hinrichsschen Katalog unternommen. Von 14320
Nummern sind 8894 mit Fraktur, 5426 mit Antiqua gedruckt (gleich 62
zu 38 Proz.). In zwei grosse Gruppen nach den obigen Andeutungen
der praktischen Verwendung geteilt, giebt die „wissenschaftliche
Gruppe“ 7142 Werke, davon 2896 mit Fraktur, 4246 mit Antiqua (gleich
40 zu 60 Proz.); die zweite Gruppe, die „populäre Litteratur“, weist
7178 Werke auf, davon 5998 mit Fraktur, 1180 mit Antiqua (gleich 83½
zu 16½ Proz.). Zeitungen sind hierbei nicht mitgezählt, wohl aber
Wochen- und Monatsschriften. Wie überwiegend die Antiqua in dem
Accidenzfache verwendet wird, zeigt z. B. eine genaue Aufstellung der
C. G. Naumannschen Accidenzdruckerei in Leipzig, nach welcher von
9447 Aufträgen in dem Jahre 1878 nur 161 in Frakturschrift bestellt
waren.
[152] Lud. Hoffmann, Geschichte der Bücherzensur. Berlin 1879. —
Die Preussische Pressgesetzgebung unter Friedr. Wilhelm III. Leipzig
1881. — Fr. Kapp, Aktenstücke zur Gesch. der Preuss. Zensur etc.
(Archiv d. B.-B.-V. IV). Leipzig 1879. — R. E. Prutz, Zur Geschichte d.
Presse in Preussen (Deutsch. Mus. 1857, 11).
[153] K. Biedermann, Deutschland im XVIII. Jahrhundert. 1. Bd. 2.
Aufl. Leipzig 1880. — Friedr. Perthes' Leben. 6. Aufl. Gotha 1872.
[154] C. B. Lorck, Geschichte des Vereins der Buchhändler zu Leipzig.
Leipzig 1883.
[155] H. E. Brockhaus, Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus. Sein Leben und
Wirken. 3 Bde. Leipzig 1872.
[156] Fr. Frommann, Geschichte des Börsenvereins. — Der Börsenbau
(Kap. II in Lorcks Gesch. d. Vereins d. Buchh. zu Leipzig). — Statut des
Börsenvereins vom 25. April 1880.
[157] Katalog der Bibl. des Börsen-Vereins. Leipzig 1869. Nachtrag
1870.
[158] Ein Jahrgang des Börsenblattes bildet jetzt vier Quartbände,
zusammen in einem Umfange von gegen 6000 Seiten. Seit 1856 wurde
es von Jul. Krauss redigiert.
[159] E. Berger, Die Anfänge der period. Litteratur des Buchhandels
(Publ. d. B.-B.-V. 11). Leipzig 1875.
[160] O. A. Schulz, Der Buchhandel (Schiebes Handelslexikon). — A.
Schürmann, Der Buchhandel (Pierers Universallexikon). — K. Buchner,
Schriftsteller und Verleger vor 100 Jahren. — Dr. A. Kirchhoff, Litteratur
und Buchhandel am Schluss des XVIII. Jahrh. — J. H. Meyer, Die
genossenschaftlichen Buchhandlungen des XVIII. Jahrh. (Archiv d. D.
B.-B.-V. 11). Leipzig 1879. — A. Prinz, Der Buchhandel von 1815 bis
zum Jahre 1863. 7 Teile. Altona 1855–1863. — E. Berger, Aus dem
Buchhandel vor 50 Jahren (Publ. d. B.-B.-V. 11). Leipzig 1875. —
Derselbe, Der deutsche Buchhandel in d. J. 1815–1867 (Arch. d. B.-B.-
V. 11). Leipzig 1879. — K. Buchner, Beiträge zur Gesch. d. Buchhandels.
[161] R. E. Prutz, Geschichte des deutschen Journalismus. Hannover
1845. — Derselbe, Fortschritte der Zeitungspresse (Deutsch. Museum
1858 Nvbr.). — J. Kuranda, Deutsche Zeitungen und Zeitschriften. — H.
Wuttke, Die deutschen Zeitschriften. 2. Aufl. Leipzig 1875. — Einen
Einblick in die Herstellung einer Zeitung gewährt: J. H. Wehle, Die
Zeitung. 2. Aufl. Wien 1883.
[162] Die Geschichte des Deutschen Buchdrucker-Vereins von 1869–
1876 ist in den Annalen der Typographie 1870, Nr. 341–390 im
Zusammenhang ausführlich behandelt. Die „Annalen“ waren von der
Begründung des Vereins bis 1876 Organ desselben und wurden von
dessen Sekretär Carl B. Lorck herausgegeben. Jetzt giebt der Verein
selbst in unregelmässigen Zwischenräumen die „Mitteilungen aus dem
Deutschen Buchdrucker-Verein“ heraus.
[163] Die etwa 700 Offizinen, welche Buchdruckerei und
Steindruckerei vereinigen, sind doppelt angeführt.
Das Deutsche Reich, Österreich und die Schweiz als graphische
Einheit betrachtet ergiebt die Zahl von 6993 graphischen Anstalten mit
9378 Schnellpressen und etwa 13500 Tret- und Handpressen. Die
Details über Österreich und die Schweiz finden sich S. 406 und S. 436.
[164] Die Angaben hier können zwar keinen Anspruch auf absolute
Genauigkeit erheben, kommen jedoch der Wahrheit so nahe, dass sie
genügen, um sich ein richtiges Bild zu machen. Für die Angaben der
Bevölkerung wurde Neumanns „Geographisches Lexikon“, Leipzig 1883,
mit Abrundung der Einwohnerzahl auf 500 benutzt; für die der
Buchdruckereien und der lithographischen Anstalten „Klimsch'
Adressbuch der Buch- und Steindruckereien“, Frankfurt a. M. 1880; für
die Buchhandlungen „Schulz' Adressbuch für den deutschen
Buchhandel“, Leipzig 1882, für die Zeitschriften R. Mosses
„Zeitungskatalog“, 1882; die in diesem fehlenden Zeitschriften sind
ohne Einfluss auf das Gewerbe.
[165] J. Chr. Schäfer, Sämtliche Papierversuche. Regensburg 1772.
— L. Müller, Die Fabrikation des Papiers. 4. Aufl. Berlin 1877. —
Lenormand, Handbuch der gesamten Papierfabrikationen. 3. Aufl.
Weimar 1881.
[166] R. Steche, Zur Geschichte des Bucheinbandes (Archiv d. D. B.-
B.-V. Bd. I). Leipzig 1878. — G. Fritzsche, Moderne Bucheinbände.
Leipzig 1878. — C. Bauer, Handbuch der Buchbinderei. Weimar 1881.
— L. Brade, Illustriertes Buchbinderbuch. Halle 1881.
[167] Im Deutschen Reiche giebt es nur eine Fabrik „englischer
Leinen“, die von Schultze & Niemann in Eutritzsch bei Leipzig.
X. KAPITEL.
ebookgate.com