Edexcel IAL Geography

Going Global
Detailed Notes

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 The Shrinking World
Globalisation is known as the ​increasing interdependence​ between countries through flows of
capital, trade, goods and services​ as well as ​culture and ideas​. The rate of globalisation is
increasing, with LEDCs becoming more involved in global markets and forums, whilst MEDCs
become increasingly interdependent on one another. There are many causes for accelerating
globalisation and the apparent ‘shrinking’ of the modern world:

Economic Political
The volume and influence of Trade blocs​ (e.g. NAFTA, EU) have
transnational companies (TNCs)​ has become more influential and have
increased - many TNCs have incomes reduced tariffs and other protectionist
higher than the GDPs of many countries. measures.

Online purchasing​ between countries is IGOs​ (e.g. IMF, WTO and the World
becoming increasingly common. Bank) work to harmonise economies,
whilst promoting democratic ideology.
Stocks​ are traded from across countries
and countries invest in each other Political views and ideology are
(Foreign Direct Investment).​Some expressed in ​worldwide media outlets
financial businesses (pension funds and e.g. BBC, Fox, CNN.
investment banks) ​trade large amounts
of currencies​ in order to make profit

Migration Cultural
International migration has led to Americanisation ​and ​Westernisation
extensive family networks living across of other (often developing) parts of the
the globe, leading to the​ spread of world.
culture and finance​ (through
remittances).

International ​tourism​ has increased -

more people can travel abroad for
holidays due to ​lower transport costs.

Flow of Commodities Technology

Goods can easily be ​imported​, The ​internet​ has rapidly allowed the
increasing countries interdependence on spread of information and knowledge.
one another (some UK bottled water is
imported from Fiji, which is 10,000 miles Social networking sites​ have become
away) very popular (Facebook had 1.5 billion
users in 2015). Networks can allow the
spread of culture, ideology and
The volume of ​manufactured goods​ opportunities for migration and tourism.
has increased rapidly due to low cost
countries such as Bangladesh and Enormous ​server farms​ exist currently
Vietnam (e.g. Microsoft’s data centre in
Washington) which store substantial
amounts of data

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Globalisation has led to:

▪ The ​lengthening of connections​ - people can now travel further afield and goods are brought
in further away.
▪ The deepening of connections where connections are penetrating more in depth into ​most
aspects of life​.
▪ Faster speed of connections​ - people can now talk in real time from different parts of the world
and you can travel much faster than previously between different countries etc.

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Increasing globalisation throughout history

19​th​ and 20​th​ Centuries

Important innovations in transport include:
▪ Steam power​ – In the 1800s, Britain was leading the world in the use of steam technology. This
allowed the British to move their goods and armies very quickly into key areas, such as Asia and
Africa.
▪ Jet aircraft​ ​– Newer and more efficient aircraft have allowed goods to be transported quickly
between countries. Increasing competition between affordable airlines (e.g. EasyJet, RyanAir,
Jet 2) has led to more people being able to travel abroad.
▪ Containerisation​ – There are more than 200 million container movements every year and this
is extremely important to the global economy. All sorts of goods are transported across the
world, lower costs of transport is beneficial for both businesses and consumers.

There were also technological advancements, which include:

▪ Telegraph​ – The first telegraph cables were laid across the Atlantic in 1860s, which allowed for
almost instantaneous communication and revolutionised how businesses operated.

21​st​ Century
Transport and technology continues to advance in the 21st Century, allowing for instantaneous
communication and interactions across the globe:

▪ Telephones​ - Mobile phone use is very common across the world with smartphones becoming
even more popular which has allowed better global communication

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▪ Broadband and fibre optics​ – Since the 1990s, large amounts of data can be transferred very
quickly via cables laid out along the ocean floor. The introduction of fibre optic cabling for
domestic abuse has accelerated telephone, internet and television speeds for the home.
▪ GPS​ – Satellites have allowed companies and people to track goods across the world. GPS has
become an essential feature of modern cars, and has lead to the success of Google Maps.
▪ Internet​ – The internet is now extremely important - approximately 40% of the world’s
population have access to it. Social media is extremely influential and, due to their large
numbers of users, has led to the rapid spread of news, knowledge and opinions.

Dimensions of Globalisation
When countries ​share ​things with one another, it’s known as a ​flow​. This is because things are
flowing (moving) ​from one country to another. Flows can be physical like people or products, but
they can also be ideas and concepts such as money (capital), services, or information.

The different flows in globalisation are: ​capital, labour, products, services and information​.
These flows are the​ ​dimensions​ ​of globalisation - they are the reason globalisation exists.

Capital Capital flows are the movement of ​money for the purpose of ​investment​,
trade​ or​ business production.

Labour Flows of labour are the movement of ​people who move to ​work in another
country.

Products Flows of ​physical goods​ from one country to another.

Services Services are ‘​footloose​’ industries, meaning they can locate anywhere
without constraints from resources or other obstacles. Services flow as
they can be produced in a ​different country to where they are ​received
(e.g. international call centres).

Information Any type of information can ​flow ​from one place to another via the
internet, SMS, phone calls etc. For example, international news.

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Governance and Decision Making Influences Globalisation
Switched-off areas are usually excluded from global flows of trade, capital, labour and information
and these countries are generally left behind whilst other countries prosper and benefit from
globalisation. Some countries are ​switched off​ from globalisation for a variety of reasons:

Environmental Political Economic

- ​Landlocked​ countries - The ​political agenda​ and - LEDCs, with little finance
cannot be independent in governance​ of a country may extra, ​cannot afford to invest
trade (they must rely on its limit flows of people or culture in ports, infrastructure,
neighbours to travel through (anti-migration policies, incentives for TNCs nor
before participating in trade) censorship, etc) education to improve the skills
- Poor fertility of land, - ​Terrorism or active conflict of its labour force.
mountainous or arid within a region can be hugely - Countries with​ unstable
conditions, limited land space detrimental to their global markets​ or ​weak currencies
can all reduce a country’s connectivity. will deter investment and
ability to ​produce a - ​Corruption​ within the businesses.
commodity​ for trade government means money is
- Some countries are lost rather than invested.
vulnerable to Climate
Change​, and so the natural
environment could change to
unfavourable conditions (sea
level rise, desertification, etc)

In some countries global flows may be seen as a threat because:

- Importing raw materials and commodities could hurt domestic suppliers and industries
- Migrants from abroad could create tensions as they may not be wanted
- Foreign information could be seen as a threat (e.g. China’s Great Firewall)

Inter-Governmental Organisations (IGOs)

Some organisations aim to enable switched off countries to become more globalised. However,
IGOs can be controversial in their ways.

IMF – International Monetary Fund

The IMF is an organisation based in Washington that ​loans money to poorer developing nations​.
One of the key conditions for recipient nations is that the country opens up its markets and
industries from government control, which in turn leads to ​privatisation​. TNCs now have the
opportunity to enter those markets more easily which would generate financial activity and tax, but
mainly for their host country (which tends to be an MEDC).
The IMF can be seen as more of a hindrance than help; LEDCs fall into debt with their industries
privatised, which in turn could lead to profits leaving their country and ​potential environmental or
workforce exploitation​. Countries which struggle to pay their debt will have to cut back on funding
in key areas such as education and healthcare, which further damages the country’s economy and
welfare.

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The World Bank

The World Bank, similar to the IMF,​ loans money to developing nations​ with the aim of improving
development, and so enabling globalisation. Like the IMF, The World Bank is also seen as
controversial and many critics say both these organisations don’t benefit developing countries.
Instead, they promote LEDCs to increase their ​debts​ and limit the ​government’s sovereignty.

The WTO – World Trade Organisation

The WTO is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland which aims to ​liberalise trade​ by ​removing
tariffs, subsidies and quotas​. The WTO has been criticised because it has failed to prevent the
EU and USA from implementing protectionist measures like subsidies, and so it has been
unsuccessful from creating ​equal opportunities​ for all countries to trade.
The interplay can be seen in the flow diagram below:

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Attitudes and Actions of National Governments
Free Market Liberalisation​ - This is a governance model strongly associated with the policies
implemented by ​Ronald Reagan in the US and Thatcher in the UK​. It is the belief that
government interventions in markets would ​hinder​ economic growth and development in the long
term. As a result of market liberalisation, the banking and finance sectors were deregulated in the
UK which led to London becoming one of the world's major financial centres.

Privatisation​ - Until the 1980s, important assets in the UK, such as ​railways and utilities​, were
owned and run by the government. Thatcher privatised these state-owned industries; ​private
companies bought and ran​ these services which has continued to the present day. Privatisation
allowed the government at the time to raise a lot of ​money​. However, some critics believe that
privatisation ​compromises the quality​ of services (such is the case for northern rail, despite raising
prices for consumers there are increasing strikes which are negatively affecting commuters).

Encouraging business start-ups​ - Around the world, ​incentives ​(grants, tax breaks, infrastructure
constructed) are provided by governments in order to ​attract businesses​. After Sunday trading
began in the UK, many foreign businesses (e.g. Disney) were attracted to establish shops here to
profit from this lucrative opportunity.

Foreign Direct Investment ​- There are several kinds of FDI, all of which involve TNCs increasing
economic or industrial activity within a country.

▪ Offshoring​ – TNCs set up production facilities in developing countries, which have large, cheap
workforces (e.g. Bangladesh)
▪ Foreign Mergers​ – TNCs from different countries join to form one larger company
▪ Foreign Acquisitions​ – A TNC acquires another company from abroad, often in a hostile way
(may involve local job loss, lack of interest in the local environment, etc)
▪ Transfer Pricing​ – TNCs sometimes channel their profits through subsidiaries in tax havens
(e.g. Ireland)

Alternatively, national governments can hinder or limit the effects of globalisation through policies.

Censorship​ - The government restricts the flow of ​information and knowledge​ through
state-controlled media outlets and internet restrictions. Censorship can be used to limit a
population’s knowledge of foreign culture and ideas (such as democracy) which could undermine a
dictatorship​ government.

Limiting Migration​ - Most countries have some sort of ​border control​ and migration monitoring.
With the rise of right-wing, extremist views, (as discussed later in the notes) more countries have
adopted strict migration controls.

Trade Protectionism​ - Trade protectionism involves subsidies, tariffs and quotas which help a
country to ​protect domestic industries​. For example, in 2016 Chinese steel flooded global
markets at very low prices - “​dumping​” - due to Chinese government subsidies. This caused major
problems for steel industries around the world including the UK Tata Steel Works, which closed and
sold all of its plants as it lost £1 million every day.

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Free Trade Blocs

In order to trade more freely between nations, governments may sign ​agreements​ with each other
in order to ​reduce restrictions​ of the flow of ​capital and goods​. Free trade may also encourage
the movement of people, culture and knowledge.

Benefits of Trade Blocs: Disadvantages of Trade Blocs:

▪ Businesses have a ​larger potential market ▪ The interests of countries within major trade
to sell to, and so larger potential revenue to blocs are focussed upon themselves.
make. Outside trading countries become
▪ As businesses cater for more demand by excluded​ and find it very difficult to join in
increasing their volume of production, many trading. Foreign industries and suppliers
other businesses can benefit​ by providing can be ​directly damaged​ as a result of
raw materials, skilled workers or providing competition or lack of opportunities due to
outsourcing opportunities. Hence increased trade blocs forming.
business for one may in turn benefit many ▪ Trade Blocs still don’t ​guarantee​ fair
in a ​positive feedback loop​. treatment within, for example the
▪ Trade of essential materials or services relationship between Mexico and the USA
become more ​reliable​ within a trade bloc. has not strengthened through trade bloc
There may be less economic risk and NAFTA.
better pathways​ for essential imports
(food, energy, etc).

Trading products is expensive due to the ​controls and restrictions ​put on imports and exports.
These restrictions include:
-​ ​Tariffs​ (a tax for importing and exporting goods);
- ​Non-tariff barriers​ (NTBs), such as​ quotas​ (a limit/fixed number of goods) or requirements;
-​ Outright​ bans ​on products or country import/exports.

To lower the costs of trade countries can

enter ​trade agreements which work to
benefit all parties that are involved. In
trade agreements, certain ​restrictions
can be removed ​or lessened in return for
another country doing the same. All trade
agreements are overlooked by the ​World
Trade Organisation (WTO) ​to ensure
they are ​fair​.

An example of a trade agreement is the

North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA)​. This agreement has lowered
and removed tariffs on imports and
exports between Canada, the USA, and
Mexico. NAFTA has been criticised for its ​ (Source:​http://www.visualcapitalist.com/nafta-mixed-track-record/​)
effectiveness​.

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 Uneven Globalisation - Winners and Losers of Globalisation
Measures of Globalisation

KOF Index AT Kearney Index

The KOF index measures globalisation of AT Kearney Index is a measure of globalised

countries​ for political, economic and social cities​, by a London business. It considers
indicators. It’s measured on a scale from 1 to political, communication, technology and
100, where 100 is the most globalised nation. political factors.

▪ Political​ (39% weighting on overall score) ▪ Economic integration

-Membership of international organisations -Imports and exports
and trade blocs like the EU, WTO, IMF, -FDI
NAFTA ▪ Personal contact
-Number of foreign embassies located in -Telephone traffic
the country -Travel and tourism
-Participation in international treaties -Remittances
▪ Economic​ (37% weighting on overall ▪ Technological activity
score) -Internet users
-Long distance flow of goods and services -Internet hosts
and capital -Secure servers
-Flows of FDI ▪ Political engagement
▪ Social​ (24% weighting on overall score) -Membership of international organisation
-Personal contact through international -Signatories to international treaties
phone calls and tourist numbers -Number of embassies
-Information flow through the number of
internet users per 1000 people
-Cultural proximity through things like the
number of McDonalds

Other Measures

Simple measures​ are based upon one single factor, and are the most common statistical measures
of wealth and productivity:

● GNI​ ​(Gross National Income) is the ​value of goods and services​ by a country; similar to
GDP, but GNI also takes into account overseas earnings.
● PPP​ (Purchasing Power Parity) is the ​expenditure​ of a country’s population and reflects the
cost of living.
● Income per capita​ is the ​mean average income per person​ (income of the country by
population size). This average can easily hide inequality; the few high earners have a larger
influence of GDP than a majority of low earners.
● GDP​ ​(Gross Domestic Product) measures the total ​value of goods and services​ produced
in a country. Using GDP as a simple economic measure may be inaccurate as GDP doesn’t

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 include any informal earnings or black market economies. Furthermore, GDP is measured in
US Dollars, therefore can vary as exchange rates vary daily.

Alternatively, ​composite measures​ consider a range of factors, therefore are more reliable
statistical measures of development:

➔ Economic Sector Balance​ ​considers all four main economic sectors - Primary, Secondary,
Tertiary, Quaternary - and describes the composition of a country’s industry (often displayed
as a bar chart). As a country develops, primary industries usually decline and their earning
reduce whilst secondary and tertiary become more important (according to the Clarke-Fisher
Model).
➔ Gender Inequality Index (GII)​ measures female participation and treatment within society
and considers:
● Reproductive health – Maternal mortality ratio, adolescent birth rates
● Empowerment – Proportion of parliamentary seats held by women,
● Employment – Labour force participation rates of women
➔ Human Development Index (HDI)​ is a measure of social development and considers:
● Life expectancy
● Wealth (GDP per capita)
● Education (Literacy levels and average number of years in education)

Winners and Losers - TNCs

TNCs, to put it simply, are companies operating ​across multiple countries ​(​trans- = across,
-national = nations). These companies usually work by having their headquarters, production, and
sales all in ​different countries across the globe​, meaning they are a crucial aspect of
globalisation.

These corporations can provide raw products, manufactured

goods, services, or information - they exist in different ​industries
(sectors)​. Overall, TNCs make ​products​, produce ​jobs​, ​invest
in countries, and sometimes contribute to ​cultures​. Some TNCs
are very powerful, and can even have ​political influence​, e.g.
the pressuring of some countries to reduce taxes and create
SEZs so that the TNC will invest there.

TNCs are very influential to a country’s level of globalisation and

interconnectivity; some TNCs have larger revenues than entire
countries’ GDPs. Furthermore, in 2016, the top 200 TNCs accounted for 25% of the world’s
economic activity but only employed 1% of the world’s population. However, TNCs are not entirely
beneficial, as some exploit the environment and population in favour of maximising profits and
manufacturing efficiency.

The Headquarters of TNCs are usually located in ​high income countries​. HQ is responsible
for the​ ​big decisions​,​ such as ​investments​, ​meetings with global organisations​ etc.

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 (Source: ​http://fortune.com/global500/visualizations/?iid=recirc_g500landing-zone1​)

This map shows the Headquarters of Fortune 500’s largest companies. The majority of
headquarters are heavily concentrated within the USA, Europe, Japan, as well as many in the
emerging economy of China.

TNCs create ​links ​between countries and with other companies. Linkages are created in order to
benefit the TNC​, and often includes ​expanding​ ​the company.

Links through FDI: TNCs create links with other countries by ​investing in them​, which benefits
the country as this creates jobs and contributes to the economy. TNCs can be investments into a
factory, for example, but they may also take the form of mergers and acquisitions.

Links through integration​: TNCs often ​expand ​their company by creating linkages between other
companies. There are two types of integration:
● Horizontal integration: taking ownership of part of the ​supply chain, e.g. buying a
plantation.
● Vertical integration: ​taking ownership of another company​, often one that is in a similar
industry. The food industry is a prime example of vertical integration. A lot of large
companies control the majority of smaller companies, which can be seen on ​this map​.

The implications of TNCs has become increasingly more known to consumers, earning certain
TNCs ​bad reputations​. ​Natural disasters (e.g. 2011 Tohoku Tsunami) can disrupt supply chains
which in turn can affect production and hit profits. A TNC’s need for interdependence and global
logistics can have major implications on global markets. Alternatively, the collapse of the ​Rana
Plaza factory in Bangladesh in 2013 (1134 people were killed) impacted many garment TNCs. The
TNCs relying on the garment factory lost profit and their production source, and the whole industry
faced ​intense scrutiny​ over TNCs exploiting workers and providing unsafe working conditions.

Products that are made for ​consumer audiences​, such as smartphones, use global supply chains
as a way to ​spend less money on manufacturing​. TNCs may often ​invest in the source of raw
materials also in order to save money in the supply chain. E.g. many TNCs that provide food (like
fruit) invest in plantations to lower the cost and remove the ‘middle man’.

(​http://www.convergencealimentaire.info/map.jpg​)

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 ● Outsourcing: ​TNCs that provide ​tertiary industry products (services) will often ​outsource
tasks to other companies in order to save money and time. TNCs like Apple outsource their
manufacturing process so that profits can be maximised.
● Offshoring: ​Companies that make ​manufactured products ​will often have their factories in
LICs due to lower labour costs, better taxes, weaker regulations for workers and weaker
environmental regulations. This leads to much dispute about the ​ethical issues ​with TNCs
exploiting poorer citizens in order to maximise their products.

Glocalisation

The ​adaptation​ of goods or services by a TNC is to meet ​local needs or tastes​, which would
increase custom within a select region. There are many examples of glocalisation:

- Grocery shops based in Bangladesh don’t wrap their vegetables because customers judge
their purchases on the feel of the food (called a wet market)
- McDonalds have created a menu without any beef or pork burgers in India due to the large
population of Hindus and Muslims
- Car makers must change the orientation of the car to suit which side of the road a person will
drive on.

Winners and Losers - Economic Change

The ​global shift​ refers to how manufacturing and industrial activity has shifted from different parts
of the world. Prior to the 1960s, manufacturing industries were located in the west in Europe and the
US. However, after the 1960s, industries relocated to the East in countries like China and India due
to their large, unskilled workforce.

Outsourcing of Services to India

Many Indian citizens can speak fluent English (“the language of business”) and the Indian
government have invested in infrastructure such as broadband capacity, which has attracted high
tech companies.

Benefits of Outsourcing Costs of Outsourcing

Workers receive middle class wages which Many workers believe that they are
has meant that their ​disposable incomes exploited​, with long shifts and still lower
have increased pay than MEDC workers.
Other businesses have seen more Employees have become ​demotivated​ due
customers and more spending, especially to the repetitiveness nature of their work.
the likes of shopping malls and nightclubs - The ​inequality​ between the richest and
positive multiplier effect​. poorest is increasing as the poorest are not
People running the companies where well educated and cannot benefit from
services are outsourced to have seen outsourcing jobs.
increasing profits​.

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Outsourcing of Manufacturing to China

In the 1990s, cities such as Shenzhen and Dongguan offered investors a ​large pool of cheap
labour​ for manufacturing and other ​secondary​ employment. Since then, the volume of TNCs
outsourcing to China has vastly increased.

Sweatshops​ - that previously have accelerated China’s globalised status - have now become less
popular due to cheaper labour elsewhere and the bad reputation Chinese products have. Instead,
sweatshops are moving to Bangladesh and Vietnam, whilst new technological outsourcing
opportunities move into China, offering higher wages.

Benefits Costs
New ​production methods​ and techniques Many employees have been ​exploited​ and
brought by TNCs have now been adopted their working conditions are ​dangerous​ -
by local companies, so causing local chemical contact, long hours, limited human
economic development. rights, relaxed health and safety
Locals, especially in rural areas who would regulations.
otherwise be dependent on ​subsidence The environment has been ​degraded​.
farming​, now earn a ​wage​. Rivers and waterways become ​polluted
with arsenic, lead​ and other dangerous
chemicals. The air becomes polluted with
particulates​, that increase asthma suffers
and pollution-related fatalities.

Deindustrialisation

During the 1970s, many factory workers in Europe and America lost their jobs as TNCs relocated or
outsourced their manufacturing to the East. This caused a variety of ​social and economic
impacts​, which can be seen in cities such as Detroit and Glasgow:

▪ Dereliction and Contamination​ - Many textile companies located in UK Northern cities closed
and so the building they previously occupied became ​abandoned and derelict​. Other areas
suffered from abandoned ​chemical and industrial waste​, which has infiltrated the soil and local
waterways.
▪ As a direct consequence of companies moving away, rates of ​unemployment​ will increase.
This can lead to ​depopulation​, as residents migrate away to find alternative employment.
Furthermore, ​deprivation ​of inner city areas especially will increase and ​crime rates​ may
increase.

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Global Population and Migration
Global Population

It is thought that the population of the world

will continue to grow, with the population
reaching ​11.2 billion by 2100​.

Predictions become more ​uncertain​ the

further into the future scientists try to predict.
This is due to many factors:

- Birth Rates​ may reduce as attitudes

change, women become more
career-focused (especially in LEDCs)
and improved access to medical care
and family planning.
- Death Rates​ may decrease due to
improving medical knowledge and
developing cures. However, death rates may rise due to conflict or disease, both of which
are difficult to predict and mitigate against.
- The ​growth of slums​ in India, Brazil and Haiti, for example, make it difficult to predict
population growth since the population here isn’t monitored well.

Growing global populations could have ​implications for the planet​ since space will be reduced,
there could be ​shortages​ for food, energy and clean water sources, ​waste management​ could
become increasingly difficult and as more people populate the Earth, the​ risk of pandemics​ and
the spread of contagious disease will rise.

Future Challenges for Populations

Countries face different future populations and challenges. For ​ageing populations​ (large
proportion of the population are over 50), the country should expect:

● Increasing ​pressure on medical care​ as elderly people need more prescriptions, GP visits
and can suffer from isolation.
● Skills gaps​, since the working population is small and so some industries may suffer loss of
productivity, some public-funded services may be reduced or international migration
encouraged to fill employment gaps.
● Dependency​ on younger relatives can put pressure on them to support their elders.

Japan and Russia both have ageing populations, which are set to worsen in the future due to the
long life expectancy in Japan and the lack of inward migration into Russia.

Alternatively, a population could have a growing​ working population​. This is good for a country’s
economy and productivity, as businesses and TNCs will be attracted to the large available
workforce. However, a younger population demands ​education, housing and health services​,
especially if they are on a low-income so the government must subsidise these services.

India and Nigeria are both examples of populations with large working populations.

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Types of Migration

There can be a variety of reasons for migrants to move, either internally or internationally. The
cause of migration can affect how governments treat them or how the public perceive them.
International migration can result from a variety of causes:
● Voluntary Economic Migration​ → People relocate to try to improve their wealth and quality
of life.
● Often, an economic migrant’s family may follow them in the aim of ​joining their family​.
● Refugees​ → People forced to relocate due to war, conflict, persecution.
● Asylum seekers​ →People fleeing for international protection.
● Environmental Refugees​ → People specifically relocating due to tectonic disaster, natural
events (wildfires, flooding) or Climate Change’s impacts (desertification, sea level rise, etc.)
● International Students​ - ​Within recent years, there has been a large increase in the volume
of young people migrating to study elsewhere.
● The rise of ​smugglers​ in recent years means that migrants need money to migrate illegally
across borders. Smugglers only operate across strict international borders, such as the
Mexican-US border or across the Mediterranean Sea (towards Europe).
The flows of international migration will continue to change over time, as ​environmental, political
and economic​ events occur and a country’s ​development​ improves or declines.

Rural → Urban Migration

The migration of people within a country to seek better ​employment​ opportunities or a better
perceived standard of living​ tends to be from rural areas to urban cities.

Urban Pull Factors​ - Migrants are attracted to the city for:

▪ Employment Opportunities
Large businesses and TNCs provide a wide range of jobs, with the opportunity to be promoted
to better roles and therefore earn higher wages.
▪ Services
There is a better ​access​ to services in urban cities, as the distance needed to travel is reduced
and there is more likely to be ​specialised facilities​ in the city than in rural areas. This can
include education, healthcare, government embassies and offices, etc.
▪ Infrastructure
Transport links​ - roads, railways, bus routes, etc - are faster and more reliable in urban areas.
There may be less ​congestion​ (if you are moving from a honeypot village, congested due to
tourists, to the suburbs). Also, there is a better ​internet and broadband connection​ in urban
areas due to the ease of installation here rather than in the countryside.​ ​There are usually ​street
lights​ which makes people feel safer to go out at night.

Rural push factors​ - Migrants are deterred from rural living by...

▪ Poverty
People may not be able to earn enough (decreasing earning of farming, seasonal tourist
employment) and there are very few job opportunities, therefore there can be high ​poverty and
deprivation​ in rural regions.

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▪ Conflict ​(e.g. Darfur, Sudan)
There may be a ​scarcity of resources​ which can cause conflict between different groups, as
they fight for resources (such as water, land for agriculture or natural resources) and wealth.
▪ Land Reform
In some regions, locals are unable to ​prove​ that they own the land they claim to own, thus TNCs
(with government support) claim the land instead. This is very common with ​native, indigenous
communities​, who have little voice against powerful TNCs.
▪ Agricultural Modernisation
An increase and advancement of ​agricultural machinery​ has meant that less people are
required on farms, causing rising unemployment and so forcing economic migration of the
unemployed.
▪ Climate and Natural Disasters
A rare circumstance, but the occurrence of ​droughts or crop failures​ can force migration in
search of food or water. Alternatively, for regions regularly affected by ​earthquakes, storm
surges, landslides​, etc. families may feel pressured to move elsewhere to avoid economic loss
or fatalities.

It is important to remember that push and pull factors are only ​perceptions​; it is not definite that
migrants will experience a better quality of life in urban areas. Often, migrants are disappointed
when they reach the urban city, potentially struggling to find employment, affordable living and
tensions between themselves and prior residents.

Challenges faced by growing cities:

▪ Strain on services ​like education and healthcare

▪ Overcrowding​ and the development of “slums”
▪ Rising ​crime​ rates
▪ Poor sanitation​ due to open sewers and defecating outdoors
▪ Lack of green space
▪ High levels of ​congestion​, which causes air pollution

International Migration

▪ Elite International migrants​ – Generally ​skilled​ or very ​wealthy​ people, with the ability to
move to global hubs (e.g. London, Paris, New York). An example of elite migrants would be
Russian Oligarchs​, who pay Investors Visas and purchase properties in Mayfair, Kensington
and Belgrave. (It is thought that Oligarchs purchasing elite property in London has caused UK
house prices to escallate, which questions the ​‘trickle down’ theory​ that they’re money would
eventually improve other UK citizens, through business and tax)

▪ Economic International migrants​ ​– Many cities like Riyadh, Dubai, London and New York
attract workers who work for very little and are skilled in a particular profession (often
construction​). Economic migration can fill ​skills gaps​ and advance a country’s development.
However, unless carefully monitored, could lead to escalating urban populations and a rise in
illegal migrants​.

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 Host Country Source Country

Benefits - Can help fill skills gaps. ▪ Migrants send back remittances which
- Working migrants contribute to can aid in development and reduce
the economy through paying taxes poverty without government
and buying goods and services. intervention.
- Increase in cultural and ▪ Migrants become skilled and can
demographic diversity. come back to set up their own
- Young migrants can help to businesses, encouraging local
balance an ageing population, or economic growth and employment
increase a dwindling population opportunities.
over time. ▪ Reduced service spending for the
- Businesses have a larger pool of government as population declines
potential employees or customers.

Costs ▪ Rise of far right organisations, - Brain drain due to skilled workers
hate crime and racial tensions leaving
IF lack of understanding - Migrants tend to be young, so elderly
between migrants and original family are left behind and can become
population. isolated
▪ There could be strains on - Decline in services due to low customer
services (e.g. healthcare, numbers, which can lead to the negative
education) due to an increasing multiplier effect, in turn reducing other
population businesses and services
▪ House price inflation due to - Agricultural land not taken care of, with
higher demand potential dereliction

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Migration in Different Countries
Different countries have ​different rates of change​ and different ​population structures​ as a result.
This may be due to government​ policy making ​or ​levels of engagement​ within the globalised
world:

Japan Australia Singapore

Japan’s population is Australia’s immigration policy Singapore’s population
declining​; 27% are aged 65 has been based on ​strict​ly consists of a very ​high
and over and its working age based on​ skills and percentage of foreign
population is expected to drop employment​. 70% of workers​.
to 44 million by 2037, half of immigrants accepted into Among the 5 million people
what it was in 2007. Australia came to work in living in Singapore, there is
In most advanced economies areas with ​skills shortages great ​ethnic diversity​.
around 5% of people are with most immigrants living in It is the world’s 4​th​ largest
usually immigrants but this is major cities like Melbourne. financial centre​. Many TNCs
only 1.7% for Japan. The UN On average, immigrants have the Asia-Pacific HQs in
thinks Japan requires ​17 contribute 10% more per Singapore.
million migrants by 2050​ to capita than non-immigrants. Many ​international schools
make sure population levels Australia has an ageing have also set up to cater
don’t drop below 2007 levels population but as migrants are education to migrants, whose
Migration is limited due to the usually young, the ​ageing first language may not be
fact that Japanese isn’t an population is balanced​. Malay (the national language).
international language​, thus In 2013, only ​190,000
many don’t speak it outside of economic migrants​ were
Japan, and its ​closed-door allowed to enter Australia
policies​ towards migrants.

Some governments have more restricted immigration controls to restrict the number of immigrants
coming into their country. It is important to recognise that a government's beliefs or rationale
towards immigrants is due to their ​perception​ of migration. The consequences of migration may be
viewed as both​ positive and negative​ by different players.
National Culture - ​Migration usually leads to changes in the ethnic composition of areas. Some
countries believe that changes to their ​ethnic or cultural composition​ may lead to cultural
diffusion, which could lead to the loss of their national culture or historical demography.
Employment​ - ​Some governments may encourage migrants to fill skills gaps or improve economic
activity. However, especially in areas with high unemployment rates, locals may ​blame​ immigrants
for the ​loss of job opportunities​ in their area.
National Security - ​Recent events (such as terror attacks on major cities and the so-called War on
Terror) has caused political controversy regarding national security. Many people fear that freely
allowing migrants to enter their country could pose a security risk. Views such as these have been
exacerbated by some media outlets and politicians. The backlash against unregulated migration has
led to changes within politics such as the election of Donald Trump, the rise of extreme right-wing
political parties and Brexit.

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 Culture and Social Globalisation
Historically, ​cultural imperialism​ and government control over religion has been necessary for
successful ​imperial control​. However, through the increasing interconnectivity of nations, a growing
‘​global culture​’ is emerging.

Culture is composed of several key features:

▪ Language​ – National languages as well as different dialects and accents.

▪ Traditions​ – Everyday behaviour and manners that have been passed down through
generations.
▪ Religion​ – There are major religions across the world.
▪ Food​ – National dishes and diet reflect animals, crops, spices that are found locally.

Culture can be influenced by the ​media, migration, TNCs​ and businesses and​ social media​.
However, within recent years, there has been a large change to cultures and ideologies for
developed and developing populations.

Traditional Asian diets, for example, are low in meat. However, as China develops, the middle class
population is growing and so people are starting to adapt their diets to western influences
(introduced by Western TNCs). From 1990s till 2015, meat consumption per capita rose from 5kg to
50kg. This change to Chinese diet has had various impacts:

● Obesity​ has increased, especially within this growing middle class population.
● A rise in cattle rearing has led to a rise in ​methane emissions​ which in turn is increasing
Global Warming.

Alternatively, changes to culture aren’t always for the worst. In China, research conducted showed
that only 25% of disabled people were employed which suggested stigma against disabled
individuals. However, in the 2012 Paralympics, the Chinese came first with their team. The
Paralympics could show how global attitudes towards disabilities positively.

Cultural Erosion

Communities being exposed suddenly to a new culture can face ​sudden change or reduction​ to
their own culture. Young people are especially vulnerable to ​cultural diffusion​ or ​erosion​. Due to
the sensitivity and value of culture to some communities (such as indigenous communities) this can
cause ​conflict​.

Resisting Cultural Change - Examples

France​ – The French government has attempted to control globalisation by restricting foreign
language media (40% of all broadcast must be French).

China​ – ‘The Great Firewall of China’ prevents information unfavourable of the government or
foreign media outlets. Within China, you cannot access the BBC, use Facebook or search for
politically sensitive information (such as Tiananmen Square).

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Iran​ – In the early 2000s, the government banned Barbie dolls and confiscated them all from stores
as they weren’t seen as appropriate for the Islamic state.

Widening Inequality Gap

▪ Average incomes have risen​ in all continents since the 1950s but the poorest parts of Africa
have seen very little and slow growth.
▪ The increase in wealth of Europe and North America has resulted in the ​widening gap​ between
the richest and poorest in the world.
▪ Absolute ​poverty has fallen​ across but still is ​high​.

Since the 1970s, income per capita in Asia has risen significantly due to Japan and South Korea’s
modernisation (In 2010, income per capita in Asia stood at US$7000).
Incomes in some African countries - especially sub-Saharan countries - has remained stagnant.
However, within Africa there are big disparities and so Africa (like other continents) should not be
viewed as a whole. In Northern Africa, countries like Algeria and Tunisia are much wealthier than
Southern African countries due to natural oil wealth.

The ​Gini Coefficient​ measures the inequality wealth shared across a population and scores a
country from 0 to 100.
0 represents perfect equality, where everyone has the same income.
100 represents perfect inequality where one person has all the income.

Globalisation Causing Growing Conflict and Degradation

Within Europe, ​far right​ parties and organisations have become more popular and support for them
has increased. This support has accelerated since the ​expansion of the EU in 2004​ (eight Eastern
European countries have been added) which has caused an increase in the flow of migrants. For
example, Germany has accepted the largest number of migrants of any EU country but growing
concern and tensions over such a large influx has led to the rise of ​Pegida​. In France, the ​National
Front​ received 25% of the votes during a national election, which suggests the French’s views
towards migrants and cultural diversity is becoming less accepting.

Globalisation has ​not​ ​eased ​environmental or political conflicts​ between nations. The ​Mekong
River​, for example, flows from China through Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand. Since the
1990s, various dams have been constructed along the river, causing increasing political tensions
between the countries. Increasing pressures for national governments (increasing population, desire
to develop, etc) will increase conflicts between states for: fossil fuels, rivers, islands for naval bases,
land for living or farming.

Protecting Cultural Identity

Despite cultural diffusion and erosion, some cultures and indigenous communities have
strengthened their identity. ​Tourists​ are attracted to experience their culture or witness their
traditional lifestyle (e.g. Papua New Guinea). Alternatively, ​indigenous​ (live in one location) or
nomadic​ (travelling between locations) people have grouped together to support each other and
maintain their traditional lifestyles. Despite TNCs threat to drill for oil within their territories,

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indigenous communities continue to prosper in Canada (called the First Nations), Siberia and
Alaska.

Urbanisation

Increasing migration towards global hubs leads to​ rapid growth​ of cities. Rapid urbanisation can
impact the surrounding lands and people:

- Resources and people​ are moved from rural to urban areas mainly for construction -
timber, construction workers, etc.
- In the event of ​limited housing​ for a large influx of migrants, ​slums and shanty towns​ may
be constructed by the migrants themselves. This may be in unfavourable locations (steep
hillside, next to railways) and constructed poorly (using corrugated steel, little planning).
- The​ logistics​ in moving resources and people across the urban city can cause a decrease
in air quality, causing increased respiratory conditions within the population.
- Services​ can be put under pressure as more people demand services such as education,
healthcare and employment.

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