Educational Research

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Teachers’ professional development: a theoretical

review

May Britt Postholm

To cite this article: May Britt Postholm (2012) Teachers’ professional development: a theoretical
review, Educational Research, 54:4, 405-429, DOI: 10.1080/00131881.2012.734725

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Educational Research
Vol. 54, No. 4, December 2012, 405–429

Teachers’ professional development: a theoretical review

May Britt Postholm*

Programme for Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Dragvoll
gård, Låven, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
(Received 9 February 2012; resubmitted 3 August 2012; final version received 30 August 2012)

Background and purpose: The article reviews studies that focus on the
professional development of teachers after they have completed their basic
teacher training. Teacher professional development is defined as teachers’ learning:
how they learn to learn and how they apply their knowledge in practice to support
pupils’ learning. The research question addressed in the article is: How do
experienced teachers learn?
Main argument: The review is framed by theories within the constructivist
paradigm. From this perspective, knowledge is perceived as the construction of
meaning and understanding within social interaction. The social surroundings are
seen as decisive for how the individual learns and develops. It is argued that
courses and lectures, or ‘times for telling’, and teachers’ development of a
metacognitive attitude are decisive factors for teachers’ learning within a
constructivist frame of reference.
Sources of evidence and method: To attempt to answer the research question, a
search was conducted of the subject of pedagogy in the ISI WEB of Science (search
undertaken 9 August 2011) using the search strings ‘teacher learning’, ‘teacher
development’ and ‘teacher professional development’, and covering the period
from 2009 to 2011 to probe the most recent decade of research. Articles that dealt
with basic education, primary and secondary school, were selected, and articles that
dealt with learning using digital tools and the internet and newly trained teachers
were rejected. A set of 31 articles was selected from this search. To ensure width and
depth of coverage, this was supplemented by a selection of review studies and
research on further education in respect of teachers’ learning. The texts were
analysed by means of open and axial coding, developing main and sub-categories.
Conclusions: The review of articles shows that both individual and organisa-
tional factors impact teachers’ learning. Teacher co-operation has importance for
how they develop, and some of the teachers can lead such learning activities
themselves. Moreover, a positive school culture with a good atmosphere and
understanding of teachers’ learning, in addition to co-operation with external
resource persons, may impact the professional development of teachers. The
article concludes with the reflection that learning in school is the best arena for
further development of teachers.
Keywords: teacher professional development; teacher learning; further
development; continuous learning; continuous development.

Introduction
This article focuses on the professional development of teachers after they have
completed their basic teacher training. Teacher professional development means

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406 M.B. Postholm

teachers’ learning, how they learn to learn and how they apply their knowledge in
practice to support pupil learning (Avalos 2011). Teachers can learn through
participation in various courses, in school when they reflect on their own teaching
and in observation of and reflection on others’ teaching in co-operation with
colleagues. Learning can occur in planned reflection meetings between teachers, or
teachers can learn from unplanned conversations with other colleagues before or
after teaching, or in parent–teacher meetings. Thus, learning may occur in various
ways, both formally and informally.
Learning can be defined in different ways. In this paper, learning is connected to
the cognitivist – and mainly the constructivist – paradigm. In these two paradigms,
the learner is perceived as active in the learning process. In the cognitivist paradigm,
learning takes place when an individual is taught or is mentally stimulated in other
ways, and in the constructivist paradigm, knowledge is perceived as the construction
of meaning and understanding within social interaction. The social surroundings
play a role in how a human develops within the cognitivist paradigm, but the
individual is in the foreground from this perspective. Within the constructivist
paradigm, the social surroundings are seen as decisive for how the individual learns
and develops. Individuals construct knowledge and learn through mediated acts in
the encounter with one or more persons and the surroundings in which they live and
act. From this perspective, Vygotsky’s thoughts and ideas on learning are central.
The cognitivist and constructivist paradigms reject the positivist approach, which
describes a human as an empty vessel, a ‘tabula rasa’, who is passive in the learning
process (Prawat 1996). Theories of metacognition (Flavell 1979, 1987), which will be
presented later in this paper, are traditionally defined as belonging within the
cognitivist paradigm.
The research question that is pursued in this article is: How do experienced
teachers learn? First, theories on learning are presented, followed by a description of
how the articles were selected and analysed. After the methodological section,
international research findings on teachers’ learning over a period of three years
from 2009 to 2011 are presented. Following a summary, the final conclusion
discusses how the continuing education of teachers could be organised in the future.

Theoretical perspectives
Socio-cultural theory and learning
In applying socio-cultural theory and Vygotsky’s thoughts and ideas, Warford
(2011) claims that teachers’ learning is situated. Facts are not transferred to the
learners, but the learners appropriate their own meaning relating to the content by
means of cultural artefacts. Cultural artefacts may, in this context, be language
used in conversation, or the learner may be in dialogue with a text. Teaching
teachers with this perspective as the guide would often require a dialogue between
the previous experiences teachers have, their tacit perception of pedagogy and the
educational content they interact with in their training. According to Warford
(2011), teacher trainers cannot promote the learning of teachers without
awakening their previous knowledge and experiences during the learning process.
Based on the previous knowledge of teachers, they may be assisted in their zones
of proximal development by more competent others (Vygotsky 1978). More
competent others may, in this setting, be colleagues, external teachers or other
resource persons.
 Educational Research 407

In the learning process, reflection is a key activity. Postholm (2008) has described
reflection as the key to teachers’ learning and development of teaching practice.
Lempert-Shepell (1995) defined reflection ‘as the ability to make one’s own
behaviour an object of study: To manage it via the ability to regard oneself as the
ideal other’ (p. 434). A relationship appears between reflection and action, and
Lempert-Shepell (1995) goes on to say: ‘Reflection changes the character of the
action. An acting person stops dealing with the situational action but regards the
sphere of possible actions. The structure of an action can change’ (p. 435). According
to Lempert-Shepell, both co-organisation and self-organisation of the content of
activities are vital for promoting teachers’ learning.
In organising and reflecting on teaching, everyday terms and scientific constructs
(Vygotsky 2000) may be interwoven, thus bringing theory and practice closer
together. Hence, reflection may contribute to developing both theory and practice
(Kvernbekk 2011). Vygotsky (2000) asserted that behind a theory, thought or idea
we will always find an emotion or will, and that full understanding of another
person’s thoughts is only possible when this person’s emotions or intent have been
understood. To understand the language of another it is not sufficient to understand
the other’s words, we must also understand his or her thoughts. But this is still not
enough; we must also understand the person’s motivation. This means that thoughts,
emotions and a person’s will are closely linked to actions, hence also to teachers’
professional development and learning understood within a socio-cultural frame of
reference.

‘A time for telling’

According to Schwartz and Bransford (1998), there is also ‘a time for telling’ within a
constructivist paradigm. Bakhtin (1981) has presented two constructs that might be
useful thinking tools in this context. He speaks about the ‘authoritarian’ and
‘authoritative’ word. The authoritarian word stands for what can be defined as a
direct transfer of new knowledge, while the authoritative word invites dialogue. In a
lecture, many dialogues may arise between listeners and lecturers without any
exchange of words. The lecturer may awaken internal dialogues (Bakhtin 1981;
Vygotsky 2000) in each listener. These dialogues may develop each individual’s
understanding, but this requires that the listener has decided to attend a lecture
which has been talked about and has piqued his or her interest, and that has lived up
to his or her expectations. Thus lectures that build on interest and background
knowledge and that are, therefore, within the learners’ zone of proximal
development (Vygotsky 1978) may contribute to learning. Courses and lectures
may in this way be useful in learning processes. In addition to the lecture itself, in
order for the learning process to be optimal, the dialogue must continue – which, for
teachers, means continuing the dialogue in school.

Metacognitive processes and learning

Metacognition is part of what is called self-regulated learning. In our context, it
means teachers learning to learn. Dewey (1916) believed that people who continually
participate in development situations also learn to learn. Metacognition is a common
denominator for metacognitive strategies and metacognitive knowledge (Flavell
1979, 1987). Metacognitive strategies are found on a higher reflection level than
408 M.B. Postholm

cognitive strategies (Bråten 2005). When we use metacognitive strategies, the

intention is not to satisfy specific goals, but rather to assess how the goals are to be
or have been satisfied. Metacognitive strategies imply thoughts about thoughts, or
knowledge or cognition about cognitive phenomena. Using metacognitive strategies
means that learners can plan, lead, regulate and control their own learning
(Boekaerts, Pintrich, and Zeidner 2000; Flavell 1976; Zimmerman 2001, 2006). In
addition to controlling one’s own learning processes by using metacognitive
strategies, metacognitive knowledge is extremely important for understanding which
strategies can be used in different situations.
Flavell (1979, 1987) divides metacognitive knowledge into three components:
knowledge about a person, about tasks and about strategies. Knowledge about a
person means how one understands oneself as a learning and thinking person.
Knowledge about tasks means that one is aware of various cognitive tasks and how
they require different solutions. Knowledge about strategies includes the learner’s
knowledge about various methods that might be applied to resolve a task. In school,
this means how the teacher develops a metacognitive attitude (Jackson 1974) on his/
her own practice. In this context, it means seeing the pupils and how teaching actions
are adapted to each individual in the encounter between the teacher and pupils.
Hence, it is important to adopt a meta-perspective on the interaction processes in the
classroom to facilitate for learning and to deal with expected and unexpected input.
It also means learning from actions that unfold in the classroom through action
learning (Tiller 2006; Postholm and Jacobsen 2011) so that the teaching can be
continuously changed and improved. Additionally, it involves knowing how
one learns from these acts, and thus how to use metacognitive strategies. Dearden
(1976) called this first-order and second-order learning. First-order learning means
learning content. Second-order learning means becoming aware of how the content is
learnt.
Metacognition has its origin in the cognitive paradigm (Flavell 1979, 1987).
When teachers develop a metacognitive attitude (Jackson 1974), they are aware of
their own practice. The teachers interact and construct knowledge and learn together
with their pupils during activity in the classroom. In this way, metacognition and the
development of a metacognitive attitude are important factors connected with
learning, also within a constructivist frame of reference.

Method
Literature search rationale
To attempt to answer the research question, a search was conducted of the subject of
pedagogy in the ISI WEB of Science (search undertaken 9 August 2011) using the
search strings ‘teacher learning’, ‘teacher development’ and ‘teacher professional
development’, and covering the period from 2009 to 2011 to probe the most recent
decade of research. The intention was to obtain an overview of previous research
published in international periodicals relating to teachers’ learning. This yielded 638
hits. Narrowing the search down to ‘Education and Educational research’ resulted in
395 hits. Of these, 278 articles and 12 review articles were brought into focus. Articles
that dealt with basic education, primary and secondary school1 were selected. A
decision was made to exclude articles that dealt with learning using digital tools and
the internet and newly trained teachers, on the basis that these significant areas
would best be dealt with by conducting separate review studies. In this way, focus in
 Educational Research 409

the present study was retained on experienced teachers in basic education and their
learning in the school where they were working.
After reading the abstracts and articles that had been identified, a final set of 31
articles was selected to pursue the research question for this review: eight articles
from 2011, ten articles from 2010 and 13 articles from 2009. In addition to these,
three literature review articles and an international meta-study were also selected
(Timperley et al. 2007). It was considered that these articles, as a group, give a good
overview of research on teachers’ learning. They also provide insight into research
findings from various regions of the world. Thus, the selection of papers offered
width and depth.
The decision was also made to examine research on further education and
teachers’ learning, because further education has been a very important way for
experienced teachers to develop their knowledge and teaching in school. The same
search strings as mentioned above, in addition to ‘further education’, and the same
period were used to search the subject of pedagogy in the ISI WEB of Science (search
undertaken 9 August 2011). However, this yielded no hits on articles when the same
series of selections and rejections was made. Research in the last decade has, it
appeared, not been strongly focused on further education. To deal with this
identified shortcoming for formal further education, a Norwegian study (Hagen and
Nyen 2009), TALIS (2009), McMahon et al.’s report from 2007 and two
international studies (Parise and Spillane 2010 and Buczynski and Hansen 2010)
were accordingly included. These were discovered during the reading of articles
about teachers’ learning and dealt with traditional courses or formal continuing
education of teachers.

Analysis strategy
When examining the articles, the intention was to pinpoint the main findings from
the studies presented in the articles. The contents of the articles were also structured
and reduced by coding and categorising the texts in open and axial analysis processes
(Strauss and Corbin 1990, 1998) so that their essence was made reportable (Garfinkel
1967; Sachs 1992). The open analysis process, gave rise to categories on the same
horizontal level, and led to the following two main categories: (1) ‘formal continuing
education’ and (2) ‘learning in school’.
The second main category included several research findings and to structure
them so they were more reportable, the texts about ‘learning in school’ were
sorted into sub-categories by asking ‘when, ‘how’ and ‘under what conditions’
learning in school takes place (Strauss and Corbin 1990, 1998). This axial analysis
process resulted in the following seven sub-categories: (1) five characteristics of
teachers’ learning; (2) individual and organisational factors in teachers’ learning;
(3) teacher co-operation for teachers’ learning; (4) school culture and teachers’
learning; (5) co-operation between external resource persons and teachers for
teachers’ learning; (6) teachers as leaders of other teachers’ learning; (7) positive
atmosphere and understanding of teachers’ learning. In this paper, these
categories will be used to structure the presentation of the articles and their
findings.
The presentation of the research articles outlines the samples of the studies and
the school level in which they were conducted. The review text also locates the
studies geographically, either directly or indirectly. The intention of the presentation
410 M.B. Postholm

is that the findings will function as a thinking tool for teachers’ learning and thus
have significance beyond the local contexts of the research studies.
The three review articles are presented under each of their own headings because
they have their own structure based on the articles that were included in the review.
The themes in the review articles thus correspond to the themes developed on the
basis of the other articles included in this review paper. The summaries of these three
review articles do not deviate from the findings in the other presented articles, but
give supportive and additive understanding about teachers’ learning in the schools
where they were working.

Theoretical framework in relation to the developed categories

The coding and categorising process structuring the content of the review articles
into themes suggests that there are ‘times for telling’ (Schwartz and Bransford
1998), meaning that there are appropriate times for courses and lectures – as in
formal continuing education. This review indicates, however, that research has
emphasised learning as situated (Vygotsky 1978, 2000; Warford 2011), which
implies learning actually taking place in the schools where the teachers are
working. Theories on situated learning emphasise that learners are active in their
learning processes (Lempert-Shepell 1995; Postholm 2008), and that learners have
to be metacognitive in these processes (Flavell 1979, 1987). Furthermore, a
person’s thoughts, emotions and will are closely linked to actions, and the context
in which learning takes place has consequences for the learning process (Vygotsky
1978, 2000). The categories also focus on such contextual factors as individual and
organisational features, teacher co-operation and a positive atmosphere. This
shows that the surroundings are very important elements in the individual’s
learning and development, as is also the stance within the constructivist paradigm
(Prawat 1996).

Findings
Teachers’ learning: formal continuing education
In Norway, formal competence development among teachers in lower and higher
secondary schools has changed over the last five or six years (Hagen and Nyen 2009).
Hagen and Nyen refer to how teachers have high formal competence. Compared
with the rest of the national workforce – including other professional groups with
higher education – teachers participate to a high degree in training and education.
This applies not least to formal further education, even if there has been no increase
in recent years.
Hagen and Nyen (2009) comment that teachers have little tradition for
stimulating learning in their day-to-day work, but also state that the traditional
teacher role in Norway has been evolving. Teachers have more collaborative non-
classroom time outside their teaching, which enables more co-operation between
colleagues when it comes to the planning, implementation and assessment of
teaching. This may form the basis for more practice-oriented learning between
colleagues in school. The practical experiences of teachers also have a positive effect
on the pupil’s learning outcome, and it would appear this has the highest effect from
three to five years after the training is finished. If the teachers are working in a
development-oriented school environment which attaches importance to continuing
 Educational Research 411

learning and co-operation, the effect will be maintained longer than three to five
years, according to Hagen and Nyen (2009). They refer to qualitative analyses of
what characterises good teachers. They show that good teachers have the ability to
increase their competence by co-operating with other teachers while they assume
responsibility for their own professional development. Hammerness et al. (2005) call
this ‘adaptive expertise’, which means the ability to learn something from others on a
continuing basis.
In a study focusing on primary and secondary schools (82% of the 261
respondents were either primary or secondary teachers), the Scottish school
researcher McMahon and colleagues (2007) point out that further education with
practice-oriented research activities and content that integrates teachers’ own action
research appears to be particularly fertile ground. In Parise and Spillane’s (2010)
study, a survey of school staff members in 30 American elementary schools showed
that teachers appreciate formal further education if it is connected directly to
teaching in school. Precisely the fact that further education is so closely linked to and
relevant for their own working day appears to lead teachers to find that the time they
invest is well spent. In a study carried out in OECD countries (TALIS 2009),
Norwegian teachers at the lower secondary school level stated that qualification
programmes and research activities2 have the most importance for their professional
development.
The American researchers Buczynski and Hansen (2010) found that teacher
learning also has an impact on the learning of pupils. Their study looked at courses
given to 118 fourth to sixth grade teachers of mathematics and natural science with
an exploratory method as the educational tool. The course the teachers attended
comprised 80 hours over one year, a summer course before start of school and
Saturdays during the school year. The content of the course included ‘exploratory
teaching as method’, content knowledge in maths and natural science and formative
assessment, the assessment of the pupils’ work during activities to enhance their
learning. Teachers from two districts participated, and the pupils in one of these
districts performed better in tests on the district level, while the achievements of
pupils in the other district remained on the same level. The findings also
indicated that several teachers from the same school participating led to the best
pupil results.

Teachers’ learning: learning in school

The action researcher Tiller (2006) speaks of a new wave of teacher learning and the
teacher’s ability to learn and, thus, be metacognitive. According to Tiller, this self-
learning should take place in the day-to-day teaching. The experiences gained must
be processed and thus lead to development of new and deeper knowledge, which in
the next instance will contribute to developing one’s own performance in the job.
Tiller states that teachers must not become caught up in the experiences, but must
include them in the current situation and planning of future practice. Thus teachers
can learn from their own experiences by being exploratory, and in this way they will
have a meta-perspective on their own teaching practice (Postholm and Jacobsen
2011; Postholm and Moen 2009).
In the sub-sections below, the findings from research on teachers’ learning
in school are presented under the seven themes developed during the analysis
process.
412 M.B. Postholm

Theme 1: Five characteristics of teachers’ learning

In a theoretical study, Desimone (2009), identified five characteristics of teachers’
learning that should be prominent if the knowledge and skills of teachers are to be
strengthened and their practice improved. These are: content focus, active learning,
coherence, duration and collective participation or co-operation. The focus on content
means both subject knowledge and knowledge about how pupils can acquire this
knowledge. Active learning may mean observing expert teachers or being observed
personally with subsequent interactive feedback and discussion. Coherence refers to
the content in the teachers’ learning and whether it is consistent with their prior
knowledge and convictions. Duration means that development activities should last
for a certain period, and the time these are spread over. Desimone suggests that the
development activity should last for at least one semester and include 20 hours or
more contact time between participants. Co-operation as an important factor for
development activities implies that teachers from the same school, teaching in the
same year or in the same department can learn together. Teachers can then learn
from each other. Desimone adds that the role of the school leaders is essential for
teachers’ learning.

Theme 2: Individual and organisational factors in teachers’ learning

Several researchers have been interested in the relation between teachers’
convictions, values and practice and their learning. According to the British
researchers James and McCormick (2009), some research suggests that teachers’
learning based on their teaching in the classroom influences their values and further
practice. However, findings from their study of teachers in 40 primary and secondary
schools show that change is not a sequential process; changes that occur in practice,
and values and convictions are related to each other. This means that teachers may
encounter practice with varying ideas about what is good teaching for the pupils, but
that these ideas may be influenced by the context the teachers are in, the stage they
are at in their career, their previous practical experiences and the pupils they have.
The data from a national survey of 1126 teachers working in 329 primary and 59
secondary schools in England show that all these factors have impact on what, how
and why teachers learn in the school where they are working (Opfer, Pedder, and
Lavicza 2011a).
Using the same sample, these British researchers (Opfer, Pedder, and Lavicza
2011b) have also found that orientation at the school level (referring to the school as
a community, including both leaders and teachers), is important when it comes to
teachers’ learning in the schools where they are working. They point out the
importance of schools communicating a clear vision, supporting professional
development and understanding the importance of expertise and supportive
networks. They add that it is not sufficient to communicate convictions but that
they must also be practised. Thus, these two studies show that both individual and
organisational factors may have an impact on teachers’ learning, but Opfer and
Pedder (2011) also concluded that the most important factors for good results at
school are the school’s capacity to support professional learning and the ability to
get teachers involved in co-operating activities. They maintain that schools need help
and guidance to be able to develop the required capacity to support teaching and
learning, because they are unable to do so alone. A German study of 1939 German
secondary teachers in 198 schools (Richter et al. 2011) shows that teachers use the
 Educational Research 413

opportunities they have to learn differently in the course of their careers. The study
shows that teacher co-operation declines in the course of a teacher’s career. Teachers
co-operated more at the start of their career than in the middle and end of it.
However, the study also showed that more experienced teachers read more
theories and research on teaching and learning than teachers in their initial years
in the job.
According to James and McCormick (2009), teacher autonomy is important if
teachers are to learn. Teacher autonomy can be supported if teachers are allowed to
identify their own learning objectives and can talk about and reflect on learning in
independent processes and in processes with colleagues. They also found that
teachers in school should form clear opinions on where the development should
head, so they have a common vision. They claim that schools should have a support
system for teachers’ professional development, and that teachers should be given the
opportunity to plan, implement and evaluate their practice based on reflections
starting from studies of their own practice. They also state that it is important for
teachers’ learning that knowledgeable persons in school can be used as a resource in
their own school and in external networks in development activities.
Research has also been conducted into the kind of changes teachers’ learning
may lead to. The Dutch researchers Hoekstra et al. (2009) have focused on changes
in cognition and actions in a study of 32 teachers from 21 different upper secondary
schools. In their study, they found that when some teachers took part in
development activities to promote the active and self-regulated learning of pupils,
they developed their understanding but not necessarily their actions in the
classroom, while others might develop their teaching practice but not their
understanding. Others, again, might develop both. They state that the most
important finding of the study is that teachers learn in different ways, and that the
support provided for teachers’ learning, therefore, must be differentiated. In an
article published in 2011 based on a case study of four of the 32 teachers in the study
mentioned above, Hoekstra and Korthagen present findings indicating that the
whole person must be considered, and that cognitive, action-based, emotional and
motivational aspects must be included as key factors in the professional development
of teachers. The text also states that the point of departure for further development
must be what a person knows and what this person’s aim is. In this way, the
development process will have a positive point of departure, while there is also a
need for knowledge to develop practice, which, in this case, was focused on pupil
activity and the self-regulating learning processes of pupils.
The Dutch researchers Bakkenes, Vermunt, and Wubbels (2010) examined the
definition of teachers’ learning, which indicates that it is an active process that leads
to changes in terms of knowledge and convictions (cognition) and/or change in the
teaching practice (action). The 94 secondary teachers in the study participated in a
national innovation programme to promote pupil self-regulation. Findings indicate
that teachers found that experimenting in their own practice, reflecting on their own
practice and getting ideas from others were activities that promoted learning. The
participating teachers stated that learning outcome can be seen as changes in relation
to knowledge and conviction, emotions, practice and intentions relating to the
activity in practice. The study shows that the least number of changes occurs in
teaching practice. The researchers explain this by saying that the study only covered
one year, and that changes in terms of knowledge and convictions, which were most
frequently reported cannot effect changes quite so quickly in teaching practice.
414 M.B. Postholm

However, Bakkenes, Vermunt, and Wubbels (2010) suggest a longer duration of

development activities than Desimone (2009).

Theme 3: Teacher co-operation for teachers’ learning

Teacher co-operation is a theme for several researchers examining teachers’ learning.
The American researchers Levine and Marcus (2010) claim that more and more
research work shows that participation in co-operating communities influences
teachers’ practices and improves pupils’ learning. They find two review studies that
support this (Bolam et al. 2005 and Vescio, Ross, and Adams 2008). Nonetheless,
their own study of seven high school teachers working on the same team shows that
different focuses and varying activities with differing structures may contribute to
variation when it comes to the content of the co-operation. During some meetings,
the teachers shared teaching problems based on their own protocols. Teachers
volunteered to be timekeepers; a problem would be described by a teacher and
clarifying questions would be asked by other teachers with a subsequent discussion.
Other meetings were highly structured: what the teachers did and said together was
guided by a published agenda. However, meetings could also be loosely structured.
The direction for what the teachers would do or say was set either by the principal at
the beginning of the meeting, or by a shared understanding of a particular routine or
activity. Levine and Marcus (2010) therefore conclude that different forms of co-
operative activities should be planned to promote learning in various areas.
In their study of ten teachers from a secondary school, Lawrence and Chong
(2010) from Singapore have examined how ‘Lesson study’, which originated in
Japan, has contributed to teachers’ learning. Lesson study means that teachers plan a
class together, and then one of them teaches this class for the allotted period while
the others observe. After the teaching, they reflect on how the class functioned
compared to the stipulated goals, and then change the plan for the class as needed,
and then another member of the group teaches the class while the others observe. In
this study, the teachers were also joined by an expert teacher. The study shows that
tips from the expert teacher were found to be useful, while this scheme allowed the
teachers to learn new knowledge about the subject and education practice, thus
gaining more understanding of pupil needs and classroom management. The study
also showed that this work strengthened colleagues’ sense of togetherness and
teacher self-efficacy in a teaching context. However, the participants in the study also
pointed out challenges in relation to finding time to observe and reflect. Findings in a
review of ‘Lesson study’ by Ono and Ferreira (2010) conducted in 313 secondary
schools (grades 8–12) in South Africa support those of Lawrence and Chong.
Moreover, Ono and Ferreira comment that teachers cannot change their teaching
overnight; it takes time.
In an American study (Given et al. 2010) of five elementary school teachers, the
researchers showed that documentation of pupil learning processes and teachers’
teaching that had a particular focus and served as the basis for dialogue and
reflection led to changed practices and strengthened the teachers’ group processes.
This work improved the teachers’ ability to observe, make notes, analyse, and
represent and respond to the teaching and learning that occurred in their classrooms,
which in turn changed the culture in their learning community. In a study conducted
in 80 elementary schools carried out by the American researcher Camburn (2010),
findings show that teacher reflection based on practice actions actually leads to
 Educational Research 415

changes in practice. The study also shows that the opportunity to reflect together
with colleagues and experts leads to more reflection, and that such reflection may
also be a powerful contribution to teachers’ learning. This is also supported by
findings from Parise and Spillane (2010) who, as mentioned above, reported from a
study including school staff members in 30 elementary schools. Another American
researcher, Glazier (2009), shows that reflection in groups, on the basis of texts that
have been read, may aid teachers’ learning. The study focused on teachers from
various minorities (five Euro-Americans and two African-Americans) working in
high school, and the study showed that these reflections made teachers more aware
of their own positioning and the impact this might have on their encounter with
different pupils.
A study of 28 secondary school teachers conducted by Dutch researchers (Zwart
et al. 2009) shows that paired co-operation between teachers may have beneficial
rewards for their learning. It shows that the greatest number of changes in teaching
practice is achieved when the teachers observe each other and give feedback on the
observed practice. When teachers know they are going to be observed, they feel some
pressure to experiment and model new teaching strategies for the observer, these
researchers claim. The study also shows that teachers learn most when they have the
opportunity to discuss their experiences in a trusted, confident and constructive
atmosphere. The study shows that if teachers have internal motivation for learning,
they will take part in professional development programmes even if the school
leaders do not support this through time and scheduling. It is not sufficient that
structural and cultural circumstances facilitate for learning, there must also be a will
to learn if learning is to occur, these researchers maintain. The study shows that
participation in a professional development programme over one year may be too
short a period to establish systematic changes of actions. Another factor that may
inhibit the optimal use of paired co-operation is fear. Changes can lead to anxiety
and may be threatening. If the teachers in such a paired co-operation are too
different, this might also inhibit the learning that might occur. Meirink et al. (2009)
from the Netherlands also found in a study of 34 secondary teachers that teachers
learn at their workplace by testing out different teaching methods after having
observed how a colleague teaches or after reflection on teaching together with
colleagues.

Theme 4: School culture and teachers’ learning

Jurasaite-Harbison and Rex (2010) have also examined school culture and teachers’
expectations for their own professional development. The comparative study was
conducted in one elementary school in the USA, two elementary schools in Russia
and one secondary school in Lithuania. The researchers have shown that the school
culture may also contribute to co-operation between teachers and professional
learning in informal situations, i.e. co-operation that has not been planned. The
study shows that in addition to administrative and structural factors making
informal co-operation possible, a culture among teachers that encourages and
appreciates learning is also necessary. Another finding is that if a school culture has
an ordered, hence top-down, strategy for promoting teacher performance, the
teachers will have a negative attitude to informal learning.
According to Gregory (2010), another American researcher, it is important that
school should focus on teacher expectations at the start of a development
416 M.B. Postholm

programme to maximise teachers’ learning in co-operating, problem-resolving

teams. Her study of 34 elementary school teachers working in one school district
shows that teachers with high expectations for improvement also developed the
most. The Americans Rinke and Valli (2010), who studied three elementary schools
in the same district and under the same pressure to achieve annual progress in pupil
achievement, also found that this increases the focus on teachers’ professional
development. The findings also show, however, that the quality of teachers’
development is influenced by the environment where the learning experiences are
made. In this context, they point to supportive leaders who focus attention on
teacher needs and interests, and a school culture understood as the school’s ethos,
which means that the staff share opinions and act on the basis of these. The study
shows that several elements may contribute to teachers’ professional development.
These include having experts among the colleagues who can contribute their
competence, having a common focus on development of teaching, exchanging
experience as well as undertaking meta-reflection in relation to the development
process itself. This type of reflection means that the teachers are aware of their own
learning.

Theme 5: Co-operation between external resource persons and teachers for teachers’
learning
Development of the school culture and a common vision for further work in school
were also themes for the action research study undertaken by Sales, Traver, and
Garcı́a (2011) in a Spanish primary school setting with 19 teachers. They participated
as resource persons in a school-based project. Their study shows the importance of
teacher autonomy, in the sense that the need for change must come from the teachers.
They call the teachers ‘change agents’ but point out the importance of co-operation
between the teacher trainers from the university and teachers in school, concluding
that this may be a new way of training teachers in their practice.
In a New Zealand study (Starkey et al. 2009) on the introduction of a new
national reform, involving 449 secondary-school teachers in a survey and a case
study sample of 28 elementary schools, it was found that the ideas behind a reform
should be part of teachers’ professional development. After an initial phase, where
teachers were given the opportunity to develop their understanding of why the
reform should be introduced, they were then given concrete examples of what the
reform means for their own practice. During this work, the activity was adapted to
schools and teachers, and the schools were given expert assistance through all the
phases – for example, in helping to identify their own needs as well as what the pupils
needed. The study exemplifies teachers seeing the usefulness of co-operating with
other teachers teaching the same subject, and suggests that the content of the work
must be adapted to the needs of the school and individual teachers. The study also
indicates that the quality of the support teachers receive in their work is important to
ensure successful professional development. The teachers who participated in the
study stated that the external resource persons should have good educational
knowledge, a high level of expertise in teaching their subject, sound communicative
abilities and the ability to create constructive relationships. Among other attributes,
they also needed sensible reflection skills, the ability to challenge thinking and
practices, good data skills combined with knowledge about the school’s needs and
the ability to model teaching practice.
 Educational Research 417

In a study carried out in 33 British primary and secondary schools, where

researchers supported teachers in the development activities, Wall et al. (2009) found
that the theme for development activities and the control over these must be the
school’s. The teachers in this study wanted to develop their pupils’ abilities to learn.
The findings show that the teachers involved in the project became more aware of
their own learning and their understanding of themselves as professionals. The
researchers involved in the project supported and guided the teachers in their
exploratory activities, and all the teachers in the same school were given courses
twice a year relating to the themes they were working on. They also attended an
annual conference focusing on their theme. The study gives no unambiguous answers
concerning whether pupils learnt more content, but they developed awareness of
their own learning. Another article from this project, written by Baumfield et al.
(2009), and involving researchers from Scotland and England, shows how focus on
pupils’ learning also contributes to the professional development of teachers through
feedback from the pupils. In the teaching, the pupils were given a visual aid, which
gave them the opportunity to speak in ‘cartoon thought bubbles’ about their own
experiences in the learning process. These thought bubbles enabled the pupils to
express what they thought. This aid became productive as it led to dialogues on
different levels. The teachers received feedback from the pupils and this led to
conversations between the teachers. Bearing this in mind, the teachers developed a
researcher attitude in relation to the pupils’ feedback and a researcher view in co-
operation with the researchers from the university.
Keung (2009), from Hong Kong, has written about ‘Learning study’, which is
similar to the method in ‘Lesson study’. Teachers plan teaching together, observe the
implementation and then reflect upon the process and undertake further planning to
test the teaching again. A researcher and a teacher trainer also took part in the
development activities, which took place in a primary school together with five
teachers. The researcher gave the teachers insight into how to learn from experiences
in practice, while he also presented theory about teaching, so that the activities
would not have a mechanical and instrumental nature. The teachers felt that they
developed their professionalism during the project, which lasted from September to
March the subsequent year. The study shows the importance of understanding that
the focus must be on the needs of the teachers, while the teachers develop
understanding of how their teaching must start from where the pupils are and how
they think and learn. They learnt to obtain information about pupil needs and then
to plan their teaching based on pupil aptitudes and skills. The study concludes that it
is useful for teachers in a practice community to observe and reflect upon each
other’s practice, so that they learn and in turn the pupils’ learning outcomes can
improve.
A Norwegian project that studied 12 teachers in a lower secondary school, where
the focus was on pupil learning strategies and metacognition, examined the learning
of teachers and pupils. This project was based on co-operation between a researcher
and teachers over two years with two hours of contact time each week. Three subject
teachers observed each other once a semester. This meant that each teacher observed
two other teachers and then reflected on this observation together with the two other
teachers twice, and also once on their own observed teaching (Postholm 2011a). The
researcher’s task was to support and challenge the teachers in the development
process. The teachers found this activity meaningful and felt it was something they
learnt from and could use in their teaching with their pupils. They also stated that
418 M.B. Postholm

their action learning had an impact on the pupils’ learning. The study shows that the
teacher’s learning has an impact on the pupils’ learning, particularly the weaker
pupils. Teachers find that pupils start to ask other questions about texts they read,
questions that indicate that they would like to understand the content of the material
(Postholm 2010). The study shows the importance of teachers having the time to
agree on teaching practices, and the need for them to be assigned to work in the same
team over extended periods based on the same theme and issues. This will let them
develop in familiar and safe relationships when it comes to the same themes in the
teaching (Postholm 2011b). Another study carried out by the Americans Cobb, Zhao
and Dean (2009) also shows how a group of teachers (at the largest comprising 14
teachers) working in five middle schools learnt in co-operation with researchers. In
the study, the researchers found that there must be a close relationship between what
is reflected upon and what occurs in the practice situations. These researchers found
that video recordings of teaching situations were a good tool for the reflection
process, where the intention was to improve practices in the classroom.

Theme 6: Teachers as leaders of other teachers’ learning

In New Zealand, Taylor et al. (2011) carried out a study of 22 secondary-school
teachers who were given the opportunity to adopt the role of leaders of other
secondary teachers in their professional development. This project was a pilot study
intended as a way of initiating a practice in schools that would encourage good
teachers to remain in school while also having the opportunity to develop there.
Teachers participating in the study and who were trained by university employees
stated that they were given the time to read theory (11 of 22), and/or time to reflect (7
of 22), and that these were valuable aspects of this role. They found that they gained
time to remove themselves a little from the hectic life in the classroom. They also
appreciated the personal and professional assistance they received from university
employees. In this role they also found that their enthusiasm for teaching and
learning was rekindled. This was a one-year project, a pilot study, and participants
had varying ideas about what they wanted to do after the project was completed.
Some would like to go back to their ordinary teacher role with new competence and
energy, others not, while some would like to continue in the same leader role. What
is interesting is that none of them wanted leadership roles higher up in the
hierarchical system, but were rather interested in opportunities where they might
develop their own educational skills and those of others.

Theme 7: Positive atmosphere and understanding of teachers’ learning

Kennedy (2011), from Scotland, interviewed 18 teachers and staff in relevant
positions (10 positions) who had a role in or were interested in teachers’ continuing
professional development through co-operation in general. The study found that
having good relations between school staff was a requirement for such development
processes. Kennedy found that it was very important that school leaders created a
positive atmosphere and constructive relationships between colleagues, and that an
aim for teacher training must be that the teachers-to-be must learn to give each other
feedback. She also found that the distribution of subjects and the teaching schedule
may impede co-operation between teachers, and that the professional development
of teachers must take, as its point of departure topics that are relevant for the
 Educational Research 419

personal and professional needs of teachers. The paper suggests that education
policy in Scotland does not demonstrate an understanding of co-operative,
continuous professional development for teachers, as teachers are assessed
individually according to professional standards.
Individual assessment of teachers according to professional standards is also
highlighted in an article presenting a comparative study of primary schools in
England and Finland. It focuses on the professional community of teachers and their
learning and development in this community. The study interviewed 206 teachers in
England and 12 teachers in Finland, using the same questions (Webb et al. 2009). In
Finland, the teachers who participated in the study felt they were working in a
democratic and fair school climate with greater opportunity to identify the
limitations of school and to find creative ways of working compared with England.
In the English schools, the teachers needed to satisfy defined external goals rather
than work towards interest-goals defined by the schools themselves. The study
suggests that self-determination leads to better well-being in the teaching job.
A study carried out in Canada (Clausen, Aquino, and Wideman 2009), over a
year in a small primary school with six teachers and a principal, shows that even if
the principal is the one to take the initiative to promote professional development
and determine the theme of the development activity, over time teachers may come
to identify with the project and make it their own. The principal in this study allowed
for observation and reflection in the teaching schedule. She would also teach classes
for the teachers so that they had the opportunity to observe each other. The principal
supported the teachers through organisation and conversations, while she also
requested written reports from the work that was done. The teachers who
participated in the study, over time, developed a learning community with open
and supportive communication, which helped their professional development.

Review articles on teachers’ learning

Webster-Wright at the University of Queensland in Brisbane, Australia, has written
an article (2009) focusing on continuing professional learning (CPL) in general. She
does not distinguish between formal courses and learning at the workplace, as
according to her, everything is part of the learning when it refers to the practice of
the profession. She maintains that research must focus on all factors that contribute
to learning, and her rationale comes from Vygotsky’s ideas on the holistic
perspective (Vygotsky 2000). This means that content, the learners and the context
of the learning must be included in a study of CPL. She summarises the articles by
stating that the essence of the research she has referenced is that professionals learn
from experiences and that learning occurs continuously through active participation
in practice. She also suggests that critical reflection can potentially impact learning in
a powerful way. Furthermore, she reflects that there continues to be little acceptance
of transformative learning, which means reconsidering assumptions that convictions
build – and, subsequently, acting on the basis of the insight that the transformed
perspective of meaning gives.
Schechter from Bar-Ilan University in Israel (2010) examines how a national
programme initiated by the Ministry of Knowledge in Israel, which aimed to
contribute to CPL in school, influenced and supported teachers’ learning. A total of
20 schools participated in the study (junior and senior high schools). One project aim
was that teachers and leaders in collective learning processes would develop teaching
420 M.B. Postholm

practices based on presentation of and reflection on success stories from their own
classrooms. One goal of the work was that they would also learn to learn, thus
becoming aware of how they reflected on practice. In each school, an experienced
teacher (a learning co-ordinator) led the common reflection processes. The leaders at
the school also participated in these processes. The work was supported by a
development team comprising the head of the school, the learning co-ordinator, a
regional director of the school and a person who followed up the learning processes
from a national development team. The article presents these processes from one of
the schools under study. In an analysis of the material, it emerges that the one-year
project could be divided into three phases: an initial phase where the participants
became acquainted with and developed trust in each other, the second and longest
phase where they shared success stories and the third phase where they tested
programmes presented in their own practices and then reflected together on how
things were progressing. The teachers found that they developed trust in each other,
and that these common reflections were useful for their teaching. During the year of
the project, their own reflections were never made from a meta-perspective, which
would have given them the opportunity to reflect on how they learnt to learn.
Schechter states in the conclusion that learning in professional learning communities,
that is based on success stories from practice, may help tie together successful
practices, with national abstract and policy-controlled reforms.
Darling-Hammond and Richardson from Stanford University, California,
discuss in their review text (2009) what generally supports and what does not
support teachers’ professional development. Their article points out that research
supports professional learning which allows teachers to immerse themselves in
subject knowledge and how to teach this to the pupils, and which, moreover, teaches
the teachers to understand how pupils learn specific content. Focus is also on how
teachers in their professional learning must acquire new knowledge, test it in practice
and reflect upon the results with colleagues so that the learning occurs in co-
operation with them. They propose reading literature in study groups as an activity
for teachers’ learning. They also focus on research, which states that there must be
regular opportunities for professional development and that it must occur over an
extended period. They refer to findings in an article by Yoon et al. (2007), which
indicates that the time allocation should be from 30 to 100 hours over a period of 6–
12 months. The article points out the importance of supportive leadership and good
relationships between colleagues where failure and innovation are allowed and
invited as a necessary part of professional learning among co-operating colleagues.

An international meta-study
Based on 97 studies conducted in primary and secondary school, Timperley et al.
(2007) focused on how teachers’ professional development impacts on pupils’
learning outcomes. The activity that the studies are based on was carried out with a
view to satisfying the political objectives in force, and the studies were carried out
over a period of six months to two years. Pupil learning outcome was related to
personal, social and academic outcome. Seven elements in a professional learning
context were found. These were:

. Providing sufficient time for extended opportunities to learn and using the time
effectively;
 Educational Research 421

. Engaging external expertise;

. Focusing on engaging teachers in the learning process rather than being
concerned about whether they volunteered or not;
. Challenging problematic discourses;
. Providing opportunities to interact in a community of professionals;
. Ensuring content was consistent with wider policy trends;
. In school-based initiatives, having leaders actively leading professional
learning opportunities (p. xxvi).

The researchers comment that under most circumstances it is necessary to expand

the timeframe if optimal learning is to occur, but how the time is spent is also
important. The studies indicate that learning is not a linear process, and that
resource persons who attempted to implement readymade programmes for the
desired practice rarely had lasting impact on pupil learning outcome. Programmes
developed in co-operation with the teachers, on the other hand, did have lasting
impact.
In most of the studies, researchers with supplementary funding had been hired
in, and their research provided knowledge that contributed to the teachers’
professional development. Thus, knowledge and the development of practice went
hand in hand. It was understandable that the teachers needed external expertise
because the requirement for substantial new learning in the studies demanded that
the teachers had to learn relevant content and new skills to consider the current
practice in alternative ways. In the studies, there was no relation between the
students’ learning outcome and whether the participation was voluntary or not.
The reason for the participation proved to be more important for pupils’ learning
than involvement in the start-up of the development activities. A shift away from
facts, procedures and cramming to exploratory activity and development of the
pupils’ understanding of concepts had positive impact on student learning,
particularly in mathematics. A positive outcome was also similarly experienced
with a shift away from problematic discourses, which might, for example, include
stigmatisation of struggling pupils.
In many of these studies, the school leaders actively supported the teachers’
professional learning, sometimes participating too. Most frequently, the leaders
prepared organisational room for the teachers to learn, gave them access to relevant
expertise and the opportunity to process new information. In some schools, the
leaders also developed a learning culture where they themselves participated as
learners rather than organisers of learning for others. However, the researchers
found that participation in a professional community did not necessarily lead to
development. Participation might also reinforce an ineffective status quo. They
maintain that effective professional communities are characterised by participants
being supported in developing new insight and understanding the implications for
teaching, and analysing the importance of the teaching for pupil learning. The
researchers also found that a characteristic sign of an efficient community is that all
feel collective responsibility for pupil learning.
The content of the professional learning and development included subject
knowledge and the relation between curriculum, pedagogy and information from
assessments of pupils’ knowledge, which included their progression in terms of
specific syllabus, their culture, linguistic and cultural resources, theoretical frame-
work and understanding of concepts. Skills the researching teachers needed included
422 M.B. Postholm

analysis of their own practice and seeing new possibilities in relation to standards
applicable to this practice, and, moreover, developing methods for examining the
practice with the aim of finding ways of making improvements. In the studies, the
teachers were given theoretical grounds for alternative practices. Presentation of
theory in isolation from the implications in practice was insufficient when it came to
improving pupil learning outcome, and in the studies, the teachers received support
to transform theory into practice.
We observe from 50% of the studies that show significant positive outcome for
the pupils that the teachers in the schools in question had developed their
understanding and use of assessment in their own practice. Skills relating to
analysing, interpreting and using data were considered part of the professional
development. The data might consist of the pupils’ thinking and understanding as
expressed in drawings and interviews, observation of their work and test results. In
all these studies, the collected data material was used to analyse the relationship
between teaching and learning with the purpose of improving the teaching.
The acquisition and continued use of knowledge and skills turned out to depend
on whether the school supported continuing learning and its application and on
whether the school leaders motivated the teachers to maintain their commitment.
Maintaining such commitment may be related to circumstances that are known
when it comes to promoting teachers’ self-regulated learning. Those who are self-
regulated are able to answer the following questions: Where am I going? How do I
get there? And where will I go afterwards? Teachers with a researching approach,
with good subject knowledge and with support from their school leaders were
continuously interested in relating their teaching to pupil learning. The studies show
that it is important that the teachers develop a metacognitive awareness that helps
them to control their own learning by defining goals and leading the processes
towards these goals. With a metacognitive awareness, teachers can look critically at
their own role and at how they can lead pupils towards a learning objective. Jackson
(1974) calls this developing a metacognitive attitude to work in school, and this is
done so teachers can deal with the complexity in their work. The studies also make it
clear that if self-regulating processes are to become as effective as possible, they must
permeate the processes on all levels: on the pupil, teacher and organisational levels.
In addition to supporting an exploratory attitude and continuing learning, teachers
must have the opportunity to determine what they and their pupils need to learn.
According to Timperley et al. (2007), this must be a common activity for all the
teachers, as the pupils have a number of teachers.
The studies showed that teachers who had an exploratory approach found the
relationship between the content to be learnt and how the learning activity was
designed to be important. Feedback on teaching given by colleagues or others with
expertise based on observations of this teaching also helped the teachers to transform
theoretical principles into actions of practice. When the teachers were put in a
learner position, they had the opportunity to develop their own subject knowledge,
demonstrate good educational practice, develop insight into their own learning
situation, develop greater empathy with the pupils as learners and develop a practice
that supported rich discussion with others on topics relating to learning activities. In
co-operation with colleagues or others with expertise, the reading of texts might also
be a tool that could promote discussions. The studies suggest, though, that a lack of
shared understanding of the purpose of the development activities was a problematic
aspect (Timperley et al. 2007). It is not surprising that, just as other learners, teachers
 Educational Research 423

need a good reason for becoming sufficiently involved to dig deeply into new
knowledge so that their practice can be changed and improved.
The researchers presented key concepts and theoretical principles that formed a
theoretical basis that teachers could base their understanding on and then develop
relationships to practice. After this introductory presentation, they had many
opportunities to learn in their teaching. The teachers were helped in transforming
theory into practice, and they had opportunities to discuss and state their opinions
relating to the new learning and its implications for their practice. In several of the
studies, Timperley et al. (2007) examined the teachers’ practice theories that were
involved. These practice theories comprise conviction and values, knowledge, skills
and practices that follow from these, and the desired pupil learning outcome
(Robinson 1993). Without starting from and ‘involving’ current theories on what
they would like to do, according to Timperley et al. (2007), new theories and new
practice will probably be placed outside the existing practice instead of replacing it or
developing it. This means that they may also be quickly forgotten.
The studies show that several factors are important if new learning is to be
constituted in practice. First, learning must take, as its point of departure, teaching
practice. Second, it must develop relevant educational content and an exploratory
approach to practice. Third, existing practice theories must be involved as the
starting point for a continuing exploration process. The findings in these studies
suggest that projects that lasted one year or more had positive impact on teachers’
professional development.

Summary and concluding reflections

The research question that has been pursued throughout this article is: How do
experienced teachers learn? In this section, the most relevant themes and points from
the presented articles and their findings are brought together. These findings provide
evidence for the conclusion drawn at the end of the text.
Courses and workshops may be quite useful in learning processes, while learning
in one’s own school practice may have another function. Not all the forms for
activity that facilitate teachers’ learning will necessarily be relevant for all teachers.
According to James and McCormick (2009), there may be differences between
teachers in the same school and in different schools. They state that practices have
different cultural and structural aspects that impact each other. Cultures create
structures, and structures are formed by cultures. School leaders may contribute to
changing structures and creating cultures, and they can distribute leadership to
persons who have no formal leadership qualification but who can support change
and development both culturally and structurally. If teachers are to learn and thus
change on-going practice, one requirement, according to James and McCormick
(2009), is that the cultures and structures are changed. It is also important for what
occurs in school to be supported by political decisions. Collinson et al. (2009)
maintain that society today needs teachers who learn continually, and that education
policies that are not supported financially by the authorities have a long history of
failing. Collinson et al. propose that local authorities and teachers must be allowed
to take part in political decisions so they can be part of the decision-making before
decisions are implemented in school. According to Bakkenes, Vermunt, and
Wubbels (2010), innovations in school have failed too often because teachers’
learning was not considered.
424 M.B. Postholm

Researchers emphasise that formal further education with practice-oriented

exploratory work, which includes testing in one’s own teaching, appears to be
particularly fertile for the development of teachers’ classroom practices and pupil
learning (McMahon et al. 2007; Parise and Spillane 2010; TALIS 2009). The
teachers’ reflections of their own practice in their further education are, thus, allowed
to continue into the practice during and after the education, particularly when
several teachers from the same school participate in further education together.
Both national and international research suggest that learning that occurs in
school in co-operation with other teachers and a school administration that supports
social learning is the best way for teachers to develop their own teaching, which in
turn leads to benefits for pupils learning. Teachers want to work with themes they
are interested in based on their practical experiences and want to stipulate their own
learning goals, thus being autonomous in the development of their own practice.
They also want to co-operate and reflect upon practice with colleagues to change and
develop their teaching. Teachers find this activity meaningful, and the studies show
the importance of practice as the point of departure for reflection. Research also
states that expert teachers or other resource persons, or what the theory calls more
competent others (Vygotsky 1978), must be invited into the learning processes so that
new knowledge is added and learning is promoted. Research findings show that
substantial requirements are placed on the competence of such persons and, thus, on
the quality of the support given (Starkey et al. 2009). Research suggests that
development activities connected to teachers’ learning should last for some time, but
there is no clear formula for the scope and duration of such activities. In the studies
presented, the length of the activity ranges from one semester and a scope of 20
hours to development activities stretching over two years and with two hours’
contact time per week per school year.
The presented studies agree with Desimone’s (2009) five characteristics of
teachers’ learning, but all in all, they also represent other features that are important
for teachers’ learning. Studies present the idea that it is important that teachers learn
to learn, thus becoming self-regulated in their own learning process. This means that
they learn to collect information as the basis for developing their own practice, hence
becoming researchers in their practice (Postholm and Jacobsen 2011; Postholm and
Moen 2009). Furthermore, how they reflect upon this practice is important for
planning their future teaching. By reflecting on their own practice, they can assess
whether the learning objectives have been satisfied and then plan to satisfy new
objectives based on knowledge about themselves and their pupils, based on tasks
that are to be implemented in the teaching and the teaching strategies they choose to
apply. In such reflection on their own practice, they use both metacognitive strategies
and metacognitive knowledge (Flavell 1979, 1987).
In addition, the studies indicate the importance of both individual and inter-
connected factors in development activities that elaborate on Desimone’s (2009)
characteristics. For example, the teachers must have a will to learn, and there must be
more than merely adequate time and resources. It is important that teachers
experience expectations for improvement, and that the whole person is considered.
This means that cognitive, actional, emotional and motivational aspects are
important factors in the professional development of teachers (Hoekstra and
Korthagen 2011; Vygotsky 2000). The studies also suggest the importance of a
common vision among colleagues, and that good relationships between the employees
are a requirement for development. Research also shows that the sense of
 Educational Research 425

togetherness among colleagues and teachers’ self-efficacy are strengthened through

teacher co-operation (Lawrence and Chong 2010). Several of the studies mention
texts and literature used in reading groups as tools in the learning process for teachers.
The intention of teachers learning how to facilitate better teaching is that the pupils
will achieve better results. Pupils’ learning is not in focus in all the studies, but based
on socio-cultural theory we at least know that the external conditions for pupil
learning may improve when there is a focus on teachers’ learning.
There is not necessarily a conflict between teachers’ learning in practice and
participation in traditional further education courses, but research suggests that
courses teachers participate in should be connected to development processes they
are already participating in at their school (McMahon et al. 2007; Parise and Spillane
2010). In this way, the knowledge they acquire from the course may benefit the
school as a whole, and there may then also be ‘a time for telling’ (Schwartz and
Bransford 1998). Ideally, all teachers in the same school, or at least a number of
them, should receive the same course training as a stage in the practice development
(Buczynski and Hansen 2010). Teacher trainers have much knowledge, but this
knowledge needs to be out in the practice and shared with the teachers. Research
suggests that the best way of doing this is to have teacher trainers contributing their
knowledge in interaction processes in the teachers’ arenas (Cobb et al. 2009; James
and McCormick 2009; Keung 2009; Opfer and Pedder 2011, Postholm 2011a; Sales
et al. 2011; Starkey et al. 2009; Timperley et al. 2007; Wall et al. 2009). Bearing this
in mind, it is safe to say that the schools in which the teachers work are the best
arena for them to learn. Sales et al. (2011) maintain that this may be the new way of
training teachers. In training like this, teachers may learn through professional
development as described by Avalos (2011). Members of the teaching profession may
learn how to learn so they can use their knowledge in their teaching to benefit pupil
learning.

Notes
1. When referring to basic education, the terms primary and secondary school are used.
However, when referring to studies conducted in a system where other terms of reference
are employed, the terminology from those studies is retained where appropriate.
2. When I refer to work by other authors, I use the same terms as they do: for example,
‘research activities’. Teachers’ ‘research activities’ are termed either ‘R&D activities’ or
‘action learning’. This means that the term ‘action research’ is not used when it comes to
teachers’ systematic work: instead, it is called ‘action learning’.

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