Classical Mechanics Lecture 17

The effective potential with simple examples

Prof Armin Reichold

University of Oxford
Hilary Term 2022

1st year mechanics, HT 2024, Armin Reichold 1

Lecture 17 overview
1. The effective potential approach for central forces
1. The effective potential for the inverse square law
2. Example of an unbound orbit: Oumuamua
2. Using the effective potential approach
1. The 2D harmonic oscillator
2. A tethered puck rotating on a table

1st year mechanics, HT 2024, Armin Reichold 2

 17.1 The effective potential approach for central forces
• Recall the energy equation (lect.16, p7):
• Combine azimuthal kinetic + potential energy into effective potential
➔
• This looks like a one dimensional energy expression:
•
• the analysis becomes 1-D-like because 𝑱 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
• Can predict important features of motion without solving the radial equation
• LHS of is always positive or zero
•

In a central potential particles can only reach positions where 𝑈𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑟 < 𝐸
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 17.1.1 𝑼𝒆𝒇𝒇 for inverse square laws

• E.g. gravitational force: 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ)

• Demanding:
generates three categories of orbits:

1. 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 < 0: Bound or closed elliptic orbit 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 > 0

𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 < 𝑟 < 𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 (like any of our planets) 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 < 0
2. 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 ≥ 0 open hyperbolic or parabolic (Etot=0) 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ)

𝑟 > 𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
3. 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = min 𝑈𝑒𝑓𝑓 : Bound circular orbit 𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 (special case of elliptic orbit)
Nomenclature Note: • Orbit around sun ➔ Aphelion, Perihelion 𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Orbit around earth ➔ Apogee, Perigee
• General ➔ Apsides, Prefix Ap or Apo + notation for central body 1st year mechanics, HT 2024, Armin Reichold 4
 17.1.2 Unbound orbit: ‘Oumuamua
Closed orbits are familiar and common (all planets) and we will study them more
Unbound orbits are rare and quite topical after the 2017 discovery of “1L/2017 U1” aka
‘Oumuamua, the first known interstellar object to pass through our solar system

On hyperbolic orbit with 𝑣 𝑟 = ∞ = 26 km/s relative to sun

Orbital eccentricity = 1.2 (earth has 0.016)
Will leave heliosphere in about 20,000 years 1st year mechanics, HT 2024, Armin Reichold
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 17.2.1 Using the effective potential approach: 2D harmonic oscillator
• Relaxed spring length 𝑙 = 0 ➔
• Remember:
• Energy equation:
• In this case:
• Find 𝑣0 and hence E for circular orbit: 𝑟ሶ = 0
• 𝐸 must be at minimum of 𝑈𝑒𝑓𝑓 :

• initial condition gives:

• ➔
𝐸 for circular orbit

centripetal spring
➔
force = force 1st year mechanics, HT 2024, Armin Reichold 6
 17.2.1 Using the effective potential approach: 2D harmonic oscillator

• Now set relaxed length 𝑙 = 𝒂 ➔

• As before, find condition for v0 to give circular motion

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 17.2.1 Using the effective potential approach: 2D harmonic oscillator
• Now study non-circular orbits in two ways (𝑙 = 0)
1. Via classical force equations in Cartesian co-ord.
• harmonic
motion !

use four initial conditions to

determine four constants ➔
• 𝑡 = 0: fixes:
• Instead of initial condition for v0, alternatively use:
𝜋
•𝑡= : fixes sign of ω & gives:
2𝜔

square equation of
& add ellipse
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 17.2.1 Using the effective potential approach: 2D harmonic oscillator
2. Look at Elliptical orbits via effective potential analysis (𝑙 = 0)
Notes:
• no unbound orbits possible
• to get the orbit equations we need to:
• Set up the energy equation 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡
which gives a first order, non-linear ODE in 𝑟
• replace 𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
• separate variables
𝐸 for eliptical orbit • integrate once
• this get’s us back to harmonic motion

• Mass = 1 kg
• spring constant = 1 kg/s2
• initial radius = 1m
• initial speed perp. to radius = 1 m/s
𝑟1 𝑟2
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 17.2.2 Using the effective potential approach: Rotating puck on table
• Two particles of identical mass 𝑚
• Connected by light inextensible string on length 𝑙
𝑙
• Mass on table starts at 𝑡 = 0 with 𝑟 = 2 and
𝑣 = 𝑣0 perpendicular to the string
• For which 𝑣0 do we get circular motion?
• Solve for simple special case of circular motion 𝑣0 𝑚
via forces: 𝑟
𝜃

𝑦=𝑙−𝑟

𝑚
1st year mechanics, HT 2024, Armin Reichold
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 17.2.2 Using the effective potential approach: Rotating puck on table
• Now lets find 𝑣0 for circular orbit via the effective potential:
• Energy equation:

• using
• Find 𝐽 at 𝑡 = 0:
• Find 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡 at 𝑡 = 0 via 𝑟ሶ = 0:
• 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 𝐸𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐

• Gives ugly, non-linear ODE for 𝑟:ሶ 𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐

But it defines r(t) in general terms for any 𝑣0 and 𝑙
• For circular motion we seek minimum of 𝑈𝑒𝑓𝑓 :
𝑣0
• which gives: insert 𝑟
𝑚

𝑙
• now put 𝑟 = to get: as before 𝑦=𝑙−𝑟
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𝑚 11
 17.2.2 Using the effective potential approach: Rotating puck on table
• But what about the general case?
• The ugly, non-linear ODE for 𝑟:ሶ
• Even if we cannot solve above ODE we see from 𝑈𝑒𝑓𝑓 that:
• we must get bounded motion
• limited by 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑟 < 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
• without friction mass never drops through the hole if 𝑣0 ≠ 0

𝐸 > 𝐸𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐
for smaller 𝑣0 but fixed 𝐸
we get smaller 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸 > 𝐸𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐

𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
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