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CIE A Level Physics Your notes

1.2 Measurements & Errors

Contents
1.2.1 Errors & Uncertainties
1.2.2 Calculating Uncertainties
1.2.3 Measurement Techniques

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1.2.1 Errors & Uncertainties

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Random & Systematic Errors
Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that quantity
In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity, there will always be a degree of
uncertainty
The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and the true value
Random and systematic errors are two types of measurement errors which lead to uncertainty

Random error
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of results about the
mean value
To reduce random error: repeat measurements several times and calculate an average from them

Systematic error
Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the experimental
method
This type of error is repeated every time the instrument is used or the method is followed, which affects
the accuracy of all readings obtained
To reduce systematic errors: instruments should be recalibrated or the technique being used should
be corrected or adjusted

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Representing precision and accuracy on a graph

Zero error
This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a reading when the true
reading is zero
This introduces a fixed error into readings which must be accounted for when the results are recorded

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Precision & Accuracy

Precision of a measurement: this is how close the measured values are to each other; if a Your notes
measurement is repeated several times, then they can be described as precise when the values are
very similar to, or the same as, each other
The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded - measurements to a greater
number of decimal places are said to be more precise than those to a whole number
Accuracy: this is how close a measured value is to the true value; the accuracy can be increased by
repeating measurements and finding a mean average

The difference between precise and accurate results

Exam Tip
It is very common for students to confuse precision with accuracy - measurements can be precise but
not accurate if each measurement reading has the same error. Precision refers to the ability to take
multiple readings with an instrument that are close to each other, whereas accuracy is the closeness of
those measurements to the true value.

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1.2.2 Calculating Uncertainties

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Calculating Uncertainty
There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty can be thought
of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the equipment or techniques used)
and the true value
Uncertainties are not the same as errors
Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a reading to be
different from the true value
The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true value is expected
to lie, and is an estimate
For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is 950 g, but a systematic error with a balance gives
an actual reading of 952 g, the uncertainty is ±2 g
These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:
Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity
Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the measurement
Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the measurement

To find uncertainties in different situations:

The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
The uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division
The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest - smallest value)
The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise quoted

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How to calculate absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainty

Combining Uncertainties
The rules to follow
Adding / subtracting data – add the absolute uncertainties

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Multiplying / dividing data – add the percentage uncertainties

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Raising to a power – multiply the fractional (or %) uncertainty by the power

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1.2.3 Measurement Techniques

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Measurement Techniques
Common instruments used in Physics are:
Metre rules - to measure distance and length
Balances - to measure mass
Protractors - to measure angles
Stopwatches - to measure time
Ammeters - to measure current
Voltmeters - to measure potential difference
More complicated instruments such as the micrometer screw gauge and Vernier calipers can be used
to more accurately measure length

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When using measuring instruments like these you need to ensure that you are fully aware of what each
division on a scale represents

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This is known as the resolution

The resolution is the smallest change in the physical quantity being measured that results in a change in
the reading given by the measuring instrument Your notes
The smaller the change that can be measured by the instrument, the greater the degree of resolution
For example, a standard mercury thermometer has a resolution of 1°C whereas a typical digital
thermometer will have a resolution of 0.1°C
The digital thermometer has a higher resolution than the mercury thermometer
Measuring Instruments Table

Micrometer Screw Gauge

A micrometer, or a micrometer screw gauge, is a tool used for measuring small widths, thicknesses or
diameters
For example, the diameter of a copper wire
It has a resolution of 0.01 mm
The micrometer is made up of two scales:
The main scale - this is on the sleeve (sometimes called the barrel)
The thimble scale - this is a rotating scale on the thimble

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The spindle and anvil are closed around the object being measured by
rotating the ratchet Your notes
This should be tight enough so the object does not fall out but not so tight
that is deformed
Never tighten the spindle using the barrel, only using the ratchet. This will
reduce the chances of overtightening and zero errors
The value measured from the micrometer is read where the thimble scale
aligns with the main scale
This should always be recorded to 2 decimal places (eg. 1.40 mm not just 1.4 mm)

How to operate a micrometer

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Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers are another distance measuring tool that uses a sliding vernier scale Your notes
They can also be used to measure diameters and thicknesses, just like the micrometer
However, they can also measure the length of small objects such as a screw or the depth of a hole
Vernier calipers generally have a resolution of 0.1 mm, however, some are as small as 0.02 mm - 0.05
mm
The calipers are made up of two scales:
The main scale
The vernier scale
The two upper or lower jaws are clamped around the object
The sliding vernier scale will follow this and can be held in place using the locking screw
The value measured from the caliper is read when the vernier scale aligns with the main scale
This should always be recorded to at least 1 decimal place (eg. 12.1 mm not just 12 mm)

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The vernier caliper reading is read when the vernier scale aligns with the main scale

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