BOUND TO PLEASE!

AND OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS

PREPARED BY THE BUREAU

OF NAVAL PERSONNEL
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2020 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/basicopticsopticOOOOunit
BASIC OPTICS
AND OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS

Prepared by

Bureau of Naval Personnel

Dover Publications, Inc.

New York
 Published in Canada by General Publishing Com¬
pany, Ltd., 30 Lesmill Road, Don Mills, Toronto,
Ontario.
Published in the United Kingdom by Constable
and Company, Ltd., 10 Orange Street, London WC 2.

This Dover edition, first published in 1969, is an

unabridged republication of the work originally pub¬
lished by the United States Navy Training Publica¬
tions Center in 1966 as Opticalman 3 if 2, Navy
Training Course NAVPERS 10205. The illustrations
on page 29, originally in color, are reproduced here
in black and white.

Standard Book Number: 486-62291-6

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 69-17644

Manufactured in the United States of America

Dover Publications, Inc.
180 Varick Street
New York, N. Y. 10014
 PREFACE

This training course was prepared for the Bureau of Naval Personnel
by the Training Publications Division, Naval Personnel Program Sup¬
port Activity, Washington, D. C. Content of the course is intended pri¬
marily for men of the Navy and the Naval Reserve who are studying for
Opticalman third class and second class.
Technical assistance in preparing the course was provided by the
U. S. Naval School, Opticalmen, Great Lakes, Illinois, and the Bureau
of Ships.

i
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page

1. Advancement . 1

2. Optical Glass . 10

3. Characteristics of Light . 17

4. Images and Mirrors . 48

5. Lenses and Prisms . 64

6. Basic Optical Instruments . 110

7. Construction of Optical Instruments . 143

8. Maintenance Procedures . 166

9. Machining Operations . 214

10. Ship Telescopes and Spyglasses . 255

11. Boresight Telescopes . 289

12. Fixed Prism Gunsight Telescopes . 305

13. Magnetic Compasses . 317

14. Azimuth and Bearing Circles . 331

15. Sextants . 352

16. Stadimeters . 385

17. Telescopic Alidades . 421

18. Binoculars . 449

APPENDIX

I. Training Film List . 472

INDEX . 473

iii
 READING LIST

Basic Handtools, NavPers 10085-A

Binoculars 7 x 50, NavShips 250-624-2
Azimuth Telescopes, NavShips 250-624-4
Telescopic Alidades, NavShips 250-624-5
Azimuth and Bearing Circles, NavShips 250-624-7
Sextants (David White and Pioneer), NavShips 250-624-10
Navigational Instructions, NavShips 250-624-12
Antiaircraft Gun Mount Telescopes, OP 582 (Chapters 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8)
Collimators for Optical Instruments, OP 1417
Telescope Mark 97 Mod 1, OP 1857

IV
 CREDITS

The illustrations below are included in this edition 6f Opticalman

3 & 2 through the courtesy of the designated companies, publishers,
and associations. Permission to reproduce illustrations and other ma¬
terials in this publication must be obtained from the source.

Source: Figures:

South Bend Lathe Works 9-1, 9-2, 9-5, 9--8, 9-9, 9-11
9-12, 9-13, 9-14, 9-15, 9-16,
9-17, 9-19, 9-22, 9-24, 9-25,
9-26, 9-27, 9-28, 9-29, 9-32,
9-33, 9-34, 9-35

Reed- Prentice Corporation 9-3

Lodge and Shipley Machine Tool 9-4

Company

Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing 9-36, 9-37, 9-38, 9-40, 9-42.

Company 9-43, 9-46, 9-47

Cincinnati Milling Machine 9-41, 9-48

Company

Bausch & Lomb Optical Company 18-1

v
 CHAPTER 1

ADVANCEMENT

This training course is designed to help you Chapter 8 gives the general maintenance pro¬
meet the technical qualifications for advance¬ cedures applicable to all optical instruments.
ment to Opticalman 3 and 2. Information pre¬ Maintenance peculiar to each optical instrument
sented is based on the June 1965 edition of the is explained in the chapter pertaining to that in¬
Manual of Qualifications for Advancement in strument. Machining operations are discussed in
Rating NavPers 18068-B. Changes in thequali- chapter 9, to provide the information required
fications for Opticalmen after the B edition are when work of this type must be accomplished.
therefore not reflected in the discussion. Chapters 10 through 18 explain the function
and operation of various optical instruments,
Chapters 2 through 18 of this course deal
and then give the details for disassembling, re¬
with the technical subject matter of the Optical-
pairing, and reassembling and adjusting them.
man rating. Chapter 2 gives information on
The discussion of these instruments is of the
optical glass— its composition, care required in
greatest importance to an Opticalman, because
manufacture, and its importance in lenses and
he must understand them before he can perform
prisms for optical instruments. Chapter 3 is
satisfactory repairs on them. Competence in
devoted to a discussion of the characteristics
accomplishing work on optical instruments is
of light, with special emphasis on wave lengths,
gained only through supervised work and study
reflection, and refraction. By reflecting and re¬
in optical shops.
fracting light rays, lenses and prisms in optical
The remainder of this chapter presents in¬
instruments can create and erect clear and dis¬
formation on the enlisted rating structure, the
tinct images of distant objects.
Opticalman rating, requirements and procedures
Chapters 4 and 5 of the training course pre¬
for advancement in rating, and references which
sent a detailed discussion of the formation of
will be helpful in studying for advancement and
images by mirrors, lenses, and prisms. An
also in performing duties as an Opticalman.
understanding of the contents of these chapters
This chapter explains the best procedure for us¬
is basic to an understanding of the principle of
ing Navy training courses, and you are therefore
operation of various optical instruments. Differ¬
urged to study it carefully before engaging in
ent types of lenses and prisms are discussed
intensive study of the remainder of the training
from the standpoint of their construction and
usage in optical instruments. The explanation course.
tells how images are formed by thin and thick
lenses, how to use the lens formula, and how to THE ENLISTED RATING STRUCTURE
determine the location of an image formed by an
optical instrument.
Two of the types of ratings included in the
Chapter 6 is devoted to a brief discussion of present enlisted rating structure, established in
basic optical instruments. Chapter 7 explains 1957, are general ratings and service ratings.
how optical instruments are constructed— the GENERAL RATINGS identify broad occupa¬
function and construction of mechanical parts, tional fields of related duties and functions.
and the location of optical elements within the Some general ratings include service ratings;
instrument. An understanding of basic optical others do not. Both Regular Navy and Naval
instruments at this point in the course will help Reserve personnel may hold general ratings.
you to understand better the detailed discussion SERVICE RATINGS identify subdivisions or
of optical instruments in the last nine chapters. specialties within a general rating. Although

1
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

service ratings can exist at any petty officer the first class and chief levels, and learn as
level, they are most common at the P03 and P02 much from them as possible about the work of
levels. Both Regular Navy and Naval Reserve a shop supervisor. This is the only way to de¬
personnel may hold service ratings. velop to the maximum your usefulness to the
Navy as an Opticalman. Be prepared for greater
responsibility when it is assigned to you.
THE OPTICALMAN RATING Shop safety is something you should always
emphasize. When using tools and operating ma¬
Opticalmen maintain, repair, and overhaul chines, it is easy for one to injure himself. This
telescopic alidades, azimuth andbearing circles, not only causes personal discomfort but results
binoculars, compasses, gunsights, sextants, and in a pecuniary loss to the Navy during absence
other optical instruments. This includes inspec¬ from work. Opticalmen should keep the shop in
tion, casualty analysis, disassembly, repair, re¬ excellent working shape and hazard-free, and
placement or manufacture of parts, cleaning, re¬ work individually and collectively in a manner
assembly, collimation, sealing, drying, gassing, which minimizes personal injury.
and refinishing of surfaces.
The Opticalman rating is a general rating
ONLY— there are no service ratings. The work ADVANCEMENT IN RATING
of an Opticalman requires a high degree of
intelligence and mechanical aptitude. Optical Some of the rewards of advancement in rating
instruments are technical in nature and expen¬ are easy to see. You get more pay. Your job
sive; and ALL of them are delicate. For these assignments become more interesting and more
reasons, just ANYONE cannot perform satisfac¬ challenging. You are regarded with greater
torily the work of an Opticalman. Intelligence is respect by officers and enlisted personnel. You
required to understand the principles of opera¬ enjoy the satisfaction of getting ahead in your
tion; and knowledge of an instrument is neces¬ chosen Navy career.
sary in order to repair and collimate it. But the advantages of advancing in rating are
not yours alone. The Navy also profits. Highly
OPTICALMAN BILLETS trained personnel are essential to the functioning
of the Navy. By each advancement in rating, you
Opticalmen generally are assigned duty in increase your value to the Navy in two ways.
optical shops aboard repair ships or tenders. First, you become more valuable as a technical
Occasionally, however, they are assigned duty specialist in your own rating. And second, you
ashore as instructors in Opticalman schools. become more valuable as a person who can train
Some Opticalmen are assigned to recruiting duty; others and thus make far- reaching contributions
other are assigned to Naval Reserve training to the entire Navy.
units.
One important thing to keep in mind is this: HOW TO QUALIFY FOR ADVANCEMENT
The Opticalman rating is important to the Navy;
without it, part of the work of the Navy would not What must you do to qualify for advancement
be accomplished. Remember, therefore, that in rating? The requirements may change from
Opticalmen make an important contribution time to time, but usually you must:
toward the fulfillment of the overall mission of 1. Have a certain amount of time in your
the Navy. present grade.
2. Complete the required military and pro¬
Administrative Responsibilities fessional training courses.
3. Demonstrate your ability to perform all
At the third or second class level, Opticalmen the PRACTICAL requirements for advancement
generally do not have the responsibility for ad¬ by completing the Record of Practical Factors,
ministering an optical shop; but an Opticalman 2 NavPers 760.
is responsible for preparing casualty analysis 4. Be recommended by your commanding
inspection sheets for instruments and also for officer, after the petty officers and officers
the maintenance of records and logs in the shop. supervising your work have indicated that they
Opticalmen on duty at the 3 or 2 level should consider you capable of performing the duties
therefore observe the work of Opticalmen at of the next higher rate.

2
 Chapter 1-ADVANCEMENT

5. Demonstrate your KNOWLEDGE by pass¬ with military conduct, naval organization, mil¬
ing a written examination on (a) military re¬ itary justice, security, watch standing, and other
quirements and (b) professional qualifications. subjects which are required of petty officers in
Some of these general requirements may be all ratings.
modified in certain ways. Figure 1-1 gives a PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS are tech¬
more detailed view of the requirements for ad¬ nical or professional requirements that are di¬
vancement of active duty personnel; figure 1-2 rectly related to the work of each rating.
gives this information for inactive duty person¬ Both the military requirements and the pro¬
nel. fessional qualifications are divided into subject
Remember that the requirements for ad¬ matter groups; then, within each subject matter
vancement can change. Check with your division group, they are divided into PRACTICAL FAC¬
officer or training officer to be sure that you TORS and KNOWLEDGE FACTORS. Practical
know the most recent requirements. factors are things you must be able to DO.
Advancement in rating is not automatic. After Knowledge factors are things you must KNOW
you have met all the requirements, you are in order to perform the duties of your rating.
ELIGIBLE for advancement. You will actually The written examination you will take for
be advanced in rating only if you meet all the advancement in rating will contain questions
requirements (including making a high enough relating to the practical factors and the knowl¬
score on the written examination) and if the edge factors of both the military requirements
quotas for your rating permit your advancement. and the professional qualifications. If you are
working for advancement to second class, re¬
HOW TO PREPARE FOR ADVANCEMENT member that you may be examined on third
class qualifications as well as on second class
What must you do to prepare for advancement qualifications.
in rating? You must study the qualifications for The Quals Manual is kept current by means
advancement, work on the practical factors, of changes. The professional qualifications for
study the required Navy Training Courses, and your rating which are covered in this training
study other material that is required for ad¬ course were current at the time the course was
vancement in your rating. To prepare for ad¬ printed. By the time you are studying this course,
vancement, you will need to be familiar with (1) however, the quals for your rating may havebeen
the Quals Manual, (2) the Record of Practical changed. Never trust any set of quals until you
Factors, NavPers 760, (3) a NavPers publication have checked it against an UP-TO-DATE copy
called Training Publications for Advancement in the Quals Manual.
in Rating. NavPers 10052, and (4) applicable
Navy Training Courses. Figure 1-3 illustrates Record of Practical Factors
these materials; the following sections describe
them and give you some practical suggestions Before you can take the servicewide exam¬
on how to use them in preparing for advance¬ ination for advancement in rating, there must be
ment. an entry in your service record toshowthat you
have qualified in the practical factors of both the
The Quals Manual military requirements and the professional qual¬
ifications. A special form known as the RECORD
The Manual of Qualifications for Advance¬ OF PRACTICAL FACTORS, NavPers 760, is used
ment in Rating, NavPers 18068B (with changes), to keep a record of your practical factor quali¬
gives the minimum requirements for advance¬ fications. This form is available for each rating.
ment to each rate within each rating. This man¬ The form lists all practical factors, both mili¬
ual is usually called the “Quals Manual,” and tary and professional. As you demonstrate your
the qualifications themselves are often called ability to perform each practical factor, appro¬
“quals.” The qualifications are of two general priate entries are made in the DATE and IN¬
types: (1) military requirements, and (2) pro¬ ITIALS columns.
fessional or technical qualifications. Changes are made periodically in the Manual
MILITARY REQUIREMENTS apply to all of Qualifications for Advancement in Rating, and
ratings rather than to any one particular rating. revised forms of NavPers 760are provided when
Military requirements for advancement to third necessary. Extra space is allowed on the Record
class and second class petty officer rates deal of Practical Factors for entering additional

3
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

ACTIVE DUTY ADVANCEMENT REQUIREMENTS

REQUIREMENTS* El to E2 E2 to E3 E3 to E4 E4 to E5 E5 to E6 t E6 to E7 t E7 to E8 t E8 to E9

4 mos. 48 mos. 24 mos.

service— as E-7. asE-8.
or
8 of 11 10 of 13
6 mos. 6 mos. 12 mos. 24 mos. 36 mos.
SERVICE comple¬ years years
as E-2. as E-3. as E-4. as E-5. as E-6. total total
tion of
recruit service service
training. must be must be
enlisted. enlisted.
Must be
Class A Class B
perma¬
Recruit for PR3, for AGCA,
SCHOOL nent
Training. DT3, PT3. MUCA, appoint¬
AME 3, MNCA.
ment.
HM 3
Locally
PRACTICAL prepared Records of Practical Factors, NavPers 760, must be
FACTORS check¬ completed for E-3 and all PO advancements.
offs.

Specified ratings must complete

PERFORMANCE
applicable performance tests be¬
TEST
fore taking examinations.

ENLISTED As used by CO Counts toward performance factor credit in ad¬

PERFORMANCE when approving vancement multiple.
EVALUATION advancement.

Navy-wide examinations required Navy-wide,

EXAMINATIONS
Locallyprepared selection board,
tests. for all PO advancements.
and physical.

Correspondence
Required for E-3 and all PO advancements courses and
NAVYTRAINING unless waived because of school comple¬ recommended
COURSE(INCLUD¬
tion, but need not be repeated if identical reading. See
ING MILITARY course has already been completed. See NavPers 10052
REQUIREMENTS)
NavPers 10052 (current edition). (current edition).

Commanding Bureau of Naval Personnel

Officer
U.S.Naval Examining Center
AUTHORIZATION
TARSattached to the air program are advanced to fill
vacancies and must be approved by CNARESTRA.

* All advancements require commanding officer's recommendation,

t 2 years obligated service required.

Figure 1-1.— Active duty advancement requirements.

4
 Chapter 1-ADVANCEMENT

INACTIVE DUTY ADVANCEMENT REQUIREMENTS

REQUIREMENTS* El to E2 E2 to E3 E3 to E4 E4 to E5 E5 to E6 E6 to E7 E8 E9

FOR THESE
DRILLS PER
YEAR

TOTAL 48 6 mos. 6 mos. IS mot. 18 mos. 24 mos. 36 mos. 48 mos. 24 mos.

TIME 24 9 mos. 9 mos. 1 5 mot. 1 8 mos. 24 mos. 36 mos. 48 mos. 24 mos.

IN NON¬
GRADE DRILLING 12 mos. 24 mos. 24 mo*. 36 mos. 48 mos. 48 mos.

DRILLS 48 18 18 45 54 72 108 144 72

ATTENDED
24 16 16 27 32 42 64 85 32
IN
GRADE t

TOTAL 48 14 days 14 day* 14 days 14 day* 28 day* 42 day* 56 days 28 days

TRAINING 24 14 day* 14 day* 14 days 14 day* 28 day* 42 day* 56 days 28 days
DUTY IN NON¬
GRADEt DRILLING None None 14 days 14 day* 28 day* 28 day*

Specified ratings must complete applicable

PERFORMANCE
performance tests before taking exami¬
TESTS
nation.

PRACTICAL
FACTORS Record of Practical Factors, NavPers 760, must be completed
(INCLUDING
MILITARY for all advancements.
REQUIREMENTS)
NAVY TRAINING
COURSE(INCLUDING Completion of applicable course or courses must be entered
MILITARYREQUIRE¬ in service record.
MENTS)

Standard EXAM,
Standard exam* are uted where available, Selection
EXAMINATION
otherwite locally prepared exam* are uted. Board, and
Physical.

Bureau of Naval
AUTHORIZATION District commandant or CNARESTRA Personnel

* Recommendation by commanding officer required for all advancement*,

f Active duty periods may be substituted for drills and training duty.

Figure 1-2. —Inactive duty advancement requirements.

5
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Figure 1-3. —Materials used in preparing for advancement.

6
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

practical factors as they are published in the the indicated rate level before you canbe eligible
changes to the Quals Manual. The Record of to take the servicewide examination for advance¬
Practical Factors also provides space for re¬ ment in rating. Each mandatory course may be
cording demonstrated proficiency in skills which completed by (1) passing the appropriate enlisted
are within the general scope of the rating but correspondence course that is based on the man¬
which are not identified as minimum qualifica¬ datory training course; (2) passing locally pre¬
tions for advancement. pared tests based on the information given in the
If you are transferred before you can qualify training course; or (3) in some cases, success¬
in all practical factors, the NavPers 760 form fully completing an appropriate Class A school.
should be forwarded with your service record to Do not overlook the sections of NavPers
your next duty station. You can save yourself a 10052 which lists the required and recommended
lot of trouble by making sure that this form is references relating to the military requirements
actually inserted in your service record before for advancement. Personnel of ALL ratingsmust
you are transferred. If the form is not in your complete the mandatory military requirements
service record, you may be required to start all training course for the appropriate rate level
over again and requalify in the practical factors before they can be eligible to advance in rating.
which have already been checked off. The references in NavPers 10052 which are
recommended but not mandatory should also be
NavPers 10052 studied carefully. ALL references listed in
NavPers 10052 may be used as source material
Training Publications for Advancement in for the written examinations, at the appropriate
Rating, NavPers 10052 (revised), is a very im- rate levels.
portant publication for anyone preparing for ad¬
vancement in rating. This bibliography lists re¬ Navy Training Courses
quired and recommended Navy Training Courses
and other reference material to be used by per¬ There are two general types of Navy Training
sonnel working for advancement in rating. Nav Courses. RATING COURSES (such as this one)
Pers 10052 is revised and issued once each are prepared for most enlisted ratings. A rating
year by the Bureau of Naval Personnel. Each training course gives information that is directly
revised edition is identified by a letter following related to the professional qualifications of ONE
the NavPers number. When using this publica¬ rating. SUBJECT MATTER COURSES or BASIC
tion, be SURE that you have the most recent COURSES give information that applies to more
edition. than one rating.
If extensive changes in qualifications occur Navy Training Courses are revised from
in any rating between the annual revisions of time to time to keep them up to date technically.
NavPers 10052, a supplementary list of sutdy The revision of a Navy Training Course is iden¬
material may be issued in the form of a BuPers tified by a letter following the NavPers number.
Notice. When you are preparing for advancement, You can tell whether any particular copy of a
check to see whether changes have been made in Navy Training Course is the latest edition by
the qualifications for your rating. If changes checking the NavPers number and the letter
have been made, see if a BuPers Notice has been following this number in the most recent edition
issued to supplement NavPers 10052 for your of List of Training Manuals and Correspondence
rating. Courses. NavPers 10061. (NavPers 10061 is
The required and recommended references actually a catalog that lists all current training
are listed by rate level in NavPers 10052. If you courses and correspondence courses; you will
are working for advancement to third class, study find this catalog useful in planning your study
the material that is listed for third class. If you program.)
are working for advancement to second class, Navy Training Courses are designed to help
study the material that is listed for second class; you prepare for advancement in rating. The
but remember that you are also responsible for following suggestions may help you to make the
the references listed at the third class level. best use of this course and other Navy training
In using NavPers 10052, you will notice that publications when you are preparing for advance¬
some Navy Training Courses are marked with an ment in rating.
asterisk (*). Any course marked in this way is 1. Study the military requirements and the
MANDATORY— that is, it must be completed at professional qualifications for your rating before

7
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

you study the training course, and refer to the Without looking at the training course, write
quals frequently as you study. Remember, you down the main ideas that you have gotten from
are studying the training course primarily in studying this unit. Don’t just quote the book. If
order to meet these quals. you can't give these ideas in your own words,
2. Set up a regular study plan. It will prob¬ the chances are that you have not really mastered
ably be easier for you to stick to a schedule if the information.
you can plan to study at the same time each day. 9. Use Enlisted Correspondence Courses
If possible, schedule your studying for a time whenever you can. The correspondence courses
of day when you will not have too many inter¬ are based on Navy Training Courses or on other
appropriate texts. As mentioned before, comple¬
ruptions or distractions.
3. Before you begin to study any part of the tion of a mandatory Navy Training Course can
training course intensively, become familiar be accomplished by passing an Enlisted Corre¬
with the entire book. Read the preface and the spondence Course based on the Navy Training
table of contents. Check through the index. Look Course. You will probably find it helpful to take
at the appendixes. Thumb through the book with¬ other correspondence courses, as well as those
out any particular plan, looking at the illustra¬ based on mandatory training courses. Taking
tions and reading bits here and there are you see a correspondence course helps you to master the
things that interest you. information given in the training course, and also
4 . Look at the training course in more detail, helps you see how much you have learned.
to see how it is organized. Look at the table of 10. Think of your future as you study Navy
contents again. Then, chapter by chapter, read Training Courses. You are working for advance¬
the introduction, the headings, and the subhead¬ ment to third class or second class right now,
ings. This will give you a pretty clear picture but someday you will be working toward higher
of the scope and content of the book. As you look rates. Anything extra that you can learn now will
through the book in this way, ask yourself some help you both now and later.
questions: What do I need to learn about this?
What do I already know about this? How is this SOURCES OF INFORMATION
information related to information given in other
chapters? How is this information related to the One of the most useful things you can learn
qualifications for advancement in rating? about a subject is how to find out more about it.
5. When you have a general idea of what is No single publication can give you all the infor¬
in the training course and how it is organized, mation you need to perform the duties of your
fill in the details by intensive study. In each rating. You should learn where to look for ac¬
study period, try to cover a complete unit— it curate, authoritative, up-to-date information on
may be a chapter, a section of a chapter, or a all subjects related to the military requirements
subsection. The amount of material that you can for advancement and the professional qualifica¬
cover at one time will vary. If you know the tions of your rating.
subject well, or if the material is easy, you can Some of the publications described here are
cover quite a lot at one time. Difficult or un¬ subject to change or revision from time to time-
familiar material will require more study time. some at regular intervals, others as the need
6. In studying any one unit— chapter, section, arises. When using any publication that is sub¬
or subsection— write down the questions that oc¬ ject to change or revision, be sure that you have
cur to you. Many people find it helpful to make a the latest edition. When using any publication
written outline of the unit as they study, or at that is kept currentbymeansofchanges.be sure
least to write down the most important ideas. you have a copy in which all official changes
7. As you study, relate the information in have been made. Studying canceled or obsolete
the training course to the knowledge you already information will not help you to do your work or
have. When you read about a process, a skill, or to advance in rating; it is likely tobe a waste of
a situation, try to see how this information ties time, and may even be seriously misleading.
Some helpful publications not included in the
in with your own past experience.
8. When you have finished studying a unit, reading list for this training course are:
take time out to see what you have learned. Look 1. Standard First Aid Training Course,
back over your notes and questions. Maybe some NavPers 10081-A, which explains the procedures
of your questions have been answered, but per¬ and methods to follow when administering first
haps you still have some that are not answered. aid.

8
 Chapter 1-ADVANCEMENT

2- Alidade. Telescopic, Marine (Mk 6 Modi information on the principles of operation and
& Mk 7 Mod 0), NavShips 324-0654. This publi- maintenance of Mk 7 alidades.
cation explains the construction and operation of A list of training films that may be useful is
Mk 6 and Mk 7 telescopic alidades and gives a given in appendix I of this training course. Other
brief discussion on maintenance. films which may be of interest are listed in the
3. Alidade, Telescopic, Marine (Mk 7 Mod 0), United States Navy Film Catalog. NavPers 10000
NavShips 0924-001-6000, which provides (Revised).

9
 CHAPTER 2

OPTICAL GLASS

Without glass, there would by NO optical heat which temporarily halts solidification. With
instruments and no Opticalmen in the Navy; be¬ glass, on the other hand, the transition from the
cause the optical elements of these instruments liquid to the solid state is so continuous and
are made of glass with definite characteristics. gradual that the most delicate instruments have
For this reason, you should understand the failed to record either evolution of heat or re¬
properties and characteristics of lenses and tardation of the solidifying process, which is a
prisms used in optical instruments throughout GRADUAL STIFFENING WITHOUT CHANGE OF
the Navy. You may wonder why ordinary glass STRUCTURE. All glass, however, assumes a
or plastic substances cannot be used for making crystalline structure (devitrification) if while in
lenses and prisms. This chapter explains why the the vitreous state the temperature is maintained
use of such elements for this purpose is un¬ too long at the critical state (crystallization
satisfactory. point). Crystalline glass gives DOUBLE refrac¬
Because of the high transparency and ease of tion, and a lens made from it forms TWO SEP¬
manufacturing plastic lenses (in almost final ARATE IMAGES at the same time.
shape), glass manufacturers have made plastic Glass has NO melting point. When heat is
lenses. They are impractical for optical instru¬ applied to it gradually, it gets soft and can be
ments, however, for two reasons: (l)they expand molded into a thread; when it is red hot, it flows
and contract more than glass during temperature in a thick mass. A temperature of several
changes, which means that they change their focal thousand degrees turns glass into a fluid.
length more than glass lenses and, for this
reason, it is impossible to correct aberrations COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY GLASS
in an optical system composed of plastic lenses;
and (2) plastic lenses are so soft in texture that
you cannot clean them satisfactorily (even with In a liquid state, glass is a MIXTURE of
lens tissue) without damaging them. certain chemicals in solution. The most common
chemicals used for this purpose are the silicates
and borates. Under ordinary conditions of cool¬
NATURE OF GLASS ing, these chemical solutions remain mutually
dissolved. Each component of the mixture, how¬
The only common characteristic of all glass ever, has its own solidification point; and if the
is that its structure is not CRYSTALLINE but molten glass is maintained SLIGHTLY BELOW
AMORPHOUS. Generally speaking, all glasses one of the critical temperatures of a component,
are hard andbrittlejbuttheDEGREE ofhardness that constituent crystallizes. In some instances,
and brittleness varies widely— some metals and therefore, it is very difficult TO PREVENT
minerals are harder and more fragile than glass. devitrification of amorphous glass. Proper
Solid bodies have a definite or crystalline cooling of the molten glass —at a RELATIVELY
structure, but this is not true of such vitreous RAPID RATE through the critical range of tem¬
bodies as glass. The properties of glass are ex¬ perature— is the answer to the problem.
plainable only by assuming that they have the The tendency of amorphous glass to crystal¬
same molecular arrangement as a LIQUID. When lize places a natural limit on the number of
a crystalline body passes from the liquid to the bodies which can be obtained in a vitreous state,
solid state, the transition takes place at a definite only a few of which are ordinarily used for
temperature and is accompanied by considerable making glass.

10
 Chapter 2-OPTICAL GLASS

Ordinary glass is manufactured from MIXED through glass include: (1) homogeneity, ^trans¬
SILICATES of a few bases— alkalies (sodium parency, (3) freedom from color, (4) refraction,
and potassium), alkaline earths (calcium, mag¬ and (5) dispersion. These properties are now
nesium, strontium, and barium), lead oxide, and discussed in the order listed.
(in small quantities) iron and aluminum oxides.
Metallic elements (lead, potassium, sodium) also HOMOGENEITY
form oxides; and when these oxides are melted
with silica, they form metallic SILICATES. Homogeneity is the most important property
of optical glass. If you examine a thick piece of
AMORPHOUS STATE OF GLASS
ordinary glass, you will find that the layers of
difference densities show clearly in the form of
Although glass is a liquid, it is also a solid, internal irregularities, known as VEINS or
which scientists generally describe as AMOR¬ STRIAE, little streaks with a higher or lower
PHOUS. Solids are characterized by definite index of refraction (bending) than the other part
shape and volume. Crystalline solids, for ex¬ of the glass. Many times the striae are also so
ample, have a regular arrangement of particles; small that they cannot be detected until the glass
amorphous solids, on the other hand, have a is ground (as a lens, for example) and polished.
random arrangement of particles— large, long- Because these striae affect the sharpness of an
chain, entangled molecules. image formed by the lens, it cannot be used in
You perhaps wonder how anything as SOLID an optical instrument.
as glass can be a LIQUID or in an AMORPHOUS You can test a lens for striae in the manner
state. The reason for this condition of glass is illustrated in figure 2-1. If you place a light (S)
that the molecules are held together in crystals behind a screen with a hole in it directly in front
by VAN DER WAALS FORCES, which means that of the light and then hold a lens (L) with one hand
the electric field of the atoms of one molecule and a knife blade (K) at the point indicated in the
causes a similar variation in the electric field other hand, you can look aJong the optical axis
of the atoms of another molecule to generate (central point) of the lens and detect the absence
attraction between them. or presence of striae. If the lens has no striae,
You can prove for yourself that GLASS IS AN the field appears dark (part B, fig. 2-1); if striae
AMORPHOUS STATE by placing a thin-walled are PRESENT, they show as bright lines (part
glass tube five feet long (approximately) on two C, fig. 2-1).
nails driven equidistant from the deck on the To be homogeneous, a lens must also be free
bulkhead of your shop and observing the bend in of dust, dirt, and bubbles. A few bubbles in a lens
the tube during a five or six months’ period. stop the passage of light through the lens at their
Hold the glass tube against the bulkhead and location, but they do not hurt the quality of the
mark its original position with a pencil, so that image. The best lenses may have ONE or TWO
you will be able to measure the amount of bend bubbles, but inspectors of precision lenses re¬
which develops during the period. ject lenses with more than THREE bubbles; and
One interesting thing about this test is that they also reject a lens with ONE bubble as BIG
when you first place the tube of glass on the as half a millimeter in diameter.
nails it shows a slight bend, which immediately
TRANSPARENCY AND COLOR
disappears if you then remove it from the nails.
At the end of your test, however, the bend will Transparency is a vital property of optical
remain in the tube when you remove it from the glass, its most important characteristic. No
nails; because the liquid glass has ACTUALLY glass, however, is perfectly transparent; and
FLOWED to its new position. some glass is translucent or opaque. You will
also learn in chapter 3 that when light strikes
a glass surface (even though it is perfectly
PROPERTIES OF OPTICAL GLASS polished) part of the light is reflected from the
entrance surface, part of it is absorbed, and part
Glass used in optical instruments must have of it is reflected from the emergent surface.
special properties; ordinary glass has too many The amount of absorption of light by the best
imperfections which affect light during passage glass is small if the glass is thin; but a piece
through it. The PURELY OPTICAL PROPER¬ of the best glass several inches thick absorbs
TIES which directly influence light as it passes a noticeable amount of light.

11
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

(2) mechanical hardness, and (3) freedom from

L
internal strains. It is important that you know
and remember these qualities of optical glass.

CHEMICAL STABILITY

Chemical stability is an essential feature of

optical glass, because the best lenses would
soon be useless if they were affected by moisture
and traces of chemical fumes in the atmosphere.
Condensed water on glass absorbs carbon dioxide
A and forms carbonic acid, which dissolves glass.
Distilled water, for example, must be kept in
specially made glass containers or bottles; be¬
cause it dissolves ordinary glass. High-quality
optical glass (HARD CROWN and BORO SILI¬
CATE CROWN) resists chemicals and is there¬
fore durable.
Occasionally, the optical qualities listed in
the specifications for manufacturing necessitate
changes in the composition of the glass which
sacrifice chemical stability. Lenses made from
137.1
unstable glass, however, can be protected by
A. Testing procedure. cementing them between two components of
B. No striae present. stable glass; but this procedure imposes limita¬
C. Striae present (white line).
tions on optical design.
Figure 2-1.— Testing a lens for striae.
MECHANICAL HARDNESS
ANOTHER IMPORTANT FEATURE OF OP¬
The degree of absorption of light by glass
TICAL GLASS IS MECHANICAL HARDNESS
varies with the color of the light. NOTE: Optical
(generally accompanied by a low refractive in¬
glass must be free from color. When white light
dex) because lenses must be HARD ENOUGH
passes through glass, the glass absorbs more of
to resist the effects of cleaning, which must be
one of its component colors than the other colors,
thus causing the emergent light to have a slight accomplished as necessary.
You will learn a little later in this chapter
color tint. In thick pieces, purest and whitest
that HARD CROWN GLASS is harder than DENSE
glasses always show adistinctblueorgreentint.
FLINT GLASS. This difference in degree of hard¬
ness is necessitated by the elements used by the
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION
manufacturer in order to get desired OPTICAL
Refraction and dispersion of light are two of QUALITIES in the glass.
the most important properties of any optical
element. Refraction is the bending of a ray of FREEDOM FROM INTERNAL STRAINS
light when it enters a lens or prism; dispersion
is the separation of light into its component Although desirable, ENTIRE FREEDOM
colors as it passes through a prism or lens. from internal strains is essential ONLY for
This occurs in an uncorrected lens or prism, special optical purposes. Manufacturers of glass
because the index of refraction (ratio of speed of know from experience the amount of STRAIN
light in a vacuum to speed of light in a medium) PERMISSIBLE in glass intended for various
of glass is different for each wave length. (You
purposes.
will learn more about refraction and dispersion Strains in glass result from annealing (cool¬
in the next few chapters.) ing and setting). When glass cools, it contracts;
and if it cools TOO RAPIDLY, the surface be¬
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS comes cool while the center is still hot, resulting
in strains which usually cause breakage during
The general requirements of special impor¬
tance in optical glass are: (l)chemical stability, grinding and polishing.

12
 Chapter 2-OPTICAL GLASS

Strains in optical glass can be detected by deficient in bases DISSOLVES and ABSORBS
polarized light. Perfectly annealed glass, en¬ basic materials it contacts. Similarly, a glass
tirely free from internal strains, produces no rich in bases and poor in silica or other acid
effect on a beam of polarized light which passes constituents ABSORBS acidbodies. Optical glass
through it. A serious amount of double refraction must therefore be FUSED in FIRE-CLAY
indicates strain in the glass. CRUCIBLES of such chemical composition as
You can test for strain in optical glass by required in order to supply some of the con¬
doing the following: (1) mount two polaroid stituents which the glass requires.
filters in line with a light, one inch apart; (2) Because the transparency of glass enables
look through the filters toward the light and turn one to see in the finished products defects of
one of the filters until the field is dark; and (3) COLOR and QUALITY, raw materials selected
while looking into the dark field, hold the glass for making optical glass must be PRACTICALLY
you desire to test between the two polaroid FREE from impurities. Although volatile and
filters. If the field remains dark, the glass is combustible substances are usually completely
free from strains. Strained glass, on the other eliminated (by high temperature) during the
hand, rotates the plane of polarization, causing melting step, all FIXED (stable) substances
you to see RINGS or BANDS of colored light. which compose the mixture appear in the finished
glass. The selection of raw materials for optical
glass is therefore most important.
MANUFACTURE OF GLASS Raw materials for optical glass must also be
uniform in composition. The materials generally
The discussion of manufacture of glass is used contain: (1) silica, (2) alkalies, and (3)
limited to OPTICAL glass, because this is the bases other than alkalies.
type of glass in which you are primarily inter¬
ested. An understanding of the quality of mate¬ Silica
rials used in optical glass and the procedure for
manufacturing it will be both interesting and The principal material in SILICA is SAND;
beneficial to you. Why must we use specific and only the purest kind of sand is suitable for
amounts of definite ingredients for a particular optical glass. It must NOT contain more than 0.1
type of optical glass? Why must so much care be percent of impurities; the remaining material
exercised in manufacturing optical glass? The must be PURE SILICA. SILICON (Si)isoneof the
following discussion contains the answers to chemical elements. Silica is one of its oxides
these questions. (Si02). Pure quartz is a crystalline form of
silica, and pure sands used for some optical
COMPONENTS OF OPTICAL GLASS glass are disintegrated quartz.
Silica is also a component of sandstone; but
In order to secure homogeneity in optical silica obtained in the form of crushed stone is
glass, the ingredients used in manufacturing it not as satisfactory as sand— nor is it as pure or
must be FINELY DIVIDED and THOROUGHLY homogeneous. The same objections are also valid
MIXED. in the use of quartz or flint, with the added ob¬
Excessive furnace temperatures required to jection of the difficulty in crushing them, because
fuse certain substances impose a limit on the of their extreme hardness. Flint glass got its
composition of optical glass. Excessive propor¬ name from ground flint used in its manufacture.
tions of silica, lime, and so forth, for example, FLINT currently denotes a heavy, dense glass of
RAISE the fusing point. When this temperature high lead content and refractive power.
exceeds 1600° C, glass manufacture in ordinary
furnaces is impossible. Pure silica produces Alakalies
excellent glass, but it CANNOT be fused in
ordinary regenerative gas furnaces used in The original forms of potassium and sodium
making some types of glass. chloride contain alkalies. From a manufacturing
The CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR of glass during standpoint, however, it is not possible to use the
manufacture and during use also places a limit chlorides because they are volatile at tempera¬
on the procedure for making it. Glass solutions tures used for melting glass. They are also
tend toward a state of saturation and, while in a affected by hot silica ONLY in the presence of
molten state, a glass mixture rich in silica and water vapor; consequently, chlorides vaporize

13
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

before they combine with other ingredients. For of refraction and dispersion— contains phos¬
this reason, alkalies are used in the form of phorus, barium, or boron, but NO lead; FLINT
sulphate of soda (salt cake) and (less frequently) GLASS— higher index of refraction and disper¬
carbonate of soda (soda ash). sion than crown glass— may contain a small
quantity of barium or boron, but it DOES contain
Other Basic Materials lead— the greater the amount of lead used, the
higher the index of refraction of the glass.
Calcium oxide (lime) and lead oxide are the
most important basic materials (other than alka¬ FURNACES AND CRUCIBLES

lies) used in optical glass. The usual form of

calcium oxide used is the carbonate or the hy¬ Manufacturers employ two general types of
drate (slacked lime). Lead oxide (generally in furnaces for making glass: (1) tank, and (2) pot
the form of red lead) is used extensively in the (crucible). They use tank furnaces for producing
manufacture of FLINT glass. great quantities of glass, such as rolled plate
Barium oxide (magnesia) is also used for or sheet glass; but tank furnaces are UNSATIS¬
making optical glass; and zinc oxide is included FACTORY for making optical glass.
in the ingredients for making a SPECIAL ZINC Pot furnaces are used EXCLUSIVELY for
CROWN glass for certain optical purposes. manufacturing optical glass, for the following
With respect to all elements used in a mix¬ reasons:
ture for making optical glass, bear in mind that 1. The composition of the glass can be ac¬
the manufacturer selects the elements to make a curately regulated.
particular type of glass in accordance with 2. Molten glass can be protected better from
specifications, to meet a specific need. contamination by the action of furnace gases or
Now that you have learned the components of materials from the top of the furnace dropping
different types of optical glass, study the follow¬ into the glass.
ing formulas for CROWN and FLINT optical 3. It is possible to FUSE IN POTS materials
glass. There are quite a few other formulas for which cannot be kept together in an open-tank
making optical glass; these are given as ex¬ furnace long enough to combine them.
Pot furnaces (crucibles) are gas furnaces
amples.
similar in principle of operation and construction
to furnaces used in making steel. They are lined
FORMULA FOR BORO-SILICATE CROWN with some form of FIRE CLAY, because the
GLASS lining must be able to resist the disintegrating
action of heated furnace gases for long periods.
Silica (SiO,) . 68.24% Fire clays are affected by the dissolving action
Boron oxide (B2O3) . 10.00 of molten glass, so a crucible for optical glass
Potassium oxide (KoO) . 9.50 is used ONLY once.
Sodium oxide (Na20) . 10.00 Crucibles employed for making optical glass
Zinc oxide (ZnO) . 2.00 usually vary between 30 and 50 inches in di¬
Manganese oxide (Mn203) . 0.06 ameter and are of the covered type in design, as
Arsenic pentoxide (AS2O5) .... 0.20 shown in figure 2-2. Furnaces for optical-glass
NOTE: The index of refraction of glass manufacture are made to take ONLY one pot,
produced by this formula for one par¬ instead of 10 or 12 generally used for making
ticular wave length of yellow light is ordinary glass. The reason for this is that the
1.5128. methods followed for making technically perfect
glass cannot be used when they are most desir¬
FORMULA FOR DENSE FLINT GLASS able, because the raw materials for optical glass
must be selected for the chemical composition
Silica (Si02) . 18.00% which gives the desired optical properties.
Lead oxide (PbO) . 82.00 Furnace conditions must therefore be adapted
NOTE: the index of refraction of glass to the materials selected for a particular type of
made by this formula is 1.9625. optical glass. Heat (degree and duration) must
be adapted to each pot. This control of tempera¬
One thing to remember about optical glass ture for melting glass is NOT possible when
components is: CROWN GLASS— fairly low index more than one pot is used in the furnace.

14
 Chapter 2-OPTICAL GLASS

FINING PROCESS

The pot full of molten material is full of

bubbles of all sizes. The glass must therefore
undergo a process called FINING in order to
eliminate the bubbles. This process is accom¬
plished by INCREASING THE FURNACE HEAT,
to make the glass more fluid and to increase the
size of the bubbles as a result of the expansion
of the contained gas. When the bubbles increase
in size, they rise to the top of the molten glass.
By keeping the glass at this high temperature
(sometimes for 30 hours) all bubbles in the glass
137.2 are eventually eliminated.
Figure 2-2.— Covered pot (crucible) for It is not difficult to maintain an extreme
melting optical glass. temperature a long time for lead glass, and other
types of easily fusible glass; but for hard-crown
MIXING THE INGREDIENTS glass it is difficult to maintain a high fining
temperature without endangering both pot and
Because the quantities of ingredients used for furnace.
making optical glass are comparatively small, In some valuable optical glass, all bubbles
it is best to mix them carefully and thoroughly are NOT eliminated; because increased temper¬
by hand. A certain amount of CIJLLET— broken ature and expansion of gas in the molten glass
glass from a previous melting— must also be do NOT force them to the top of the glass. The
thoroughly mixed with the raw ingredients. reason for this is their size; they are very small
Pieces of cullet with striae are generally used bubbles. The only optical drawback to bubbles of
for this purpose. Cullet acts as a flux, to cause this size is that they prevent the transmission of
the other materials to react on each other at a a very small percentage of light which falls upon
lower temperature than they would without it. them.
When the molten glass is free from bubbles,
MELTING PROCESS the furnace heat is decreased. As the greater
part of the impurities are lighter than the molten
The empty crucible is placed in a kiln and glass, they float to the top and can be removed
gradually brought to a red heat— in four or five by skimming with a ladle.
days. It is then removed from the kiln and trans¬
ferred as rapidly as possible to the melting STIRRING PROCEDURE
furnace, which was also heated to the same tem¬
perature as the crucible. NOTE: This is neces¬ Molten glass in the crucible must now be
sary in order to prevent shrinkage and breakage stirred thoroughly and continuously during grad¬
of the pot. The opening to the melting furnace is ual cooling. A thoroughly burned fire-clay
then carefully sealed temporarily withbrick. An cylinder heated to a RED HEAT is used for this
opening in the brickwork opposite the mouth of purpose. The stirring process must continue
the pot is made with fire-clay slabs and the until the molten mass is so stiff that the stirrer
furnace is then heated to a melting heat. CANNOT be moved; it remains in the cooled
A quantity of CULLET is next placed in the mass. The time of stirring (usually 4 to 20 hours)
pot and melted, to form a coating of molten glass varies in accordance with the composition of the
on the bottom and on the lower part of the walls glass and the size of the pot.
of the pot, as protection from violent attack by
the melting raw materials. The first charge SETTING AND ANNEALING
(part) of the raw materials may be put in the pot
as soon as the cullet is melted. When this charge When the stirring process is completed, to
melts completely, a second charge is added, and prevent devitrification, the glass must be cooled
then a third— in smaller and smaller amounts as as RAPIDLY as safety permits to a temperature
the number of charges increases— and so on until where it becomes SET. Once the glass is set,
the pot IS FILLED with molten glass. further rapid cooling results in CRACKING and

15
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

FRAGMENTATION of the mass. It is therefore however, the glass is cracked into a few large
necessary that the glass be slowly cooled lumps and a great number of smaller fragments.
(annealed) down to natural temperature. The lumps are then inspected and visible de¬
Setting and annealing are accomplished in the fects are removed with a chipping hammer.
The lumps of glass are next heated to a RED
following manner:
1. When stirring is completed, the crucible heat and placed in RED-HOT FIRE-CLAY molds
must be withdrawn from the furnace and allowed large enough for each lump. To prevent strain
to cool to annealing temperature, 400° C to in glass intended for a special purpose, it is
500° C. allowed to SETTLE into the molds by its own
2. The potmustthenbeplacedinanannealing weight— it is NEVER forced into the molds.
kiln at annealing temperature and slowly cooled Final annealing then follows, during which time
to natural temperature. This process usually (6 to 8 days) the glass is cooled down to ambient
takes from ONE to TWO weeks, in accordance temperature.
with the amount (quantity) of glass melted. When the glass is cool, it is ready for cutting,
3. When the glass is cool, the pot is removed grinding, and polishing for the purpose for which
from the annealing kiln and broken away from it was made. You will learn more about usage
the glass. of optical glass when you study lenses and
Under very favorable conditions, the whole prisms, and also when you view Navy films which
melting may be one big lump of optical glass, describe and explain the procedure for grinding
perhaps as much as 1,200 pounds. Generally, and polishing them.

16
 CHAPTER 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

Light is the term commonly used for radiant ancient Greeks, for example, believed that light
(heat) energy which affects our eyes and gives us was generated by streams of particles ejected
vision. When you study the spectrum later in this from the eyes, and then reflected back into the
chapter, you will learn that the wavelength (light) eyes by objects they struck. This theory did
to which our eyes are most sensitive is 0.5550 not last long, however, because it did not ex¬
micron. plain why a person could not see as well by night
Objects which emit light are luminous, and as by day.
they are visible ONLY BECAUSE OF THE RA¬ Space in this manual does not permit a dis¬
DIATED LIGHT. Nonluminous objects do not cussion of all theories of light, but some of them
give off light and are therefore invisible until are considered briefly in order to give you an
light from a luminous object strikes them and idea concerning their impact on the development
is reflected to our eyes. When light strikes of current theories of light.
the surface of an object, some of it is AB¬
During the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton
SORBED, part of it is REFLECTED; and if the
announced his CORPUSCULAR theory of light.
object is transparent or translucent, a portion
He assumed that light was a flight of material
of it is TRANSMITTED. Objects which emit
particles originating at the light source. He
no light are designated as opaque. IfanOPAQUE
believed that light rajs moved with tremendous
OBJECT is made thin enough, it will become
speed in a state of near vibration and could
TRANSLUCENT, or even TRANSPARENT.
pass through space, air, and transparent objects.
We discuss the properties of light in this
Newton’s theory concurred with the idea
chapter because you must understand the nature
that light moves only in a straight line, but it
and behavior of light before you can fully com¬
did not explain other characteristics of light.
prehend the principle of operation of various
He accidentally discovered a form of light
optical instruments. Without the properties of
interference which is now known as Newton’s
light which enable lenses and prisms to change
rings but he did not realize their significance.
its direction, the construction of optical instru¬
During Newton’s era, Christian Huygens an¬
ments would be an impossibility.
nounced his concept of light, now known as
Another reason why you must understand
Huygens’ principle, which helps to explain some
the characteristics of light is that before you
of the phenomena of optics. Huygens attempted
can qualify for Opticalman 3 you must know
to show that the laws of reflection and refrac¬
Huygens’ theory of light, the theory of refrac¬
tion (explained later) could be explained by his
tion and reflection, and the effect on light rays
theory of WAVE MOTION of light.
by convergent and divergent lenses. In addi¬
tion, you must know what happens to rays of Although Huygens’ wave-motion theory of
light when they strike prisms and different light appeared to be the logical explanation for
types of mirrors. some phases of light behavior, it was not ac¬
cepted for many years. Huygens could explain
LIGHT THEORIES the passage of waves through water, but he did
not know how light waves came from the sun
Scientists have always been interested in or passed through space. He then proposedthat
the properties of light: and because of their the waves passed through a medium which he
inquisitive minds and experiments, they de¬ called ETHER, the function of which was to
veloped various theories concerning light. The serve light rays in the same manner as water

17
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

serves the familiar waves of water. He as¬ and stated that (when emitted) light quanta re¬
sumed that ether occupied all space, even that tained their original identity as packets of
part already occupied by matter. energy.
Through experimentation, R. A. Millikan
About 50 years after Huygens announced later proved that the energy caused by motion
his theory of wave motion of light, Thomas (kinetic energy) of units of light (photons) be¬
Young, Fresnel, and others, supported the haved in the manner assumed by the quantum
wave theory, and Newton’s corpuscular theory theory. In 1921, A. H. Compton learned through
was virtually abandoned. These three scientists experiments that electrons and photons have
accepted the ETHER theory and assumed that kinetic energy and momentum, and that they
light was waves of energy transmitted by an behave like material bodies. This idea was
elastic medium designated by Huygens as ether . therefore somewhat similar to the old corpus¬
Three other scientists (Boltzmann, Hertz, cular theory.
and Maxwell) conducted experiments which Knowledge gained later by scientists from
proved that light and electricity are similar in the study of diffraction, interference, polariza¬
radiation and speed. As a result of their ex¬ tion, and velocity (explained later) proved the
periments, they developed the ELECTROMAG¬ corpuscular theory of light untenable. More
NETIC theory. They produced alternating elec¬ recently, however, phenomena of light havebeen
discovered which are not accounted for by the
tric currents with short wavelengths which were
undoubtedly of electromagnetic origin and had wave theory, so many scientists now accept
all the properties of light waves. This theory Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. Because
(sometimes called the Maxwell theory) held that the phenomena of light propagation can be ex¬
energy was given off continuously by the radiat¬ plained best in terms of the wave theory, this
is the theory used to explain the passage of
ing body.
light through optical instruments discussed in
For some years after promulgation of the
this manual.
Maxwell theory of light, scientists thought the
puzzle of light was definitely solved. In 1900,
however, Max Planck rejected the electromag¬ LIGHT FACTS
netic theory. He did not hold the view that energy
from a radiating body was given off continuously. We know now that all forms of light obey
His contention was that the radiating body con¬ the same general laws. When light travels
tained a large number of tiny oscillators, pos¬ in a medium or substance of constant optical
sibly resulting from electrical action of atoms in density, it travels in waves in straight lines
the body. His idea was that the energy given off and at a constant speed. When light strikes
by the body could be of high frequency and have a different medium from the one in which it
high energy value, with all possible frequencies is traveling, it is either reflected from or
represented. Planck argued that the higher the enters the medium. Upon entering a trans¬
temperature of the radiating body the shorter parent medium, the speed of light is slowed
the wavelength of most energetic radiation would down if the medium is MORE dense, or in¬
be. creased if the medium is LESS dense. Some
In order to account for the manner in which substances of medium density have abnormal
radiation from a warm, blackbody is distributed optical properties and, for this reason, they
among the different wavelengths, Planck found an may be designated as optically dense. If the
equation to fit the experimental curves, which light strikes the medium on an angle, its course
were based on lightwaves of different length. is bent (refracted) as it enters the medium.
He then came to the conclusion that the small NOTE: Reflection and refraction are discussed
particles of radiated energy were GRAINS of fully in this text in the chapters (4 & 5) which
energy like grains of sand. He therefore called deal with lenses and prisms and image forma¬
these units quanta and named his theory the tion. When discussing the characteristics of
QUANTUM THEORY. He assumed that when light, however, we must use and explain these
quanta were set free they moved from their and other terms to the extent necessary for you
source in waves. to understand the discussion. As explained
A few years later, Albert Einstein agreed previously, without light, lenses and prisms,
with Planck relative to his quantum theory, and some other optical elements, we could not

18
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

have optical instruments. After you learn the to expand— the bigger the pebble, the greater
characteristics of light and the types and func¬ the size of the waves and circles. When all
tion of various optical elements, you will then the energy produced on the milk by the pebble
experience less difficulty in understanding image is absorbed by the waves, they stop forming, as
formation— the prime purpose of optical instru¬ illustrated.
ments.
TRANSMISSION OF WAVE ENERGY
SOURCE OF LIGHT
Visible light is one of many forms of radiant
energy transmitted by waves. To illustrate,
Natural light comes from the sun 93,000,000
miles away and in small amounts from distant secure one end of a rope to some object and
stars. Although the moon shines, it merely hold the other end in one hand. Then stretch
reflects light from the sun. Such bodies as the rope fairly tight and shake it. A wave
motion (pulse) passes along the rope from the
the sun are called LUMINOUS BODIES.
end held to the end secured, as shown in figure
All light other than natural is called arti¬
3-3.
ficial light. It may come from an incandescent
bulb, a burning house or forest, glowing coals, If you continue to shake the rope, you create
neon signs (gas at reduced pressure bombarded a series of waves (a wave train) which passes
with electrons), matches, flashlights, and many along the rope. Study illustration 3-4. Note
other sources. that the different parts of the rope (medium)
You perhaps have used an electric exposure vibrate successively; each bends back and forth
meter when you took pictures with your camera. about its own position. The disturbance travels
but the medium does not travel. Energy only is
The function of this meter, illustrated in figure
3-1, is to determine the intensity of a light carried along the rope.
Imagine now that the light source is a vibrat¬
source. All you need do is turn the meter to¬
ing ball from which a countless number of threads
ward the sky and observe the movement of its
extend in all directions. As the ball vibrates,
hand. Although the meter has no batteries, and
successive waves are transmitted along the
despite the fact that a spring attached to the
threads. In a similar manner, light radiates
hand holds it back, the hand moves when light
from its source.
strikes the face of the meter. The energy which
moves the hand comes from the sun, but a
RADIATION OF LIGHT
light from a match or flashlight also causes
the hand to move IN ACCORDANCE WITH the Thermal radiation and light waves are of
amount of energy provided by the light. This the same nature and exhibit similar properties.
indicates that both natural and artificial light Like light waves, thermal radiation normally
gives off energy. travels in straight lines and can be reflected
from a mirror or polished metal. Thermal
RADIATION OF WAVES radiation is not heat; it is energy in the form
of wave motion.
Take a look now at figure 3-2, which shows During the latter part of the 18th century,
in sequential order (A, B, C, D) the radiation of scientists recognized that radiations from hot
waves generated by a pebble dropped into a tray bodies consisted of electromagnetic waves (not
of milk. mechanical) of the same fundamental nature as
The pictures in illustration 3-2 were taken a light waves. Luminous light sources such as the
fraction of a second apart. Note in part A that sun or the glowing filament of an electric light
the pebble made a dent in the milk and that the bulb act as oscillators in radiating energy in the
surface is recovering its natural position and is form of light waves, and these waves spread out
rising. Part B shows that the surface of the milk in all directions from their sources. The sun
has begun to rise and that the original wave is pours forth radiant energy from its surface at
beginning to spread. Energy is spreading out in the rate of 70,000 horsepower for every square
the form of little waves from the source of the yard of its surface.
disturbance of the surface of the milk by the Because light travels outward in all direc¬
pebble; and the waves are circles which get tions from its source, the waves take the form
bigger and bigger as the amount of energy of growing spheres (fig. 3-5), the luminous point
(wave motion) created by the pebble causes them of which is the center.

19
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

LIGHT RAYS

Single rays of light do not exist; but the term

light ray is used throughout this manual for the
sake of clarity and convenience in showing the
direction of travel of the wave front. Light is
indicated by one, two, or more, representative
light rays in white lines, with arrow heads to
indicate the direction of travel.
Refer now to illustration 3-5 again and ob¬
serve that light is moving in all directions from
the light bulb. Then study figure 3-6, which
shows lines with arrow heads to indicate that the
direction of travel of the light is along the radii
of the sphere of light and at right angles to the
fronts of the waves. The light which travels along
these radii is designated as light rays.
A wave front which radiates from a light
source is curved when it is near the source
and the radii of the waves diverge or spread.
See illustration 3-7. As these waves move
outward, however, the wave front becomes less
curved and eventually almost straight, as indi¬
cated in figure 3-8. After traveling a distance

137.4

137. Figure 3-2. —Creation of waves in a liquid

Figure 3-1. —Electric exposure meter. by a dropped pebble.

20
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

137.5
Figure 3-3.— Wave motion created by a
moving rope.

137.8
Figure 3-6.— Direction of travel of
light waves.

137.6
Figure 3-4.— Wave train created by
shaking loose end of a rope. of 2,000 yards from their light sources, wave
fronts are considered to be parallel to each
other.
A pinhole camera (fig. 3-9) is a good exam¬
ple of the manner in which light travels outward
from its source. Such a camera is merely a box
with a sheet of film at one end and a tiny pin¬
hole instead of a lens at the other end. Note
that the camera is taking a picture of an arrow
by light reflected from some luminous source
and that each point on the arrow is sending out
light rays in a dispersed manner.
One ray of light from each point on the arrow
enters the pinhole in the front of the camera and
lands upon the film. Since light travels in
straight lines, no light reaches a given point on
the film except the ray which comes from the
corresponding point on the arrow. The rays of
light which pass through the pinhole of the camera
form an inverted arrow on the film.

ILLUMINATION

The unit used for measuring the luminous

intensity of light is called CANDLEPOWER.
If a luminous source, for example, gives ten
137.7 times as much illumination as a standard candle,
Figure 3-5.— Light waves created by a light. it has the luminous intensity of 10 candlepower.

21
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

is used instead of brightness, though it means the

same thing, and measurements are made in lu¬
mens per solid angle. The unit of flow of lumin¬
ous flux through space is called a LUMEN— the
amount of light which falls on an area one foot
square at a distance of one foot from a standard
candle.
The surface of an object is illuminated by
one foot- candle when its light source is one
candlepower at a distance of one foot. The
formula for this is:

_ . „ Candle-power
Foot Candles = - — ^—
Figure 3-7. —Light rays and wave front (Distance)
produced by a light.
Look now at figure 3-10. If the object is
two feet from the light source, the light from
the candle covers four times the area it covered
after traveling one foot. The illumination at this
point is ONLY one-fourth of a foot-candle- Il¬
lumination provided by a candle is therefore
inversely proportional to the SQUARE OF THE
DISTANCE between the candle and the object.

SPEED OF LIGHT

The difference in the speed of light through

air, glass, and other substances accounts for
the bending of light rays. Without this charac¬
teristic of light, a glass lens could not bend light
rays to a focus, as you will learn later in this
text. The length of all waves in the electro¬
magnetic spectrum is also connected to cor¬
responding frequencies and the speed of light.
Because light travels with such high velocity,
137.10 it was years before any one could measure its
Figure 3-8.— Waves and radii from a
distant light.

Because of the difficulty of getting exact

measurements with a standard such as a candle,
the National Bureau of Standards maintains a
group of incandescent electric lights which ful¬
fill certain conditions as standards of measure¬
ment. Secondary standards can be calibrated
from these standard lamps by any laboratory.
A light bulb of specific size, for example, gives
approximately the same amount of candlepower.
The intensity of light which falls on a non-
luminous source is generally measured in
FOOT-CANDLES. In some instances, however,
137.11
the intensity of a source of light is measured in
terms of LUMINOUS FLUX radiated by the Figure 3-9. —Light rays creating an image
source per unit solid angle. The word luminance on the film of a pinhole camera.

22
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

appeared on one side and then moved across in

front of the planet and disappeared behind it.
He could calculate accurately when one of the
moons would be eclipsed by the planet. When
he tried to calculate ahead six months, however,
he learned that the moon eclipse occurred about
20 minutes later than he had calculated. He
therefore concluded that the light had taken
this amount of time to cross the diameter of
the earth's orbit, which is approximately
186,000,000 miles. The difficulty was that
Roemer did not correctly evaluate the speed of
light; later measurements showed that the time
was about 1,000 seconds, which gave 186,000
miles per second as the velocity of light.

Michelson’s Measurements

The most accurate measurements of the

speed of light were made after 1926 by A. A.
Michelson, a distinguished American physicist,
and his colleagues. Professor Michelson used
an octagonal mirror in an apparatus illustrated
in figure 3-11. He measured the speed of light
in air over the exact distance between Mt.
Wilson and Mt. San Antonio, California. The
light source (mirror) and the telescope were
137.12 located on Mt. Wilson and the concave and
Figure 3-10.— The inverse square law of light. plane mirrors were located on Mt. San Antonio,
about 22 miles distant.
Study the illustration. Mirror M is station¬
ary, and Professor Michelson passed a pencil
speed. Galileo tried to measure it by having two of light through a slit and a lens to the octagonal
mirror. NOTE: A pencil of light is a narrow
men in towers on hills some distance apart flash
group of light rays which come from a point
lights at each other. Each person flashed his
source, or converging toward a point. A pin¬
light as soon as he saw the light signal of the
other. Galileo reasoned that he could determine hole opening produces a pencil of light rays.
the speed of light by dividing the total distance
the light traveled by the time required for the
transmission of signals. His experiment was not
successful; and he concluded that the speed of
light was too great to be measured by this me¬
thod. His final thought relative to the speed of
light was that its transmission through space was
perhaps instantaneous.

Roemer’s Discovery

Olaus Roemer, a Danish astronomer, in 1675

calculated the speed of light by observing the ir¬
regularities in the times between successive
eclipses of the innermost moon of Jupiter by
that planet.
Roemer observed the position of Jupiter’s Figure 3-11. —Michelson’s mirror method for
moons revolving around the planet. The moons measuring the speed of light.

23
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Mirror M then reflected the light from posi¬ WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY
tion 1 to Mirror M', which (in turn) reflected
the pencil of light backto point 3 on the octagonal The action of waves on water helps us to
mirror. The octagonal mirror was next put understand light as a wave motion. If you
into motion and increased in speed enough to measure a distance of 12 feet on the surface of
move position 2 on the octagonal mirror into the water and drop a pebble at the point where you
position formerly occupied by position 3 during started to measure, you will find that it takes
the time required for the light to travel from 4 seconds for the first wave created by the
position 1 on the octagonal mirror to Mt. San pebble to reach the other end of your measured
Antonio and return. After several years of distance. If you then divide the distance by the
observation with his apparatus, Professor time (12 4- 4), you get 3, the speed of the waves
Michelson concluded that the speed of light in per second. The formula for this measurement
air was 299,700 kilometers (A kilometer is is:
.6214 mile.) per second.
distance
speed =
Sometime later, Professor Michelson used time
an evacuated tube one mile long to measure
the speed of light in a VACUUM. The vacuum Bear in mind that the distance a wave travels on
tube removed variations in air density and haze water in a specified time depends upon the
from the test, and the experiment showed that velocity of the wave.
the speed of light in a vacuum was slightly A wavelength is the DISTANCE BETWEEN
higher than in air. The velocity of light in a the crest of one wave and the crest of the next
vacuum is generally accepted as 300,000 kilo¬ (adjacent) wave, as illustrated in figure 3-12.
meters per second, or 186,000 miles per sec¬ The best way to measure a wavelength is by the
ond. FREQUENCY— the number of waves which pass
a point in one (1) second. You can determine
Modern physicists compute the speed of this by putting a stake in water and counting the
light with great accuracy. Some of their number of waves which pass the stake per sec¬
measurements are based on light interference. ond. See figure 3-13.
For all practical purposes, however, the speed If waves are moving at a speed of 3 feet per
of light in air or in a vacuum is considered as second and have a frequency of 6 waves per
186,000 miles per second. In media more dense
than air, the speed of light is slower, as in¬
dicated by the speed of yellow light in the fol¬
lowing substances:

Quarts . 110,000 miles per second

Ordinary
crown glass . 122,691 miles per second
Rock salt. . . 110,000 miles per second
Boro-silicate
crown glass . 122,047 miles per second
Carbon di¬
sulfide . 114,000 miles per second
Medium flint
glass . 114,320 miles per second
Ethyl
alcohol .... 137,000 miles per second
Water . 140,000 miles per second
Diamond . . . 77,000 miles per second

NOTE: All colors of light travel at the same

speed in air or empty space. In denser media, 137.14
the velocity of light varies for different colors. Figure 3-12. —Measurement of a wavelength.

24
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

MILLIMICRON, which represents one one

thousandth of a micron and is abbreviated to
m mw, or m p.
Another important unit used for measuring
wavelengths is the ANGSTROM UNIT (AU),
which is l/l Oth of a millimicron, or one ten-
millionth of a millimeter. Because these units
are still inconveniently long for measuring the
shortest electromagnetic waves, the X-ray unit
(XU) is used for this purpose. It is one one-
thousandth of an Angstrom unit.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Heat and radio waves, light waves, and
ultraviolet and infrared rays, X-rays, and
cosmic rays are forms of radiant energy of
different wavelengths and frequencies. To¬
gether, all of these form the electromagnetic
137.15
Figure 3-13.— Determination of wave spectrum, illustrated in figure 3-14. The
visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
frequency.
consists of wavelengths from .00038 to .00066
millimeters. The different wavelengths repre¬
sent different colors of light. Note the arrows
which point to the wavelengths of the colors of
second, you can determine the wavelength by the rainbow in the spectrum. Observe also that
the following formula:
the wavelengths in this part of the spectrum
(vision and photography) are in millimicrons
WL ----- r. of wavelengths. Wavelengths in the electro¬
WL“F~6~-5 magnetic spectrum (extreme left) are in mi¬
crons.
This formula also shows the relation which Note in illustration 3-14 that the wave¬
exists with respect to the speed, frequency, and
lengths we call light are between 400 and 700
wavelength of light. As used in physics and
millimicrons, each spectral color has its own
optics books, the formula is:
small range of wavelengths. If light around
60 millimicrons of wavelengths, for example,
c = f x
reaches your eyes, you see RED (sensation of
red on the retina). Around 460 millimicrons
The letter c means the velocity of light in a the wavelengths of light which reach your eyes
vacuum, f is the frequency, and \ (wavelength) are BLUE; so the red waves are therefore
is the character for LAMBDAin the Greek alpha¬ much longer than the blue waves.
bet. As used in optics, this character always When light with a wavelength of 300 milli¬
means wavelength. microns reaches your eyes, you receive no
By using methods based on interference and
sensation of color. Radiation of this wavelength
diffraction, the wavelength of light can be is generally called ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT.
measured accurately. You will learn more Ultraviolet rays (radiation) from the sun cause
about these terms later in this text. sunburn and sometimes blisters. CAUTION:
Light waves, in contrast with waves on All short-wave radiations can do some damage
water, are much too short to be measured in if you get too much of them. A prolonged dose
inches or millimeters. (A millimeter is about of strong X-rays, for example, causes ir¬
l/25th of an inch. A light wavelength is some¬ reparable damage to the body. Gamma rays
times measured in microns, represented in
are deadly radiation waves given off by atomic
formulas by n , the Greek letter m. A micron bombs.
is one-thousandth of a millimeter.) For measur¬ Note that the infrared light rays are be¬
ing a minute wavelength of light, a shorter unit tween 1 micron and 100 microns in the electro¬
than a micron must be used. This unit is the magnetic spectrum. These rays are called

25
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

WAVE LENGTH
IN MICRONS

10“' COSMIC
RAYS WAVE LENGHTHS
IN MILLIMICRONS
10-’ GAMMA
> RAYS
(DEEP
I0“7 1 X-RAY UNIT THERAPY) p-ioo (10-' MICRON)

10-‘ 10 X-RAY UNIT

10-s 100 X-RAY UNIT

10- 1 ANGSTROM UNIT X-RAYS

(DIAGNOSIS
& THERAPY)
10-J 1 MILLIMICRON

-TSo" VOLET
10-2 10 MILLIMICRONS 000015-INCH— 00038-mm

ULTRAVIOLET - INDIGO
(DISINFECTING) 000017-INCH— 00043- mm
10-' 100 MILLIMICRONS
1— 500 BLUE
VISIBLE LIGHT 1 .00001 8- INCH— .00044- m m

1 I MICRON GREEN
.000020-INCH— .00051 -m m (VISION &
infrared PHOTOGRAPHY)
(SPACE .600 yellow
10 10 MICRONS l 000022-INCH— .00054- mrn
HEATING)
'ORANGE
,000024-INCH— .00061- mm
102 100 MICRONS
—700 R^D
.000026 INCH— 00066-mm

103 1 MILLIMETER

HERTZIAN
10" 1 CENTIMETER WAVES
(RADAR)
105 10 CENTIMETERS

10‘ 1 METER

I07 10 METERS Hi MICRON)

10s 100 METERS RADIO WAVES

(RADIO &
TELEVISION) NOTE: THE SYMBOL 103 INDICATES
109 1 KILOMETER
THE NUMBER 1000 (OR 10X10X10).
THE SYMBOL 10‘3 INDICATES THE
10 KILOMETERS FRACTION 0.001 (OR 1 )%
10’°
10X10X10
—S
10" 100 KILOMETERS
LONG
ELECTRICAL
• 10” 1000 KILOMETERS
OSCILLATIONS
(POWER)
• 10’3 10,000 KILOMETERS

137. 16

Figure 3-14. —Electromagnetic spectrum.

26
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

HEAT rays. We cannot see infrared rays; At the same time, hold a ground glass screen
but if we could see them, everything would
or a sheet of white paper on the other side of
look different. Study illustrations 3-15 and
the prism, 6 to 8 inches away. When the sunlight
3-16. Figure 3-15 shows a photograph
passes through the prism, wavelengths of various
taken by visible light; figure 3-16 shows
colors refract at different angles toward the
a picture of the scene in figure 3-15 taken base of the prism and produce the colors of sun¬
with infrared film with a red filter over light (the rainbow) on the glass screen or sheet
the lens. of white paper. See illustration 3-18. This
Infrared light is used also for signaling be¬ breaking up of white light into its component
tween ships at night. In aerial reconnaisance, colors is called DISPERSION.
too, we use infrared photography to get more and
better details of the area photographed. A Selective Reflection and Absorption
camouflaged object, for example, may blend with
its surroundings and be invisible from the air; If you look at a piece of red paper in the
but if it does not reflect the same amount of sunlight, you see red; but this does not mean
infrared as its surroundings, an infrared photo¬ that the paper is making red light. What it does
graph makes the camouflage stand out clearly. mean is that the paper is reflecting a high per¬
During World War II SNOOPERSCOPES with centage of the red light which falls on it and is
powerful spotlights which sent forth beams of absorbing a high percentage of all other colors.
invisible infrared light were used to watch the When you look through yellow glass, you see
enemy at night. When the infrared beams sent yellow; because the glass is transmitting yellow
out by the spotlight struck an object and re¬ light and is absorbing most of the other colors.
flected it back to the snooperscope, the scope Usually, yellow glass absorbs violet, blue, and
changed the infrared to visible wavelengths. some green; but it transmits yellow, orange,
SNIPERSCOPES used on rifles in the Pacific and red. When yellow, orange, red, and a little
during the war work on the same principle as green all enter your eye at the same time, how¬
the snopperscope. ever, the color you see is yellow.
Observe in figure 3-14 that RADAR waves Selective absorption of light is what takes
are adjacent to the infrared rays in the electro¬ place when a color filter is used on an optical
magnetic spectrum and have wavelengths a little instrument. An image may be blurred by haze
longer than infrared. We know that these wave¬ or fog, but when a yellow filter is put into the
lengths travel at the same speed as light because line of sight the image becomes sharper. The
they have been sent to the moon and reflected reason for this is that a thin haze permits most
back in about 2.6 seconds. Because the distance of the light to pass through; but it scatters some
of the moon from the earth is approximately of the blue and violet light in all directions. Haze
240,000 miles (in round numbers), 2 x 240,000 is therefore visible because of the scatteredblue
4 2.6 seconds = 184,615, the speed of radar in and violet colors. The yellow filter absorbs blue
miles per seconds. and violet and the haze becomes almost invisible.

Color Vision
COLOR OF LIGHT
A pure spectral color is composed of light
of one wavelength, or a very narrow band of
Because sunlight includes the whole range of wavelengths. When this light enters your eyes,
wavelengths between 400 m/i and 700 mp, it is a it gives a sensation of color; but you cannot
mixture of all visible colors between red and judge the wavelength of light from color sensa¬
violet. Illustration 3-17 shows how you can tion. Most of the colors you see are not pure
prove this. When the sun is shining, put a spectral colors but mixtures of these colors.
prism on a table in a room with one window and The sensations you get from these mixtures are
cover the window with dark paper or cloth. Then therefore not always what you may expect.
cut a horizontal slit about an inch long and Observe in illustration 3-19 what happens
l/16th on an inch wide in the paper to admit when red, blue, and green lights are mixed.
a small quantity of light. Hold the prism close You can perform this experiment yourself by
to the slit to ensure passage of sunlight onto doing the following:
one of the long faces of the prism. (Lenses 1. Put pieces of red, blue, and green cello¬
and prisms are discussed in detail in chapter 5.) phane over the lenses of three flashlights.

27
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

2. Take the three flashlights and a piece of What you just studied concerning the mixing
white cardboard into a dark room and flash the of light colors does not hold true for mixing
lights upon the white cardboard. Use two paints, as you perhaps learned in your science
classes in school. If you mix yellow and blue
flashlights at first, to produce yellow, sky-
paints, for example, you get green (fig. 3-20).
blue, and pink, and then mix all three colors
to produce white (See illustration 3-19). The blue paint reflects some of the spectral
By mixing these three colors, red, blue, and violet, a high percentage of the spectral blue,
and some of the green. It absorbs all others
green in the correct intensities, you can pro¬
colors. The yellow paint absorbs the violet
duce many different colors.

137.18
137.17
Figure 3-15. —Photograph of scene in Figure 3-16. —Photograph taken by
illustration 3-16 taken by visible light. infrared light.

.137. 19

Figure 3-17. -Dispersion of light into a spectrum by a prism.

28
 Chapter 3—CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

Refraction of light by a prism. The longest rays are infra-red;

the shortest, ultra-violet.

C137.20
Figure 3-18. —Creation of a rainbow by dispersion of light passing through a prism.

C137. 22
Figure 3-19.— Colors created by mixing Figure 3-20.— Colors produced by
beams of colored light. mixing paints.

29
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

face depends upon the angle of incidence (ex¬

and blue; it reflects some of the green, and
nearly all of the yellow, orange, and red. plained later) with which the rays of light strike
When you mix blue and yellow paint, you com¬ the shell.
bine their absorbing powers. The only color Another way to tell the difference between
the egg and the piece of cardboard is by the
they do not absorb is green.
shadows cast by the egg. Observe the right
side of the egg. Because of the difference in
BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT the angles with which the light strikes the egg,
you can detect roughness in the shell. This
In this section we discuss the visibility of roughness indicates texture, which causes an
objects and also the reflection and refraction object to show minute differences in color or
properties of light. Without these properties of shape all over the surface.
light, the use of lenses and prisms in optical For the sake of convenience, we can divide
lenses for the purpose of creating images of objects into three different classes, according
to the reaction of light when it falls upon them:
objects would be impossible.
When we look at objects, we give little or OPAQUE, TRANSLUCENT, AND TRANSPAR¬
no thought to the reasons for their visibility. ENT.
We have previously discussed rays of light,
shown by white lines in illustrations; single Opaque Objects
rays of light, however, do not exist. Study
now illustration 3-21, the A part of which All the light which falls upon an opaque
shows light as a cone passing through a lens. object is either reflected or absorbed— none
This is correct; but for the sake of clarity of the light passes through. This is import¬
and convenience, the term RAY is used to ant, because most objects are opaque. No
indicate the direction of travel of wave fronts. object, however, is completely opaque. If it
Bear in mind, too, as you study the charac¬ is thin enough, you can see through anything.
teristics of light that the illustrations show Even heavy metals such as silver and gold
ONLY height and width; but everything (includ¬ allow some light to pass through them when
ing light) has three dimensions: height, width, they are painted in a thin film on glass. When
this film is made a little thicker, it permits
and depth.
light to pass through, but you cannot see through
VISIBILITY OF OBJECTS the film. It is translucent, not opaque.

We see things because of reflected light. Translucent Objects

Objects look different because they reflect
light in a different manner. The difference in When light falls upon a translucent object,
the intensity of light makes a difference in some of it is absorbed and reflected; but
the visibility of an object. Color, likewise, MOST OF THE LIGHT is transmitted through
makes a difference in the visibility of objects. the object and scattered in all directions. This
If one object absorbs twice as much color as is what happens, for example, when light passes
another object, you have no difficulty in dif¬ through ground glass plate, stained glass wind¬
ferentiating between them. You can therefore ows, or a thin sheet of paraffin. If you hold
judge the size and shape of an object because these items in front of a strong light, you can
of the difference in color or intensity of re¬ see that much of the light passes through,
flected light. even though you are unable to see a clear
Refer now to illustration 3-22, one part of image of the source of light.
which is an egg and the other part is a piece
of white cardboard cut to the approximate Transparent Objects
dimensions of the egg. You can easily dis¬
tinguish each by the way light is reflected from A transparent object reflects and absorbs
them. All parts of the cardboard reflect light a small amount of the light which strikes it;
equally, because all rays of light fall on it at but it permits most of the rays to pass through.
the same angle. Rays of light on the egg, A window pane is a good example of a trans¬
however, strike the shell at different angles; parent object. Air seems transparent when
and the amount of light reflected from any sur¬ you look through it from a short distance; but

30
 Chapter 3—CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

137.23
Figure 3-21. —Cones and rays of light.

chapter 2, light absorbed by a lens or a prism

is wasted. This is why good optical glass is
much more transparent than window glass.
Tubes which hold lenses and prisms in
optical systems are opaque, to prevent en¬
trance of light into the system except through
the front lens. These tubes are painted a dull
or flat-black color inside, so that they will
absorb and not reflect light which falls on them.
Some optical systems use mirrors, but the re¬
flecting surfaces of the mirrors are opaque.

REFLECTION

You know from experience that a mirror

137.24 reflects light. If you experiment with a plane
Figure 3-22. —Visual determination of mirror with a flat, polished surface in a dark
difference between objects. room with a window through which you can admit
light, you will find that you can reflect a beam
of light to almost any spot in the room. When
when you look at objects from a great distance you hold a mirror at right angles to a beam
(from an airplane, for example) they look hazy, of light, you can reflect the beam back along
even on a clear day. The color of the sky (blue) the same path by which it entered the room.
is caused by the scattering of rays of sunlight. Figure 3-23 shows how to do this.
Glass is considered transparent because we If you shift the mirror to an angle from its
generally see it in thin sheets; but the thicker right-angle position, the reflected beam is
the glass the greater the loss in transparence. snifted at an angle from the incoming beam
Lenses and prisms which you will study in twice as great as the angle by which you shifted
chapter 5 are transparent. As you learned in the mirror. Study figure 3-24. If you hold the

31
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

mirror at a 45° angle with the incoming beam, is put to use in many types of fire control in¬
the reflected beam is projected at an angle of struments.
90° to the incoming beam. Remember this
characteristic of light. Refer now to figure 3-25, which illustrates
how you can control a reflected ray of light
The simple experiments you just made from a plane mirror. The ray of light which
illustrate one of the dependable kinds of action strikes the mirror is called the INCIDENT ray,
of light. You can reflect light precisely to the and the ray which bounces off the mirror is
point where you want it, because any kind of known as the REFLECTED ray. The imaginary
light reflected from a smooth, polished surface line perpendicular to the mirror at the point
acts in the same manner. This property of light where the ray strikes is called the NORMAL

137.25 137.26

Figure 3-23. —Reflection of a beam of light Figure 3-24. -Reflection of beams of light
back on its normal or perpendicular. at different angles.

1
1
•
1 i
1 f i
-- i§ — —
1

\ l i1 11 j
y B
y c 'y D y
137.27
Figure 3-25. -Control of a reflected ray of light by a plane mirror.

32
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

or PERPENDICULAR (fig. 3-26). The angle Diffuse Reflection

between the incident ray and the normal is the
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE; the angle between the If a beam of light strikes a rough surface
reflected ray and the normal is the ANGLE OF such as a sheet of unglazed paper, the light is
REFLECTION. not reflected regularly but is scattered in all
directions, as shown in figure 3-29. What you
Law of Reflection see in this illustration is diffuse reflection of
The law of reflection is as follows: THE light. Any rough surface has many plane sur¬
ANGLE OF REFLECTION EQUALS THE faces which reflect light in accordance with the
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE AND LIES ON THE angle of incidence. Skin, fur, and dull surfaces
OPPOSITE SIDE OF THE NORMAL. THE all reflect light in an essentially diffused man¬
INCIDENT RAY, THE REFLECTED RAY, AND ner. On the other hand, some of the reflected
THE NORMAL ALL LIE IN THE SAME PLANE. light from a shiny automobile or the bright
THE INCIDENT RAY AND THE REFLECTED finish of a polished casting is diffused reflec¬
RAY LIE ON OPPOSITE SIDES OF THE NOR¬ tion.
MAL.
REFRACTION
Refer to illustration 3-25 again. Note that
the incident and reflected angles in parts A,
B, and C become successively smaller. By As you study the meaning of refraction, re¬
aPPlying the law of reflection, you can see that fer to figure 3-30, which shows what happens to
in all such cases of reflection the angle of rays of light as they pass through a sheet of
reflection can be plotted as long as the angle glass. Both plane surfaces of this glass plate are
of incidence is known, or vice versa. To illu¬ parallel and air contacts both surfaces. Glass and
strate, study figure 3-27. In this instance air are transparent, but the glass is optically
you desire to put the No. 4 ball in the nearest denser than air; so light travels approximately
pocket, but your cue ball is behind the 8 ball. one-third slower in glass than in air.
Observe the dotted lines (N & N') in the il¬
If you are an expert pool player, you know
where to strike the right side of the pool table lustration. These are the normals erected for the
with the cue ball in order to have it reflect incident and refracted rays. When a light ray
on a line which will enable it to hit the No. 4 (wave front) strikes the surface of the glass at
ball and put it in the pocket. Angle b must right angles (parallel to the normal), it is not bent
equal angle a. as it passes through the glass. This is true be¬
cause each wave front strikes the surface
Regular Reflection squarely. The wave front is slowed down when it
strikes the surface of the glass, but it continues
Regular reflection occurs when light strikes in the same direction it was going before striking
a smooth surface and is reflected in a concen¬ the glass. When it squarely strikes the other
trated manner, as shown in figure 3-28. You surface of the glass, it passes straight through
can plot the direction in which any single ray without deviation from its course.
of light will be reflected by erecting a perpen¬ If a wave front strikes the first surface of
dicular or normal at the point of impact and by the glass at an angle, as illustrated in part B of
applying the law of reflection. figure 3-30, one edge of the first wave front
Light is reflected by regular reflection from arrives at the surface an instant before the
nearly every visible object. The glossy finish of other edge; and the edge which arrives first is
a new automobile, for example, reflects light slowed down as it enters the denser medium
essentially by regular reflection. Surfaces of before the second edge enters. Observe that the
transparent mediums (optical interfaces) also second edge continues to travel at the same
reflect light. The amount of incident light speed, also, until it strikes the surface of the
reflected depends upon the angle of incidence— glass. This slowing down of oneedgeofthe wave
the greater the angle of incidence the greater front before the other edge slows down causes
the amount of reflected light. When light passes the front to PIVOT TOWARD THE NORMAL.
through a piece of glass, about 4 percent of the The information just given relative to a wave
incident light is lost at the finst surface and front which strikes glass plate is applicable FOR
another 4 percent is lost by reflection at the ANY FREELY MOVING OBJECT. When one side
second surface when the light emerges. of the object is slowed down as it hits something,

33
OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.30
Figure 3-28. —Regular reflection.

34
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

the other side continues to move at the same side of the glass appears displaced as a result of
speed and direction until it also hits something. refraction. If you move the sheet of paper in
This action causes the object to pivot in the order to change the angle of its straight edge,
direction of the side which hits first and slow the amount of refraction is increased or de¬
down. Pivoting or bending of light rays (wave creased.
fronts) as just explained, is called REFRAC¬
TION; and the bent (pivoted) rays are labeled Laws of Refraction
REFRACTED RAYS.
If the optical density of a new medium (glass You should understand thoroughly all laws of
in this case) remains constant, the refracted refraction. Briefly stated, they are as follows:
light rays continue to travel in a straight line, 1. WHEN LIGHT TRAVELS FROM A ME¬
as shown in part B of figure 3-30, until the sur¬ DIUM OF LESSER DENSITY TO A MEDIUM OF
face from which they emerge (glass-to-air sur¬
GREATER DENSITY, THE PATH OF THE LIGHT
face) causes interference. At this point, an IS BENT TOWARD THE NORMAL.
opposite effect occurs to a wave front. As one
edge of the front reaches the surface (glass-to- 2. WHEN LIGHT TRAVELS FROM A ME¬
air), it leaves the surface and resumes original DIUM OF GREATER DENSITY TO A MEDIUM
speed (186,000 miles per second, at which it OF LESSER DENSITY, THE PATH OF THE
entered the glass). LIGHT IS BENT AWAY FROM THE NORMAL.
Speeding up of one edge of a wave front before 3. THE INCIDENT RAY, THE NORMAL,
the other edge speeds up, causes the front to pivot AND THE REFRACTED RAY ALL LIE IN THE
again; but this time it pivots toward the edge of SAME PLANE.
the front which has not yet reached the surface
of the glass. Again, THIS BENDING OR PIVOT¬ 4. THE INCIDENT RAY LIES ON THE OP¬
ING OF THE WAVE FRONT IS CALLED RE¬ POSITE SIDE OF THE NORMAL FROM THE
FRACTION. REFRACTED RAY.
If the glass plate has parallel surfaces, the
Study illustration 3-33, and then review care¬
emergent light ray (ray refracted out of the
fully all laws of refraction. Note the NORMAL,
glass) emerges from the second surface at an
the ANGLE OF INCIDENCE, and the ANGLE OF
angle equal to the angle formed by the incident
REFRACTION.
ray as it entered the glass. If you draw a dotted
line along the emergent light ray (fig. 3-30), The angle between the refracted ray of light
straight back to the apparent source of the ray, and a straight extension of the incident ray of
you will find that the emergent ray is parallel light through the medium is called THE ANGLE
to the incident ray. OF DEVIATION. This is the angle THROUGH
If the optical density of a new medium entered WHICH THE REFRACTED RAY IS BENT FROM
by a light ray (wave front) is constant, the light ITS ORIGINAL PATH BY THE OPTICAL DEN¬
follows its course in a direct line, as illustrated SITY OF THE REFRACTING MEDIUM.
in part B of illustration 3-30. The amount of refraction is dependent upon
Study next illustration 3-31, which show a the angle at which light strikes a medium and
straight stick in a glass of water. Note that the the density of the new medium— the greater the
stick appears bent at the surface of the water. angle of incidence and the denser the new me¬
What you see here is an optical illusion created dium, the greater the angle of refraction. If the
by refraction. When a ray of light passes from faces of the medium are parallel, the bending of
air into water, it bends; and when it passes from light at the two faces is always the same. As il¬
the water into the air, it also bends. This illus¬ lustrated in partB of figure 3-30, thebeam which
tration shows why a fish in water is NOT WHERE leaves the optically denser medium is parallel
HE SEEMS TO BE —he is much deeper. to the incident beam. An important thing to keep
You can demonstrate refraction visually by in mind in this respect, however, is that the
placing the straight edge of a sheet of paper at emergent beam must emerge from the denser
an angle under the edge of a glass plate held medium into a medium OF THE SAME INDEX
vertically (part B, fig. 3-32). Observe that the OF REFRACTION AS THE ONE IN WHICH IT
straight edge of the sheet of paper appears to WAS ORIGINALLY TRAVELING; that is, air to
have a jog in it directly under the edge of the glass to air, NOT air to glass to water (as an
glass plate. The portion of the paper on the other example).

35
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.32
Figure 3-30. —Refraction of light beams by a sheet of glass.

Index of Refraction

As you learned earlier in this chapter, the

speed of light in air is about 186,000 miles per
second. Its speed through ordinary glass, how¬
ever, is about 120,000 miles per second. The
ratio between the speed of light in a vacuum and
the speed of light in a medium is known as THE
INDEX OF RFFRACTION, usually indicated by
the letter n. You can determine the index of re¬
fraction by dividing the speed of light in a vaccum
by the speed of light in a particular medium. The
formula is:

Index of Refraction
Velocity in Vacuum
Velocity in Medium

You can determine the index of refraction of

a substance by Snell’s law, by actually measuring
137.33 the angles of incidence and refraction in a simple
Figure 3-31. —Optical illusion caused experiment, because air can be used instead of a
by refraction. vacuum for all practical purposes.

36
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

137.34
Figure 3-32. —Effects of refraction.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

:| NORMAL

lililiillli-iljllljlliljlill

REFRACTED RAY

ANGLE OF REFRACTION

iiiiiini
III
1
IPPIPIII
* *i.
mm
! i1 i
11 iiIjiiliiPli

I; NORMAL

12.233
Figure 3-33. —Terms used for describing refraction.

37
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Following is a list of indices of refraction law, the index of refraction of the first medium
for some substances: (air: 1.000) times the sine of the angle of inci¬
dence (sine 45°) equals the index of refraction of
Vacuum . 1.000000 the second medium (glass: 1.500) times the SINE
Air . 1.000293 of the angle of REFRACTION. Enter this infor¬
Water . 1.333 mation in the equation and you get:
Boro-silicate crown glass. . . . 1.517
Thermosetting cement . 1.529 1.000 x sine 45° = 1.500 x sine of 6
Canada balsam . 1.530
Gelatin . 1.530 Get the value of sine 45°(.707)fromthe table
Light flint glass . 1.588 of sines. Then enter all data in the formula and
Medium flint glass . 1.617 solve for sine of 6 , as follows:
Dense flint glass . 1.649
Densest flint glass . 1.963 1.000 x .707
sine 0' = .471
Diamond . 2.416 1.500'

The index of refraction of a transparent sub¬ Refer to the table again and find the angle with a
stance of high purity is a constant quantity of the sine of .471. The answer is 28° 20', the ANGLE
physical properties of a substance. You can OF REFRACTION of the second medium (glass).
therefore determine the identify of substances by If you now reverse the direction of the
measuring their indices of refraction. The re- light ray, its angle of incidence atthe surface of
fractometer is an instrument which quickly and the glass is 28° 20', and its angle of refraction
accurately measures the index of refraction of a is 45 degrees. This may seem strange to you,
substance. but use the formula again and you get:
NOTE: For most computations, the index of
air is considered to be unity (1.000). 1.500 x sine 28°20' = 1.000 x sine of 6

Angle of Refraction When you solve the equation, you get .707 for the
sine of 6, which the table shows for a 45° angle,
The angle of refraction of light is dependent the size of the angle of incidence with which you
upon the relative optical density of the medium started.
light enters. You can determine the angle of re¬ What you just proved by solving the last
fraction by using Snell's law. From his observa¬ equation is known as the LAW OF REVERSI¬
tions, Willebrord Snell, a mathematician and an BILITY, something you should remember. The
astronomer in the University of Heyden, defined law means that if the direction of a ray of light
the index of refraction as the SINE OF THE AT ANY POINT IN AN OPTICAL SYSTEM IS
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE TO THE ANGLE OF REVERSED, THE RAY RETRACES ITS PATH
REFRACTION. You can learn how to apply this BACK THROUGH THE SYSTEM, regardless of
law by using the following equation: the number of prisms, mirrors, or lenses in the
system.
n sine 6 = n' sine &
Refraction in a Prism
In optical formulas, n represents the index of
refraction. The character d is the Greek word You know that when a ray of light passes
for THETA and means ANGLE. The indices of through plate glass it emerges parallel to the
the two media are represented by n for the first incident ray. This is true because both faces of
and n' for the second. The index of refraction of the glass are parallel. Study figure 3-34 now to
the first medium multiplied by the sine of the find out what happens when light strikes a tri¬
angle of incidence equals the index of refraction angular glass prism, whose faces are not paral¬
of the second medium times the sine of the angle lel.
of refraction. Refer to a table of tangents, co¬ Note in part A of this illustration that when
sines, and sines. the light rays and wave fronts strike the first
Assume that the ray of light in figure 3-33 is face of the prism, the rays nearest the base
contacting at a 45° angle a plate of glass whose (thickest part) ARE REFRACTED AT THE SAME
index of refraction is 1 .500. According to Snell’s ANGLE AS THE RAYS NEAR THE APEX OF THE

38
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

PRISM. The portion of the light rays and wave

front nearest the base, however, are delayed
longer in reaching the second face of the prism
than the rays nearest the apex. The ray and wave
front nearest the apex, therefore, are delayed
the least in reachingthe second face of the prism;
and for this reason, the refraction of light rays
and wave front IS ALWAYS TOWARD THE WIDE
BASE. A point of interest here is that this re¬
fraction of light rays and wave fronts toward the
base of the prism is actually caused by the in¬
clined faces of the prism, and that the inclined
faces are a necessity in order to have the tri¬
angular shape of the prism. Bear in mind that
all applicable laws of refraction must be ad¬
hered to strictly, and that they may be used in
tracing the path of light through a prism.
When a light ray enters a prism, it bends
toward the normal; when it leaves the prism, it
bends away from the normal. Study illustration
3-34. Note IN PART B that the two normal lines
are not parallel, and also that the deviation of
the prism is the angle between the incident ray
(extended through the prism) and the emergent
ray, which is refracted toward thebase. You can
determine the amount of deviation of any light
ray in a prism if you know the angle of incidence,
the angle of the prism, and its index of refrac¬ 110.32
tion. Figure 3-34. -Passage of light rays
through a prism.
Reflection and Refraction Combined

Smooth glass reflects part of the light which

falls upon it, about 4 percent (more if the angle
of incidence is large); but most of the light which
enters the glass is refracted. Figure 3-35 shows
a ray of light passing through plate glass. The
dotted lines are the normals. The white arrowto
the right of the first normal line indicates re¬
flected light. The line of light which extends up¬
ward from the second normal represents the
amount of light reflected back into the glass when
the light strikes the lower surface. This is called
INTERNAL REFLECTION. An internally re¬
flected ray of light is refracted at the upper sur¬
face of the glass and emerges parallel to the
reflection from the incident ray.
Study next illustration 3-36, which shows re¬
flections from both surfaces of a glass plate.
Note the two images. If you have several plates
of glass in a stack with thin layers of air between
the plates on the inside, you can see twice as
many reflections as the number of plates of 137.35
glass. NOTE: You will occasionally find a con¬
Figure 3-35. —Reflection and refraction
dition such as this in optical instruments.
combined.

39
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

If you have five lenses in a system, you have Total Internal Reflection and Critical Angle
ten faces; and each face reflects part of the light.
The image you see when you look through the in¬ You have learned that when light passes from
strument is formed ONLY by the light which one medium to another of lower density (from
passes through the lenses. A complex instrument glass to air, for example) part of the light is
such as a submarine telescope may have many reflected internally. When the angle of incidence
surfaces which reflect part of the light, and the is small, the surface reflects only a small part
lenses and prisms must have a coating or film of the light; but when the angle of incidence is
applied to them to eliminate reflection and pre¬ increased, the percentage of internal reflection
vent loss of light in the instrument. increases.
You learned in chapter 2 that optical glass is When light which is attempting to leave a
highly transparent, but it is still visiblebecause more optically dense medium for a less optically
of reflected light from its surface. Other glass dense medium strikes the boundary surface, it
objects are visible partly because of refraction. may be reflected instead of refracted, even
You can see part of the background through the though both media are transparent. When this
glass, but the glass bends the rays from the happens, as it does when the angle of incidence
background before they reach your eyes. In ac¬ exceeds a certain CRITICAL ANGLE, we get
cordance with the angle at which it strikes the what is known as TOTAL INTERNAL REFLEC¬
surface of the glass, each ray bends at a differ¬ TION. Study illustration 3-40 carefully.
ent angle. The background, therefore, appears
Observe the critical angle in figure 3-40.
distorted when you see it through the glass.
This is the angle formed when light about to pass
Figure 3-37 shows a piece of white paper from a medium of greater optical density into
behind an empty glass beaker with a glass rod one of lesser density is refracted alongthe sur¬
in it. You can see this glass rod as a result of face of the denser medium, as illustrated. The
reflection and refraction combined. Light from critical angle varies with the INDEX OF RE¬
the white paper is refracted as it passes through FRACTION of the substance or medium. When
the rod, causing the background to look distorted the angle is exceeded, the light is reflectedback
and uneven in brightness. into the denser medium.

Critical angles for various substances (when

Reflection can take place ONLY at a surface
between two media with different indices of re¬ the external medium is air) are as follows:
fraction. Because the rod in figure 37 is in air,
Water . 48° 36'
the difference between the two media is fairly
large and the rod is visible. This same rule ap¬ Crown glass . 41 18'
plies to refraction, as you can prove by Snell's Quartz . 40’ 22'
law. If the indices of refraction of the two media Flint glass . 37 34'
Diamond . 24° 26'
are identical, the angle of incidence equals the
angle of refraction and there is NO refraction.
The small critical angle of a diamond ac¬
counts for its brilliance, provided it is a well-
Illustration 3-38 is the same as figure 3-37
cut diamond. The brilliance is due to total in¬
except that water has been put into the glass
ternal reflection of light; the light is reflected
beaker, and the appearance of the part of the
back and forth many times before it emerges to
glass rod IN THE WATER looks different from
produce bright, multiple reflections.
the part OUT OF THE WATER. The reason for
this is that the index of refraction between the
two media is now much smaller, so there is less Rays of light from an underwater source are
reflection and less refraction. incident at various angles on the surface which
separates the water and air, as shown in figure
If the water in the glass beaker is replaced 3-40. As the angle of incidence of the light rays
with a solution of the same index of refraction as increases, the deviation of refracted rays be¬
glass, there is no reflection or refraction and comes proportionately greater. A point is
the end of the glass rod in the solution is invis¬ reached where an incident ray is deviated to such
an extent that it travels along the surface of
ible. See figure 3-39.

40
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

Figure 3-38. —Effect on visibility by the

reduction of reflection and refraction.

137.37 137.39
Figure 3-37. —Visibility resulting from Figure 3-39. —Elimination of visibility by
combined reflection and refraction. eliminating reflection and refraction.

41
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

the water and does not emerge into the air, as the critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90
illustrated. The angle formed by this INCIDENT degrees. The procedure for solving the problem
RAY AND THE NORMAL is the critical angle follows:
of the medium.
Snell' s law: n sine e = n' sine 9

1.333 sine e = 1.000 sine 90'

All light rays which travel in an optically
dense medium and strike the surface with an 1.000 x 1.000 _ 1.000
angle of incidence less than the critical angle of sme e - j 333 1 333
the media are REFRACTED and pass into the
optically lighter medium in accordance with the sine 9 = .750817
laws of refraction. All such rays which strike at 9 = 48" 36’
an angle of incidence greater than the critical
angle of the media are REFLECTED INWARD sine 9 = 1. 1
.750187
333
in accordance with the law of reflection.

One example of total internal reflection at the

surface of water is shown in figure 3-41 . Rays of
light from the sand and the goldfish strike the
upper surface of the water at an angle greater
than the critical angle and are reflected down¬
ward into the water. The reflected rays, how¬
ever, strike the end of the aquarium at LESS
THAN the critical angle, so they pass through
and you can see an image of the fish reflected
by the upper surface of the water. The path of
each reflected ray is illustrated in figure 3-42.

You can always calculate the critical angle of

a substance by the following equation (Snell's 137.40
law): Figure 3-40.— Angles of light rays from
an underwater source.
N sine 9 = N' sine 9'

In this equation, n represents the index of

refraction, i the angle of incidence, and r the
angle of refraction. The index of refraction is
a number applied to a transparent substance, and
it denotes the increased speed of light in a
vacuum in comparison to the speed of light in a
substance. It also determines the relation be¬
tween the angle of incidence (n' sine e) and the
angle of refraction (n sine 9 ) when light passes
from one medium to another. The indexbetween
two media is called the relative index.

Suppose you desire to calculate the critical

angle of a medium when the other medium is air.
How can you do this? Use water as one medium,
as an example, and air as another; then make
proper substitutions in the formula (Snell' slaw) 137.41
and solve the equation. The index of refraction Figure 3-41.— Total internal reflection
of water is 1.333; when the angle of incidence is at the surface of water.

42
 Chapter 3—CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

Look up .750 in the Table of Tangents, Sines, line of sight and you see reflections of the sky.
and Cosines and you will find that the critical These reflections look like puddles of water in
angle for water is 48°36' the road. Under proper conditions of the atmos¬
phere and light, you can even see an approaching
Atmospheric Refraction car reflected in the mirage.
At a surface which separates two media of
different indices of refraction, the direction of LOOMING. —Looming is the exact opposite of
the path of light changes abruptly when it passes a mirage. Ships, lighthouses, objects, and islands
through the surface. If the index of refraction of sometimes loom— they appear to hang in the sky
a single medium changes gradually as the light above their real locations. On some bodies of
proceeds from point to point, the path of light water (Gulf of California and Chesapeake Bay,
also changes gradually and is curved. for example) looming is common. Figure 3-47
Although when air is most dense it has a shows the path of light rays in looming.
refractive index of only 1.000292, the index is The reason for looming is that air warmer
sufficient to bend light rays from the sun toward than water is cooled at the water's surface and
the earth when these rays strike the atmosphere the index of refraction of the air decreases
at an angle, as shown in illustration 3-43. higher up and the rays of light bend downward,
The earth's atmosphere is a medium which as shown in the illustration. This explains why
becomes denser toward the surface of the earth. a lighthouse appears to hang in the sky.
As a result, a ray of light traveling through the
atmosphere toward the earth at an angle does HEAT WAVES.— On a hot day the columns of
not travel in a straight line but is refracted and heated air which rise from the earth are optically
follows a curved path. From points near the different from the surrounding air and rays of
horizon, in fact, the bending of light is so great light are irregularly refracted. The air is
that the setting sun is visible even after it is turbulent and conditions under which observa¬
below the horizon (fig. 3-44). tions are made change constantly. An object
viewed through such layers of air therefore ap¬
MIRAGES— Over large areas of heated sand pears to be in motion and the air is BOILING,
or water there are layers of air which differ or the image is DANCING BECAUSE OF HEAT
greatly in temperature and refractive indices. WAVES. This condition is particularly bad for
Under such conditions, erect or inverted (some¬ using a high-powered telescope, one of more than
times much distorted) images are formed which 20 power. The heat waves are caused by the re¬
are visible from great distances. These images fraction of light waves at various changing an¬
are MIRAGES. gles, thereby creating a distortion.
Observe the apparent lake of water in a
desert in illustration 3-45. This looks like a RAINBOWS.— A rainbow is formed when sun¬
real lake but it is ONLY a mirage caused by light strikes drops of falling water and is re¬
the refraction of light over the hot sand. The fracted, reflected, and dispersed into the atmos¬
sand heats the air directly above it, though the phere. You can understand how a rainbow is
air at a higher level remains comparatively cool. created by studying figure 3-48 and the discus¬
Because cool air is denser than hot air, the in¬ sion which follows.
dex of refracting is fairly low at the surface and This illustration shows only three drops of
gradually increases at higher and higher alti¬ water, but when a rainbow is formed millions of
tudes. drops of water are involved. Note the rays from
Study illustration 3-46 to learn what happens the sun which strike these drops of water, and
to light rays in a mirage. Light rays in cool air then follow the rays as they pass through and
do not bend, as shown, but the ray which travels emerge from the drops. Rays of light, of course,
downward toward the hot air curves upward. strike at many points on the drops of water.
When an observer looks at an object along the When a ray of sunlight penetrates the surface
hot air ray, he thinks he sees it along the dotted of a drop of rain, it is refracted as it passes
line in the illustration. through to the back surface, from which it is
You perhaps have observed mirages on reflected by total internal reflection. As it leaves
asphalt highways on clean, hot days. When the the drop of rain, it is refracted a second time.
highway rises in front of you and then flattens Because the index of refraction is different for
out, its surface forms a small angle with your different colors of light, emerging rays of light

43
OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

ref
atm
by
ray
su
3-
the
of
Fi
Be

44
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

137.44
Figure 3-44. —Visibility of the sun below the horizon as a result of refracted light.

137.45
Figure 3-45. — Picture of a mirage in a desert.

45
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

in a mirage. a looming object.

137.48
Figure 3-48. — Formation of a rainbow.

46
 Chapter 3-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

from the drops of water are DISPERSED into a yellow, orange, and red. Indigo is sometimes
spectrum. The angle which these refracted rays omitted. A rainbow is an arc, because the ob¬
make with the sunlight coming over an observer' s server's eye is at the apex of a cone from which
shoulder is 40° for violet and 42° for red. All he sees colored rays refracted from drops of
other colors of a rainbow come from refracted water at different angles (40° to 42°). Since the
and reflected light from drops of rain between sun's rays are parallel, all emerging rays from
the red and violet, the extreme colors in the drops of water areparallel by color— red, green,
spectrum: VIBGY OR— violet, indigo, blue, green, and so on.

47
 CHAPTER 4

IMAGES AND MIRRORS

This chapter contains information concerning distance is called STEREOSCOPIC VISION, de¬
the following items, all of which you must know in pendent upon the difference in view of the same
order for you to qualify for advancement in rat¬ situations by your eyes. If your eyes were far¬
ing to Opticalman 3: ther apart, you could perceive depth better; but
1. Formation of images by mirrors. this can be accomplished for you through ap¬
2. Theory of magnification of images. propriate reflection of light rays by an optical
3. Effect on light rays when they contact instrument.
(strike) plane, concave, and convex mirrors. Some optical instruments increase your ef¬
4. Measuring units and systems used in op¬ fective interocular or interpupillary distance
tics. (effective distance between the eyes with respect
Because your job as an Opticalman is con¬ to the light entering them). Prism binoculars,
cerned with all aspects of repair and overhaul for example, increase the effective interocular
of optical instruments, it is best to describe at distance by a SERIES OF REFLECTIONS FROM
this time the general principle of operation of PRISMS. Ship’s binoculars are actually giant
an optical instrument and explain the function it binoculars.
3. serves. With this knowledge in mind, you can Optically placing a target at an apparently
understand better the discussion of optical ele¬ great distance, thereby determining a fixed line
ments and instruments in the next four chapters. of sight. Such instruments do not need magnifi¬
An optical instrument consists of two major cation (discussed in chapters 6 and 7). Tele¬
parts: (1) optical, and (2) mechanical. The optical scopes and periscopes, on the other hand, are
parts are specially manufactured and purified optical instruments constructed for the specific
glass made in different shapes and sizes, as purpose of providing a definite amount of mag¬
required for a specific purpose in an optical nification of an object.
instrument. The names of these optical parts are: As you can understand by studying the pre¬
(1) mirrors, (2) lenses, and (3) prisms. ceding discussion of optical instruments, optical
Smooth surfaces of mirrors and flat sur¬ elements CONSTITUTE THE HEART of an op¬
faces of prisms can change the direction of light tical instrument. You will learn more about this
by REFLECTION, as you learned in chapter 3; when you study basic optical instruments (chap¬
whereas, lenses (with one or two curved sur¬ ter 6) and the construction of optical instruments
faces) and prisms (with flat surfaces) change (chapter 7).
the direction of light by REFRACTION AND/OR Before we get into the discussion of images
REFLECTION. The mechanical structure of and mirrors, and lenses and prisms (chapter 5),
optical instruments SERVES MERELY TO CON¬ it is best to explain at this point the DIFFERENT
TAIN, HOLD, AND CONTROL THE LOCATIONS SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT USED IN OP¬
OF OPTICAL PARTS. TICS, in order that you may understand better
An optical instrument enables you to see the discussion in this chapter and in various
better by: subsequent chapters.
1. Enlarging the image of an object you are
observing. This enlargement of the image is due
to MAGNIFICATION, which makes the object MEASUREMENT IN OPTICS
APPEAR LARGER AND CLOSER TO YOU.
2. Increasing your ability to judge the dis¬ Some of the measurement systems which an
tance of an object from you. This ability to judge Opticalman should understand are: (1) metric,

48
 Chapter 4-IMAGES AND MIRRORS

(2) degree, and (3) Navy mil. Each of these sys¬ Following is a table of metric units, with
tems is discussed briefly in the following pages. their equivalents in inches, yards, and miles:
METRIC SYSTEM
1 millimeter = .03937 inch
Some measuring systems are rather com¬ 10 millimeters = 1 centimeter = .3937 inch
plicated. Units of measurement in the English 10 centimeters = 1 decimeter = 3.937 inches
system, for example, are entirely arbitrary. To 10 decimeters = 1 meter = 1.0936 yards
illustrate, there are 272 1/2 square feet in a 10 meters = 1 dekameter = 10.936 yards
square rod, 57 3/4 cubic inches in a quart, and 10 dekameters = 1 hectometer = 109.36 yards
31 1/2 gallons in a barrel. 10 hectometers = 1 kilometer = .6214 mile
Shortly after the French Revolution, the
National Assembly of France decided to appoint The names of multiples in the metric system
a commission for the purpose of developing a are formed by adding the Greek prefixes: DEKA
more logical measuring system than those cur¬ (ten), HECTO (hundred), KILO (thousand), and
rent at the time. The product of this com¬ MEGA (million). Sub-multiples of the system are
mission was the metric system, which has been formed by adding LATIN PREFIXES: DECI
adopted by most countries of the world. The (tenth), CENTI (hundredth), MILLI (thousandth),
metric system, in fact, is used almost ex¬ and MICRO (millionth).
clusively for measurements in scientific work. For quick, approximate conversion from
In your work as an Opticalman, you will inches to the metric system units, or vice
most likely use the metric system of meas¬ versa, refer to a metric unit inch conversion
uring more than other measuring systems. The table, which your optical shop will have. For
diameter and focal length of lenses are usually more exact conversion, and for conversion of
stated on optical drawings, for example, in large units, use the following table:
millimeters— not in inches. In addition, with
some experience, you will find the metric sys¬ From To Multiply by
tem much easier to use thanthe English system.
Decimals are basic in the metric system of Millimeters Inches Millimeters by .03937
measurement, which means that you can easily
Inches Millimeters Inches by 25.4
convert from one unit to another. Suppose you
know that an object, for example, is 0.67 meter Meters Inches Meters by 39.37
long and you desire the answer in decimeters.
Meters Yards Meters by 1.0936
All you need to is multiply by 10 and you get an
answer of 6.7 decimeters in length. If you wish Inches Meters Inches by .0254
the answer in centimeters, multiply by 100, and
Yards Meters Yards by .9144
you get 67 cm. For an answer in millimeters,
multiply by 1,000 and you get 670 mm. Kilometers Miles Kilometers by .6214
Suppose you desire to use the English system
Miles Kilometers Miles by 1.609
of measurement to get in feet an object which
is 0.67 yard long. You must multiply by 3 to get
the answer in feet, and by 36 to get the answer The unit of volume in the metric system is the
in inches. LITER, which is the volume of a cube 1/1 0th of a
What, then, is the difference in using the meter on a side. A liter is equal to 1,000 cubic
English or metric system of measurement? As centimeters, equivalent to 1.057 quarts.
you can see, in the metric system, all you need The unit of mass in the metric system is the
do is move the decimal point. GRAM, the weight of one millimeter of distilled
The unit of length in the metric system is the water at 4° C. For all practical purposes, a
METER, which is equal to 39.37 inches. A meter gram may be considered as the weight of one
is divided into 100 equal parts called centi¬ cubic centimeter (cc) of water.
meters; and each centimeter is divided into ten The three standard units of the metric sys¬
parts called a millimeter, because each part is tem (meter, liter, and gram) have decimal
1/1,000 part of a meter. All units of linear multiples and sub-multiples which make it easy
measurement of the metric system are mul¬ to use for all purposes. Every unit of length,
tiples or fractional parts of a meter in units of * volume, or mass is exactly l/l 0th the size of the
10. next larger unit.

49
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Standard abbreviations for principal metric A REAL IMAGE ACTUALLY EXISTS AND
units are: CAN BE THROWN UPON A SCREEN. It is
produced by real foci (points of intersection of
light rays). An image formed on a photographic
Meter . m
plate is a good example of a real image, as is
Centimeter . cm
also true of an image formed on a motion picture
Millimeter . mm
screen. Study illustration 4-1.
Liter . 1
A VIRTUAL IMAGE GETS ITS NAME FROM
Milliliter . ml
THE FACT THAT IT HAS NO REAL EXISTENCE.
Cubic centimeter . cc
IT IS FORMED BY VIRTUAL FOCI AND CANNOT
Gram . g
BE THROWN UPON A SCREEN. Your miage in
Kilogram . kg a mirror is a good example of a virtual image.
Milligram . mg
Reflected rays of light which strike your eyes
DEGREE SYSTEM from the mirror seem to extend through the
MIRROR TO YOUR IMAGE IN IT. Your image
The degree system is a means of measuring in the mirror, in fact, appears to be on the
and designating angles or arcs. A degree is other side, as shown in figure 4-2; but this is
l/360th of the circumference of a circle, or the only an optical illusion produced by the plane
value of the angle formed by dividing a right mirror.
angle into 90 equal parts. Each degree is divided You will learn in this chapter that an optical
into 60 parts called minutes, and each minute is element produces an image by collecting abeam
divided into 60 parts called seconds. of light from an object and transforming it into
a beam which CONVERGES TOWARD OR DI¬
NAVY MIL VERGES FROM ANOTHER POINT. If the beam
actually converges to a point, it produces a
A Navy mil is a unit of measurement for real image of the object; if the beam diverges
angles, much smaller than a degree— 1/6,400 from a point, it produces a virtual image of the
of the circumference of a circle. object.
A mil is the value of the acute angle of a
triangle whose height is 1,000 times its base.
For example, when you look at an object 1,000
meters distant and 1 meter wide, the object
intercepts a visual angle of 1 mil. Another way
to say this is: A mil is an angle whose sine
or tangent is 1/1,000. NOTE: For very small
angles, the sine and tangent are practically
the same.
Use the following formula when you desire to
determine the value of a mil in minutes and
seconds:

sine A =
_1 _
1,000

sine A = 0.001

sine A= approximately 3'26.5" (table of sines)

(1 mil)

POSITION OF IMAGE

An image is the optical counterpart of an

object produced by a lens, mirror, or an optical 137.49
system (including prisms). Two types of images Figure 4-1.— Real image of a sailor on
are produced: (1) real, and (2) virtual. photographic plate.

50
 Chapter 4-IMAGES AND MIRRORS

The size of an image is not important at this

time, because we are concerned now with the
position of an image. The rule of describing
an image, in comparison with the object which
formed it, is as follows: STAND BETWEEN THE
MIRROR AND THE OBJECT AND LOOK AT THE
OBJECT. Then stand on the front side of the
mirror and LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE IMAGE
AND MIRROR, so that you can compare the
attitude of the image with the way the object
looked.
Take another look at illustration 4-1, in
which you see the image as it appears when you
look toward the lens which forms it; and you
see the object (sailor) as he looks when you
stand between him and the lens and observe him
137.50 from that point.
Figure 4-2.— Virtual image of a sailor Now study illustration 4-3, part A of which
formed by a mirror. shows where to stand to view an object itself,
and also where to stand to viewthe image created
of that object by a mirror. Note the position
of the OBJECT and also the position of the
IMAGE, which is seemingly behind the mirror.
Refer again to illustration 4-1. The image of Study next part B of illustration 4-3, which
the sailor in this illustration is formed on a shows the proper position to stand for observing
photographic plate (ground glass) by the lens of an object and the image of the object created by
a camera. The image is inverted (upside-down) a PORRO PRISM. Observe how the two angular
and reverted (left to right). You know this is sides of the prism reflect the rays of light.
true because the sailor is the object, which is Part C of figure 4-3 shows the position to
erect; and his picture on the ground glass is the stand for viewing an object, and then the po¬
image (upside-down). NOTE: ALWAYS COM¬ sition to stand for viewing on plate glass or a
PARE THE IMAGE WITH THE ACTUAL OB¬ screen the image of that object created by a
JECT. positive lens. (The straight line through the
You can ascertain whether an image is real center of the lens is the optical axis; positive
by holding a piece of paper or a sheet of ground lenses converge light rays to a point. Lenses and
glass where the image is formed. If you can see prisms are discussed in detail in chapter 5.)
the image on the paper or glass plate, IT IS A Your image in a plane mirror is virtual,
REAL IMAGE. If you can see the image but erect, and reverted. Your description of the
CANNOT FORM IT ON PAPER OR GROUND image of another object in a plane mirror, how¬
GLASS PLATE, IT IS A VIRTUAL IMAGE, ever, depends upon the manner in which you hold
LIKE THE ONE IN ILLUSTRATION 4-2. The the mirror with respect to the object.
sailor in this illustration does not SEE HIMSELF To illustrate the position of an image with a
AS OTHERS SEE HIM, because the image is plane mirror, do the following: Lay this
backwards, the optical term for which is RE¬ training course on a table in normal reading
VERTED. The image is erect, however, and position and hold a small mirror (2" x 3")
ERECT IS THE OPTICAL TERM FOR RIGHT on its edge at the top of A above the letter F in
SIDE UP. in illustration 4-4. The F in this illustration
When you desire to describe an image— any is like any other F you would see in print, and
image with its actual object— you can say that it it is in the normal position (optical term for an
is: image which is not reverted or turned left to
1. Real or virtual.
right). With the reflecting side of the mirror
2. Erect or inverted. toward the F, look at the reflection of F in the
3. Normal or reverted. mirror and compare it with the other image
4. Of the same size as the actual object, or positions in the illustration. It is the F (in¬
larger or smaller than the actual object. verted and normal), as shown below letter C.

51
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

\
C

STAND HERE TO
VIEW IMAGE

137.51
A. Position to stand for viewing an object itself, and the position to stand for viewing the image
created of that object by a mirror.
B. Position to stand for observing an object and the image of the object formed by a Porro
prism.
C. Position to stand for viewing an object, and the position to stand for viewing the image of
that object created by a positive lens.
Figure 4-3. —Viewing objects and images created of them by optical elements.

52
 Chapter 4-IMAGES AND MIRRORS

The mirror, therefore, inverted F in its natural light from every point on the letter sends out
position but did not revert or turn it left to right. incident rays which are reflected by the mirror.
Now stand the mirror on its edge along the Each incident ray and/or reflected ray obeys
right side of the same F and look at its reflec¬ the laws of reflection and their paths can there¬
tion in the mirror. This time the image looks like fore be plotted accordingly. The entire image
the one below B in the illustration. It is erect formed by a combination of an infinite number of
but reverted. Observe that the mirror did not images of individual points of light is conse¬
turn the F upside-down.
quently reflected to the eye of the observer. As
Thus far you have learned how to make an the observer looks along the paths of the reflec¬
inverted or reverted image of the F in the natural ted rays, he sees the image formed by the
position (A, fig. 4-4). How can you make AN points of light (seemingly back of the mirror and
INVERTED AND REVERTED IMAGE OF F? in an erect, reverted position).
Place the mirror at the top of D in the illustration
and observe the image (F, inverted and reverted) IMAGE TRANSMISSION BY
formed in it. PLANE MIRRORS

A single mirror can be so mounted that it

IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS will reflect light (image) for a practical pur¬
pose. An adjustable mirror on a car fender is
When you see the image of an object in a a good example of such reflection of an image.
mirror, the image appears to be located at a If the image cannot be reflected satisfactorily
distance behind the reflecting surface (equal to with a single mirror, a second mirror can be so
the distance of the object from the front of the placed that it will reflect light from the first
mirror), as indicated in illustration 4-2. The mirror and retransmit it. Illustration 4-7 shows
image is erect and reverted, which is true for how mirrors can be arranged so that they will
all single reflections from plane mirrors, held transmit an image.
in the vertical plane. The two mirrors shown in the illustration
are placed (mounted) together in such manner
TRACING LIGHT RAYS TO
that the angle they form is 90°, as illustrated.
A PLANE MIRROR Light from an object (F) strikes the reflecting
surface of one mirror, after which light rays
In a dark room, the image of a tiny point of from every point on F are reflected by the first
light viewed in a mirror appears to be located mirror to the second mirror, which reflects
behind the mirror and on the other side of the them again in rays parallel to the original rays
room from where it actually is. See figure 4-5. (incident rays to the face of the first mirror).
The observer sees along the path of the reflected The image reflected by the two mirrors is
ray to the point where the incident ray is reflec¬ therefore reflected a total of 180 degrees.
ted by the mirror (eye A, fig. 4-5). His line of Because the two mirrors are so mounted
sight is extended in his mind in a direct line that they form a 90° angle at their point of con¬
through and beyond the mirror. The apparent tact, the image transmittedby them by reflection
position of the point of light in the mirror is in the horizontal plane is not inverted or re¬
located directly across the room from the light verted but ERECT AND NORMAL. The illustra¬
source and at the same distance behind the tion shows the rear of the object and the front
mirror as the light source is in front of the of the image. When reflection takes place in the
mirror. vertical plane, the IMAGE IS INVERTED BUT
As long as the observer can seethe reflection NOT REVERTED.
of the point of light in the mirror, regardless of NOTE: Review the information given earlier
his location in the room, its apparent position in this chapter concerning the comparison of
is unchanged. Observe the line of sight of eye B images with their objects.
in illustration 4-5. The source of light (object)
is reflected, and the apparent position of its
reflection is changed only when the position of the SPHERICAL MIRRORS
object or the mirror is changed.
If the point of light (source) is replaced by a You perhaps have been at an amusement
letter covered with luminous paint (F, fig 4-6), park where a building designated as FUNHOUSE

53
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

- r!
I
an NORMAL I
reverted
ERECT |§ inverted!
-'v

137.52
Figure 4-4.— Positions of images of the letter F created by a small mirror.

137.53

Figure 4-5.— Apparent position of a virtual image formed by a plane mirror.

had curved mirrors used to make you look ri¬ {outside, convex mirror; inside, concave mir¬
diculously tall or disgustingly fat. Convex ror).
rear- view mirrors are also used on automobiles
and trucks to give the drivers a wide view (field CONCAVE SPHERICAL MIRRORS

of vision).
A curved mirror either increases or de¬ It is important at this time that you learn
creases a wave front and changes its curvature. the procedure for constructing a concave mir¬
Such a mirror is called a SPHERICAL MIRROR ror. Refer to illustration 4-8 as frequently as

54
 Chapter 4-IMAGES AND MIRRORS

137.54
Figure 4-6. -Apparent position of an object reflected by a plane mirror.

necessary during your study of the following

discussion.

Construction of a Concave Mirror

The shape of the curvature of a spherical

mirror varies in accordance with the purpose
for which it is intended. The procedure for mak¬
ing one must therefore be made accurately in
accordance with a specific formula.
Begin the construction by measuring the
length of the radius of a circle which will pro¬
duce the desired curvature of the surface of the
mirror. Line CV in figure 4-8 represents the
radius of the size of a circle necessary to pro¬
duce the reflecting surface of the mirror you are
constructing. Draw this line after you make the
circle with a compass. Point C, where you placed
the metal point of the compass, IS THE CENTER
OF CURVATURE OF THE SPHERE OF WHICH
THE SURFACE OF THE MIRROR IS A PART.
Line CV (Radius of the circle) IS THE OPTICAL
AXIS OF THE MIRROR.
In order to locate the focal point of the con¬
cave mirror you just constructed, bisect line CV,
represented by F (focal point) in the illustration.
The focal point of a concave mirror is halfway
between the center of curvature and the vertex
(V ) of the mirror. The focal point, or PRINCIPAL
137.55 FOCUS, IS THE POINT TO WHICH PARALLEL
Figure 4-7.— Image produced by two plane RAYS ARE REFLECTED WHEN THEY STRIKE
mirrors placed at right angles. THE SURFACE OF THE MIRROR.

55
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

THE NORMAL OF A CONCAVE MIRROR IS mirror is used as a reflector in a flashlight, or

A RADIUS drawn from the CENTER OF CURVA¬ in a searchlight which throws an intense beam
TURE to the point of contact OF THE INCIDENT of light.
RAY ON THE SURFACE OF THE MIRROR.
Observe that the angles between an incident ray Image Formation by a Concave Mirror
of light parallel with the optical axis form an
angle with the normal which is equal to the angle Refer now to figure 4-10, which shows how
formed by the reflected ray and the normal rays of light from an object form an image when
(angles a and a' ). they are reflected from the surface of a concave
Regardless of the number of parallel inci¬ mirror. The object (located between the center
dent rays which strike the surface of a concave of curvature and infinity), arrow AB, actually
mirror, their reflected rays always converge at transmits billions of rays of light in all direc¬
the principal focus (focal point). Observe that tions; but for our purpose, a few rays of light
angle b equals angle b' . As you know, the angle are sufficient to give you a general under¬
of reflection (b' ) equals the angle of incidence (b). standing of image formation by a concave mirror.
These angles are measured FROM THE RE¬ Ray BH travels parallel to the axis (OV) and
FLECTED RAY TO THE NORMAL, and FROM strikes the surface of the mirror at H, from
THE INCIDENT RAY TO THE NORMAL. which point it is reflected through the focal
The normal is erected perpendicular to the point (F). Ray BCK, drawn through the center
surface of the mirror by drawing a straight, of curvature (C), intersects the reflected ray
dotted line from the center of curvature to the from ray BH at E. Since ray BCK is drawn
point of contact of the incident ray. through the center of curvature, it coincides
with the normal to the mirror and is therefore
Tracing Light Rays to a reflected back in the same direction. Where the
Concave Mirror reflected rays of ray BH and ray BCK inter¬
sect (E) is the location of the image of the top
To learn how the law of reflection applies of the arrow. In the same manner, the reflected
to a concave mirror, study illustration 4-9. rays AK and ACH give the location of the bottom
The center of curvature of this mirror is in front. of the image at D. Note that this image is
Note also the PRINCIPAL FOCAL POINT where located between C and F.
the reflected rays converge. If imaginary lines Because this image is formed by an actual
are run from this center to the points of inci¬ intersection of reflected rays of light, it is
dence of the incident rays, they indicate the considered a real image (smaller than the object,
NORMALS of individual light rays. Observe the normal, and inverted).
N's on the edge of the lens. When these lines The formation of images, by concave mirrors
are drawn, the reflected rays can be so plotted may be grouped by cases as explained next, with
that each forms an angle of reflection equal to the the object at varying distances from the surface
angle of incidence of the corresponding ray. of a mirror.
When diverging rays of light strike a concave
mirror, they come together or converge; but the OBJECT AT INFINITY. -When an object is
rays of light reflected from a concave mirror at infinity (fig. 4-11), light rays from it are
are more convergent than the incident rays. diverging in all directions; but before they ar¬
The outer surface of a concave mirror is a rive at the mirror, they have become so nearly
part of the arc of a sphere, and the center of this parallel that we may say they are parallel.
sphere is theCENTER OF CURVATURE OF THE The surface of the mirror converges the rays
MIRROR. The distance from the center of curva¬ of light to the focal point to form a real, normal,
ture to the surface of the mirror is the RADIUS and inverted image of the object (diminished
OF CURVATURE. Take another look at illustra¬ in size).
tion 4-9. Note that the focal point is exactly
halfway between the center of curvature and the OBJECT BETWEEN INFINITY AND CENTER
surface of the mirror. OF CURVATURE.— When an object is placed at
If you place a small source of light at the some point between infinity and the center of
focal point of a concave mirror, the light which curvature of the mirror, the image is real, nor¬
strikes the mirror is reflected in a narrow mal, inverted, and diminished in size; and it is
beam of parallel rays. For this reason, a curved located between the center of curvature and the

56
 Chapter 4-IMAGES AND MIRRORS

137. 56
Figure 4-8. —Construction of a concave mirror.

N-NORMAL

CENT ER CURVATURE

RINCI AL FOCAL F0 NT

CONCAVE MIRROR!

137.57
Figure 4-9. —Reflection of parallel rays of light from a concave mirror.

57
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.58 137.60
Figure 4-10.— Image formation of an object by Figure 4-12.— Position of image formed by a
reflected rays of light from a concave mirror. concave mirror when the object is between
infinity and center of curvature.

focal point of the mirror, as shown in figure 4- If an eye in the front area before the mirror
12. NOTE: In this case, the image IS LARGER catches the reflected parallel rays, they appear
THAN the image formed in illustration 4-11, but to be coming from infinity behind the mirror;
it is still smaller than the actual object. and the eye sees a virtual, erect, reverted, and
enlarged image at infinity.
OBJECT AT CENTER OF CURVATURE. -If
an object is located at the center of curvature
of a concave mirror, the mirror forms a real, OBJECT BETWEEN FOCAL POINT AND
inverted, normal image of the same size as the REFLECTING SURFACE.- When an object is
object, at the center of curvature. See figure placed between the focal point and the reflecting
4-13. surface of a concave mirror, the reflected rays
are divergent. Study illustration 4-16. As seen
OBJECT BETWEEN CENTER OF CURVA¬ by an eye in front of the mirror, the rays appear
TURE AND FOCAL POINT. -When an object is to meet a short distance behind the mirror to
placed between the center of curvature and the form a virtual, erect, reverted, and enlarged
focal point of a mirror, the image formed by the image of the object. NOTE: The closer the
mirror is real, inverted, normal, and enlarged object is moved toward the mirror, the larger is
(larger than the object); and it is located between the image formed; and the image moves farther
the center of curvature and infinity, as shown away from the mirror until the object reaches
in illustration 4-14. the principal focus. After passing this point, the
image changes from REAL to VIRTUAL and
OBJECT AT FOCAL POINT. -If an object is decreases in size as the object approaches the
placed at the focal point (fig. 4-15) of a concave surface of the mirror. The virtual image of a
mirror, reflected rays from the mirror are concave mirror is never smaller than the
parallel and a real image IS NOT FORMED. object.

137.59 Figure 4-13.— Position of image formed by a

Figure 4-11. —Position of image formed by a concave mirror when the object is at the center
concave mirror when the object is at infinity. of curvature.

58
 Chapter 4 —IMAGES AND MIRRORS

Figure 4-14. —Position of image formed by a

concave mirror when the object is between the Figure 4-16.— Position of an image formed by a
center of curvature and the focal point. concave mirror when the object is between the
focal point and the reflecting surface.

Suppose you have a mirror with a radius of 4

Calculation of Image Position
inches (half the diameter). This means that the
You can determine the position of an image focal length of the mirror is 2 inches (midpoint on
by using the following equation, which is equally axis of mirror between the surface of the mirror
applicable for finding the positions of images and its center of curvature). Suppose, also,
created by both curved mirrors and lenses: that you have an object 3 inches from the mirror
and you desire to determine the distance of the
image from the mirror. Make necessary sub¬
stitutions in the equation, solve it, and you get:

Do, read d-sub-o = distance of object from sur¬ _1 _1 = F

face of mirror D0+ Di' F
Dj, read d-sub-i = distance of image from sur¬
face of mirror 1=1 1
F = focal length of the mirror F ~ DQ+Dj
j._j_ J_ NOTE: 2 = F, focal length
2_ 3 + Dj 3= D0, distance of object

The lowest common denominator into which

you can divide 3, Dj, and 2 is 6Djj so when you
divide the denominator by 3, dj, and 2, respec¬
tively, and put the quotient of each in the formula
and solve for Dj, you get

3Dj = 2Dj + 6
3Dj - 2Dj = 6
Dj = 6 inches, distance of image
from mirror

You can also use the formula just explained

to ascertain the position of a virtual image. If
Figure 4-15.— Position of an image formed by a an object is a distance of 1 inch from a concave
concave mirror when the object is at the focal mirror with a focal length of 2 inches, for ex¬
ample, you can locate the image by substituting
point.

59
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

the figures (1 & 2) in the proper places in the of the image by the size of the object. The
formula, as follows: formula for determining the amount of magni¬
fication of an image is:
11 1 Si Di
F = DQ+ Dj MAG= — = —

1 = I 1
2 1 + Dj
This formula shows that the size of the image
Di = 2Di + 2 (Si) divided by the size of the object (SQ) equals
Dj = 2Dj = 2 the distance of the image (Di) divided by the
distance of the object (D0). Magnification of the
-Dj = 2
image, therefore, is equal to:
Di = -2
The answer to this equation (-2) is -2 inches Si Dj
in front of the mirror, which means that the MAG =— , or —
image (virtual) is 2 inches BEHIND THE MIR¬
ROR.

The following examples illustrate the use of

Magnification of the Image
the formula for determining the magnification
of an image by a concave mirror.
Magnification is THE SIZE OF THE IMAGE Suppose the distance of an object from a mir¬
DIVIDED BY THE SIZE OF THE OBJECT, ror is 3 inches and the distance of the image
whose distance from the lens is a factor in the from the mirror is 6 inches. By what amount
amount of magnification produced. When you is the image magnified? Substitute 3 and 6 in
look through a reading glass, you observe the the formula and solve for MAG (magnification).
magnifying power of the glass. If when the glass
D;
is close to the eye(s) the image created by the MAG
glass looks five times the object’s size, the D y = 2, magnification of image
magnifying power of the glass is five. In other
words, the lens is five-power (5x).
The answer to the equation (problem) indicates
The lens in this magnifying glass is a five-
that magnification of the image is TWICE THE
power lens because the bigger the image, the
SIZE OF THE OBJECT.
farther away it is from the lens; and a large
Suppose, next, that you have a virtual image
object looks small when it is far away, as is
2 inches in front of a mirror and an object 1
true for Mars and the sun. This statement is
inch in front of a mirror and you wish to deter¬
true, even though the SIZE OF A VIRTUAL
mine the size of the virtual image. Make proper
IMAGE MAY VARY FROM THE SIZE OF THE
substitutions in the equation and solve for MAG:
OBJECT TO INFINITY. For this reason, when
you hold a reading glass close to your eyes and Dj 2
look through it, the size of the image changes MAG=~ = y = 2, magnification of image
only slightly when you move the object.
NOTE: DO NOT CONFUSE MAGNIFICATION
WITH MAGNIFYING POWER. Magnification of When an object is at the center of curvature
an image is a variable amount controlled by the of a mirror, you can plot the distance of the
distance of the object to the lens and the focal image with the formula in the following manner:
length of the lens. You must know the distance
of the object and also the distance of the image 1 =1 1
before you can determine magnification (size of F D0 + Dj (focallength)
the object and size of the image). Magnifying
power, on the other hand, IS A CONSTANT In this instance, the distance of the object is
POWER WHICH NEVER CHANGES. equivalent to the radius of curvature. Because
You can determine the magnification of an the focal point is halfway between the center of
image created by a mirror by dividing the size curvature and the surface of the mirror, the

60
 Chapter 4-IMAGES AND MIRRORS

radius of curvature is 2F; and the distance of

the object is also 2F.
If you now substitute 2F in the equation in the
DQ position and solve for Di( you get:

_1_= 1_ 1
F 2F +
2Dt = Dj = 2F
2Dj = Dt = 2F
= 2F

The distance of the image from the mirror is

2F, which means that the image is also at the
center of curvature.
To determine the amount of magnification of
137.65
the image, make proper substitutions in the
equation and solve, as follows: Figure 4-17.— Reflection of light rays by a
spherical mirror.
D; 2F
MAG = _ 1 - _ _ i
D0 2F

Your answer shows that the image and the ob¬

ject in this example are of the same size, as
they should be.

PARABOLIC MIRRORS

If a very small luminous source is located

at the principal point of focus, light rays are
almost parallel after they reflect from a
mirror— provided the curvature of the mirror
is VERY SLIGHT. The rays actually have a
slight convergence, particularly those reflected
near the edges of the mirror (fig. 4-17). For
this reason, a parabolic mirror is used when¬
ever parallel reflected rays are desired. Study
illustration 4-18.
A parabolic mirror is a concave mirror with
the form of a special geometrical surface— a
137.66
paraboloid of revolution. Light rays which
emanate from a small source at the focal point Figure 4- 18. -Reflection of light rays by a
of a parabolic mirror are parallel after they parabolic mirror.
reflect from its surface.
The source of light (usually a filament or
arc) is located in the principal point of focus slightly. Most searchlights have parabolic mir¬
and the rays diverge, because THERE IS NO rors, as do automobile headlights.
TRUE POINT SOURCE. All rays which strike Spherical mirrors are generally used for
the parabolic mirror (except those which are ordinary purposes because the grinding process
diffused or scattered) reflect from the mirror is easy; but other types of mirrors are used for
toward the focal point and nearly parallel with special purposes. A CYLINDRICAL MIRROR is
each other, thereby providing for the formation part of a cylinder— not part of a sphere. When
of a powerful beam of light which diverges only parallel rays reflect from a concave spherical

61
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

reflecting surface, they form a CONE-SHAPED mirror. Note the angles formed by reflected
BEAM which converges to a point. When paral¬ rays, the radius to the center of curvature, the
lel rays of light reflect from a concave CYLIN¬ normals in relation to the radii, and the posi¬
DRICAL reflecting surface, they form a WEDGE- tion of the virtual image formed by the exten¬
SHAPED BEAM which converges to a line; and sions behind the mirror of the reflected rays
when light converges to a line, it is called of light. Now take another look at illustration
ASTIGMATIZED LIGHT. Think of a CYLINDRI¬ 4-17, which shows rays of light striking dif¬
CAL MIRROR as a silvered portion of the in¬ ferent portions of the surface of a convex
side of an ordinary tin can. If you silver the spherical mirror. The principle of reversibility
inside curved surface of the can and then split is illustrated by the central ray.
the can lengthwise, you have an example of a The law of reflection holds true for all
concave cylindrical mirror. surfaces— convex, concave, and plane. The
amount of reflected light from curved surfaces
Construction of a Convex Mirror depends upon the distance of the light source
and the amount of curvature of the reflecting
Illustration 4-19 shows the procedure for
surface.
constructing a convex mirror. Note the angles
If light from a distance source such as the
of incidence and the angles of reflection formed
sun strikes a convex mirror, the rays are re¬
by the parallel rays of light which strike the
flected in a convergent manner. The reason for
mirror. These angles are equal, as you know;
this can be determined by plotting the angles of
and the normals from the center of curvature
reflection of individual rays in relation to their
of the mirror bisect these two angles. Observe
angles of incidence and the normals for each
the radius of the circle; all normals to the
light ray. In this case, the normal for each
face of the mirror are actually radii of the cir¬
ray is an imaginary line drawn FROM THE CEN¬
cle. THE PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF A CONCAVE
TER OF CURVATURE OF THE MIRROR TO
MIRROR IS REAL; THE PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF
THE POINT OF INCIDENCE OF THE RAY. The
A CONVEX MIRROR IS VIRTUAL.
angle of reflection, of course, is equal to the
angle of incidence for each ray.
Tracing Light Rays to a Convex Mirror
When a light source is close to a mirror,
Illustration 4-17 shows how rays of light the rays are divergent when they strike the
strike and reflect from the surface of a convex mirror and are also reflected in a divergent
manner. In this case, the rays are reflected at
different angles from parallel rays of light
which strike the mirror, but always equal to
the angle of incidence.

Images Formed by Convex Mirrors

Study illustration 4-20, which shows three

objects (arrows 0j , O2, and O3) of the same size
but of different distances from a convex spheri¬
cal mirror. These arrows are of the same
height because they are constructed between a
line parallel with the optical axis. The ray of
light which passes along the tips of the three
arrows strikes the mirror and is reflected in the
manner indicated by arrow AF. The dotted ex¬
tension of this line behind the mirror contacts
the optical axis at the focal point.
Rays of light from the three arrow heads to
the CENTER OF CURVATURE OF THE MIRROR
ARE SECONDARY AXES, and the image formed
Figure 4-19. —Procedure for constructing a by each lies between them and the optical axis.
convex mirror. (Any straight line which passes through the

62
 Chapter 4 —IMAGES AND MIRRORS

137.68
Figure 4-20.— Image formation by a convex mirror.

center of curvature of a mirror to its surface Suppose an object 10 cm in front of a convex

is called a normal.) Object 01 creates Ij, and spherical mirror forms an image 5 cm to the
so forth. Observe that the size of the image is rear of the mirror. How can you find the focal
larger when the object which formed it is moved length of the mirror? Solution of the problem
nearer to the mirror, but an image can NEVER is as follows:
BECOME AS LARGE AS ITS OBJECT.
As you can see, these images are virtual, 1 =1 1
erect, reduced in size, and located behind the F ' D0 + Di
mirror between the principal focus and the
1= J, +i-
vertex. F 10 -5
The radius of curvature of a convex mirror
is negative and the image is always virtual. 10= IF + (-2F)
The focal length (F) and the image distance (Dj) 10= IF
are therefore negative quantities, as you can
-10= F
determine by using the mirror formula.

63
 CHAPTER 5

LENSES AND PRISMS

This chapter contains information pertaining DIVERGENT, which diverge light rays and does
to the following, all of which you must know not bring them to a single point.
before you can qualify for advancement in rating One important rule to remember about lenses
to Opticalman 3: is this: READ THE SURFACES OF LENSES
1. Effect of light rays produced by divergent FROM LEFT TO RIGHT. Observe, for example,
and convergent lenses— different types oflenses the plano-convex (bulging face) and the plano¬
and their refractive and reflective capabilities. concave (cut-out face) lenses in figure 5-1. In
2. Penta, right-angled, Rhomboid, Porri, each case, the left face of the lenses is piano
and Amici (roof) prisms— how they are con¬ or plane (straight).
structed and their function in optical instru¬
ments. REFRACTION IN THIN LENSES
3. Methods of determining focal lengths,
dioptric strength, and magnifying power of Refer now to illustration 5-2, which shows the
positive lenses, using the metric and English FOUR PRINCIPAL RAYS of light which pass
systems of measurement. through any lens, THICK or THIN. When these
This chapter also takes into consideration light rays pass through a lens, they ALWAYS
various formulas used for determining the follow the rules which pertain to each. Line XY
dioptric strength of lenses and prisms, which in the illustration is the optical axis (sometimes
you must know before you can qualify for ad¬ called principal axis) of the lens. The optical
vancement in rating to Opticalman 2. axis passes through the center of a lens and
The sequence followed in discussing lenses perpendicular to its principal plane (illustrated).
and prisms in this chapter gives you the knowl¬ Lens terminology is explained in detail later in
edge necessary for you to understand current this chapter.
and subsequent discussion of everything per¬ LIGHT RAY A.— An incident ray (one entering
taining to these optical elements; that is, their a medium) passes through the optical center (0,
function and use in optical instruments. fig. 5-2) of a lens and emerges from the lens
without deviation from the path it was following
before entering the lens. This is true because
THIN LENSES the incident ray strikes the surface of the lens
parallel to the normal. (The normal of an in¬
A thin lens is one of the types of lenses (thin, cident ray at any point on a lens is an imaginary
thick, and compound) used in optical instruments, line at right angles to the surface of the lens at
and its thickness is small enough to make it the point where the ray enters.) When the ray
(thickness) UNIMPORTANT IN MEASURING reaches the second surface of the lens, it is still
DISTANCES TO IMAGES AND OBJECTS. All traveling parallel to the normal. (The normal
lenses discussed in this training course are of an emergent light ray is an imaginary line at
considered to be thin, UNLESS THEY ARE right angles to the surface of the lens at the
SPECIFIED AS THICK. point where the ray emerges from the lens.)
Some types of thin lenses (also called simple When an “A” light ray passes throughalens
lenses) are shown in figure 5-1. Note the sizes at an angle to the optical axis but through the
and shapes of these lenses, and observe also that optical center, it is slightly refracted before it
there are two groups: (1) CONVERGENT, which reaches the optical center. After it passes
converge light rays to a single point; and (2) through the optical center and strikes the second

64
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

PLANO-CONVEX CONVEXO-CONCAVE
DOUBLE CONVEX
MENISCUS CONVERGING

CONVERGING LENSES

PLANO-CONCAVE CONCAVO-CONVEX
DOUBLE CONCAVE
MENISCUS DIVERGING
DIVERGING LENSES

137.69

Figure 5-1.— Types of thin lenses.

137.70

Figure 5-2. —Principal light rays.

65
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

surface, it is slightly refracted again, but at the Observe, next, in illustration 5-4 how a con¬
same angle at which the incident ray struck the vergent lens deviates light rays. When parallel
first surface. The emergent ray is parallel and rays of light strike the front surface (left) of a
offset to the incident ray, but it is offset so convergent lens, they pass through the lens and
slightly that in actual theory the ray is said to CONVERGE AT A SINGLE POINT.
have passed directly through the thin lens without A convergent lens may be thought of as two
refraction or deviation. prisms (fig. 5-3) arranged so that each directs
rays of light to the same point. The lens bends
LIGHT RAY B. —Any incident light ray which light rays in the same manner as a prism; but,
travels parallel to the optical axis of a lens unlike a prism, it brings the light rays to a single
strikes the lens and is refracted to the principal point. Picture a convergent lens, therefore, as
focal point, the one behind the lens. two prisms with surfaces rounded into a curve.
Note that a convergent lens is THICKER IN
LIGHT RAY C.— Any ray which passes THE MIDDLE THAN AT THE EDGES. As you
through the principal focal point and strikes the observed in illustration 5-1, the two surfaces of
lens is refracted and emerges parallel to the a convergent lens may differ in shape. Both sur¬
optical axis. NOTE: The C ray is the opposite faces may be convex (double convex), one surface
of ray B, because it enters the lens from the may be plane and the other convex (planoconvex),
opposite edge, through the principal focal point, or one surface may be convex and the other con¬
and does not pass through the principal focal cave (convexoconcave) meniscus converging, as
point behind the lens, as does ray B. it is termed.
If you apply the law of refraction (chapter 3)
LIGHT RAY D.— Any ray which passes to a light ray, you can understand what happens
through a point two focal lengths in front of a when it passes through a convergent lens. When
lens and strikes the lens is refracted and con¬ an incident light ray enters the top of a con¬
verges to a point two focal lengths behind the vergent lens (a medium more dense than air), it
lens. In accordance with the Law of Re¬ bends toward the normal; when the refracted ray
versibility, this ray (and all other rays) could (emergent ray) goes back into the air, it bends
be reversed in direction. away from the normal.
NOTE: The four principal light rays just Incident light rays which enter the bottom of a
discussed can travel to the lens in any direction convergent lens bend away from the normal. The
or angle, as long as they follow the rules which two sets of light rays (top and bottom) which enter
pertain individually to them. a convergent lens therefore cross AFTER THEY
Observe in illustration 5-2 that refraction EMERGE from the lens. If the incident rays are
appears to take place in the lens at the principal parallel when they enter the lens, they cross the
plane (explained later in this chapter), but this is optical axis at a single point called the focal
true for illustrative purposes only. A light ray point.
refracts toward the normal as soon as it strikes
the surface of the lens, and away from the normal Refraction in Divergent Lenses
as it leaves the surface of the lens.
Illustration 5-2 is important to you primarily Take another look at the different types of
because you can use rays A, B, C, and D to PLOT simple divergent lenses shown in illustration
ANY IMAGE OF AN OBJECT WITH GREAT AC¬ 5-1.
CURACY, provided your measurements are ac¬ Suppose that we now take two prisms like
curate. those shown in figure 5-3 and place them apex-
to-apex, in the position illustrated in figure 5-6.
Refraction in Convergent Lenses What we do here is construct a different type of
lens, a divergent lens. When rays of light strike
Refer now to illustration 5-3, which shows the front surfaces (left face) of the prisms, the
light rays passing through two prisms of the rays pass through in the manner illustrated, in
same size and shape, placed base-to-base. Ob¬ accordance with the laws of refraction.
serve that the rays of light pass into the prisms Observe that the light rays in the top prism
and bend toward the bases of the prisms as they refract away from the normal; whereas, the light
pass through. After the light rays emerge from rays which pass through the bottom prism refract
the prisms they cross at the points indicated. toward the base, away from the normal.

66
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

4. Draw line AO equal to BO.

If you now assume that the front and rear sur¬
faces of these two prisms have been ground into 5. Find the point on the optical axis which
spherical surfaces, you have a simple divergent gives you the radius of a circle whose surface
lens. Study illustration 5-7. passes through point B. This radius is line BC,
Divergent lenses are always thinner in the and the CENTER OF CURVATURE OF THIS
middle than at the edges, just the opposite to LENS’ SURFACE IS AT C (center of the circle).
convergent simple lenses. The optical center of 6. With the radius of your compass still ad¬
a divergent simple lens is at the thinnest point justed for a circle with a radius equal to BC, lo¬
of the lens, and the lens causes convergent light cate on the optical axis point C', which is the
to be less converging, parallel rays to diverge, center of curvature of another circle whose sur¬
and divergent light to be more diverging. face (part) passes through point A to form the
The two surfaces of a divergent simple lens other side of the convex lens.
may differ in shape. Both surfaces maybe con¬ 7. Draw a ray of light parallel with the optical
cave (double concave), one surface may be plane axis to the surface of the lens. Then, in ac¬
and the other concave (planoconcave), or one cordance with the law of refraction, extend the
ray through the lens and on to point F on the
surface may be concave and the other convex
(concavoconvex) meniscus diverging. optical axis (where the refracted ray crosses),
To learn how the law of refraction applies to as shown in illustration 5-9.
a divergent lens, study illustration 5-8. Observe 8. Then draw the two normals (NORMAL,
and NORMAL' ). These are reference lines (at
the one incident ray used to illustrate the re¬
fraction of light as it passes through the top of right angles with a surface or other lines) used
a divergent simple lens, and the manner in which to determine the angles of incidence and refrac¬
it is bent on both faces— toward the normal on the tion.
first face, away from the normal on the second
Tracing Light Rays through a
face.
Light rays which pass through divergent Convergent Lens
lenses of the optical axis ALWAYS refract
Review at this time illustration 5-5, for it
toward the thickest part of the lenses.
shows how the laws of refraction may be applied
CONVERGENT LENSES to plot the path of any light ray through any
types of lens. Then study illustration 5-10,
In this section we discuss the construction of which shows how light rays pass through a con¬
convergent lenses and tracing light rays through vergent lens and converge at a single point.
them, lens terminology, image formation by con¬ Millions of light rays may come from every
vergent lenses, and the procedure for deter¬ point of light on an object, but we use in illustra¬
tion 5-10 only three such rays to show how they
mining the positions of these images.
pass through a convergent lens. As you learned
previously in this chapter, the light rays which
Construction of a Convergent Lens
strike a convergent lens on either side of the
One method for constructing a convergent optical axis bend toward the thickest part of the
lens follows. Refer to illustration 5-9 as you lens, and bend again toward the thickest part of
study the procedure. NOTE: All measurements the lens when they emerge from its left face. As
must be accurate; all steps in the procedure shown in the illustration, they converge at a
must be correct. single point.
1. Draw a straight line lengthwise through A light ray which passes along the optical
the center of a sheet of paper and parallel with
axis through a lens does not bend, because it
the sides. This will be the optical axis of the strikes the surfaces of the lens at and parallel

lens.
to the normal.
2. Construct line PP' perpendicular with the
optical axis. This will be the principal plane. Lens Terminology
3. Measure a distance on the optical axis
It is important at this point that you under¬
which gives the radius of a circle large enough
stand the terms used to explain certain parts
to draw a lens of the thickness and size you
desire, from the optical center of your lens (0) of lenses. Refer frequently to figure 5- 1 1 as you
study lens terminology.
to point B.

67
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

110.33 12.234
Figure 5-3. —Deviation of light Figure 5-4. —Deviation of light rays
rays by prisms. by a convergent lens.

137.71
Figure 5-5. —Refraction of light rays by a convergent lens.

137.72 137.73
Figure 5-6. —Deviation of rays by two Figure 5-7. —Deviation of rays by a
prisms placed apex-to-apex. divergent lens.

68
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

137.74
Figure 5-8. -Application of the law of refraction to a divergent lens.

137.75
Figure 5-9. —Construction of a convex lens.

69
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.28
Figure 5-10. —Tracing light rays through a convergent lens.

70
 Chapter 5- LENSES AND PRISMS

OPTICAL AXIS.— Line AB in illustration 5-11 where the image is formed. The principal image
is the optical axis (principal axis), which is an plane may be located anywhere along the optical
imaginary straight line passing through the axis of the lens from its focal point to infinity.
centers of curvature of both surfaces of a lens.
Point A is the center of curvature of curve ab; FOCAL DISTANCE (Focal Length).-The
point B is the center of curvature of curve a'b'. focal length of all lenses is the distance from
the principal focus (Fj or F2) to the principal
PUNCIPAL PLANE.— Both thin and thick plane (CD). Illustration 5-12 shows the focal
lenses have two principal planes (imaginary lengths of a convergent lens; figure 5-13 gives
planes perpendicular to the optical axis). In a the focal length of a divergent lens.
thin lens, the two planes are so close together You can determine approximately the focal
that they are considered as ONE PRINCIPAL length of a convergent lens by holding the lens
PLANE (CD). Observe that incident ray E, as necessary in order to focus the image of an
parallel to the optical axis, is refracted upon object at infinity on a sheet of paper or ground
entering and upon leaving the lens. If both the glass. When the image is CLEAR and SHARP,
incident ray and the refracted ray, however, are you have reached the point of principal focus;
extended to d on the principal plane of the lens, and if you then measure the distance from the
as indicated by the dotted lines, refraction ap¬ image to the optical center of the lens, you get
pears to take place at d. the focal length.

OPTICAL CENTER.— The point in a lens

Image Formation by a
through which light rays pass without deviation
Convergent Lens
is called the optical center (O). In thin lenses,
the optical center is located on the optical axis
HALFWAY BETWEEN THE TWO CURVED SUR¬ As you know, light rays in the form of pencils
FACES OF THE LENS. The principal plane in emanate from all points on an object and pass
a thin lens intersects the optical center. through a lens to a point of convergence behind
the lens. This point is called the IMAGE POINT
PRINCIPAL FOCAL POINT (Principal WHEN THE OBJECT IS AT A DISTANCE
Focus). —The principal focus is the point where GREATER THAN THE FOCAL LENGTH OF
parallel incident rays converge after they pass THE LENS.
through a convergent lens. Every convergent Rays of light which pass through the optical
lens has two points of principal focus, one on center of a lens, and superimposed on the optical
each side. The point of principal focus on the axis, do not change their direction; and an image
left side of the lens is the PRIMARY FOCAL is formed at some point on this ray. Study
POINT, designated by F^; the point of principal illustration 5-14 carefully. The central ray in
focus on the right of the lens is the SECONDARY the top portion (A) of this illustration passes
FOCAL POINT (F2). The incident ray (E') is through the optical center and does not refract
parallel to the optical axis and, after it is re¬ as it continues through the lens. The other
fracted by the lens, passes through the primary light rays (2) refract toward the thickest portion
focal point (Fj). Ray E is refracted by the lens of the lens as they enter it, and as they emerge,
as it passes through and crosses the optical axis and form an INVERTED and REVERTED image
(as ray G at the secondary focal point (F2). Both (F) at the IMAGE PLANE. The other part of F
F 1 and F2 are located the same distance from is on the optical axis.
the principal plane of a thin lens, but on opposite The image is inverted and reverted because
sides. two similar rays from a point at the bottom of
the object form a point of the image correspond¬
PRINCIPAL FOCAL PLANE. -The principal ing to the bottom of the object; and every point
focal plane is an imaginary line (HI and H’ I' ) per¬ on the object forms its point of light on the image
pendicular to the optical axis at the points of in the same manner. Rays from the upper part
principal focus. of the object form points of light on the corre¬
sponding image, thereby causing the image to be
PRINCIPAL IMAGE PLANE. -The principal transposed diametrically and symmetrically
image plane is an imaginary line (LM, fig. 5-11) across the optical axis from the object. THIS
perpendicular to the optical axis at the point IMAGE IS REAL.

71
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

PARALLEL RAYS
OPTICAL CENTER

POINT OF POINT OF
PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL
FOCUS FOCUS

PRINCIPAL
FOCAL
PLANE

FOCAL LENGTH 1 FOCAL LENGTH 1

137.77
Figure 5-12.— Focal lengths of a convergent lens.

137.78
Figure 5-13. —Focal length of a divergent lens.

Study the bottom portion (B) of illustration Y’ are equal in length, representingthe distance
5-14 carefully. Observe the object, the light from the optical center to the edges of the lens.
cone, the focal length, point of principal focus, The term CONJUGATE FOCI means that two
the focal point, and the image. Note that Y and focal points are so related that AN OBJECT AT

72
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

ONE POINT IS FORMED AS A REAL IMAGE AT From this discussion of images created by
THE OTHER FOCAL POINT, as is true in objects, we derive the following conclusion: As
illustration 5-14. you move an object closer to a lens, the image
created by the object moves closer to the lens,
Calculating the Image Position and it becomes increasingly larger as it moves.
When you move the object to the principal focal
When an object is at a great distance (infinity), point of the lens, the image BECOMES VIRTUAL
incident rays of light from it are parallel and the AND IS FORMED AT INFINITY.
image is real, inverted, reverted, and dimin¬
ished; and it is formed by the light rays at the IMAGE POSITION. —When you desire the
secondary focal point, as shown in part A of exact location of an image, use the lens law.
figure 5-14. Suppose, for example, that you wish to find the
If the object is at a DISTANCE BEYOND distance and size of an image from a lens when
TWO FOCAL LENGTHS BUT LESS THAN IN¬ the object is one inch high and three inches from
FINITY (fig. 5-15), a real, inverted image is a lens with a focal length of two inches. Make
formed by light rays from the object between necessary substitutions in the lens law and solve
the secondary focal point and 2F on the opposite for Dj (distance of image), as follows:
side of the lens. Note the size of the image in
each illustration shown, as compared with the 1 1 1
object. When the object is brought closer to
the lens, the image formed by it is larger than F Do Dj
images formed by the object at greater distances
from the lens; but the image is still smaller than 1 1 1
the actual object.
In illustration 5-16 you see an object placed 2 3 Dj
at two focal lengths in front of the lens; so the
image formed of this object by the lens is real, 3Dt = 2Dt + 6
inverted, reverted, equal in size, and located at
2F on the other side of the lens. Di = 6", distance of image
When an object is at a distance between one from lens
and two focal lengths from a lens, as illustrated
in figure 5-17, 1 1/2F, the IMAGE IS REAL AND MAGNIFICATION OF THE IMAGE. -Use the
LARGER THAN THE OBJECT, inverted, re¬ following formula to calculate the amount of
verted, and at a distance of 3F on the other side magnification produced by a convergent lens:
of the lens.
Illustration 5-18 shows an object at the
principal focus of a lens, in which case the
emerging light from the lens is parallel and
therefore cannot converge to form an image.
NOTE: SQ = size of object
The image in the illustration is VIRTUAL,
Sj = size of image
ERECT, NORMAL, ENLARGED, and FORMED
D0 = distance of object from op¬
AT INFINITY. A searchlight is an example of
tical center
this type of image formation.
Dj = distance of image from op¬
When an object is closer to a lens than the
tical center
principal focus, divergence of the incident light
is so great that the converging power of the lens
is insufficient to converge or make it parallel. The procedure for solving this formula is the
The emerging light is therefore merely less same as that explained in chapter 4 for deter¬
divergent than the incident light, and the rays mining the magnification of an image createdby
appear to come from an object at a great dis¬ a mirror.
tance than the actual distance of the object. See Thus far you have studied the methods for
figure 5-19. These rays thus appear to converge finding the distance and size of an image formed
behind the object to produce an ERECT, NOR¬ by a convergent lens, the GRAPHIC and MATHE¬
MAL, ENLARGED, and VIRTUAL IMAGE, lo¬ MATICAL methods; but the objects we have been
cated on the same side of the lens as the object. considering have been a short distance from the

73
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

REAL IMAGE
INVERTED AND
REVERTED

137.79
Figure 5-14. —Image formation by a convergent lens.

137.80
Figure 5-15. —Position of an image formed by a convex lens
when the object is more than two focal lengths distant.

74
 Chapter 5- LENSES AND PRISMS

137.81
Figure 5-16. —Position of an image formed by a convergent lens when
the object is at a distance equal to twice the focal length.

137.82
Figure 5-17. — Position of an image formed by a convex lens when
the object is between the first and second focal lengths.

137.83
Figure 5-18. —Lack of image formation by a convergent lens when
the object is at the principal focus.

75
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

focal point of a lens. What you should learn now si = 10

about image formation, therefore, is the proce¬ 7,200 180,000
dure for solving practical problems similar to
those encountered aboard ship. 72,000 = ISO.OOOSi
Suppose, for example, that you are looking at
a ship through a telescope with a convergent ob¬ = .4", image length ( )
jective (lens nearest the object) which has a focal
length of 10 inches. The ship is 200 yards long
and 5,000 yards away, and your problem is to The lens law also works for determining dis¬
ascertain the length of the image formed by the tances and sizes of virtual images formed by
objective lens and the distance of the image of the lenses; but the image distances will be negative,
ship from the lens. The procedure for solving denoting that the image is virtual. Disregard
this problem is as follows: the negative sign, however, when you calculate
1. The ship is 200yards long, or 7,200 inches magnification.
long (200 x 36). The focal length of the lens is in
inches, so change yards to inches in order to have MAGNIFYING POWER.— You learned what
your answer in inches. magnification and magnifying power mean during
2. The range (distance away) of the ship is your study of chapter 3. Bear in mind now as
5,000 yards, or 180,000 inches (5,000 x 36). you study magnifying power in lenses that it is
3. The lens law is: constant and never changes.
When an object is inside one focal length of a
111^1 convergent lens, the image is on the same side
of the lens as the object, and it is MAGNIFIED,
F D0 NORMAL, AND ERECT. The image is now
VIRTUAL, which is illustrated in the reading
4. Make proper substitutions in the formula glass in figure 5-20. Study the top part of the
and solve for Di} as follows: illustration first, and then notice in the bottom
portion the point of principal focus, the object,
and the image. The object is within one focal
10 180,000 F length.
The size of a virtual image may vary from
The lowest common denominator (LCD) which the SIZE OF THE OBJECT TO INFINITY. For
you can use to solve this equation is 180,000Dij this reason, when you hold a reading glass close
so when you use it and solve the equation you to your eyes and look through it, the size of the
get: image changes only slightly when you move the
object.
18,0000^ = Dj + 180,000 You can determine the magnifying power of a
reading glass in the following manner:
18,000Dj - Dt = 180,000 The formula is:

17,999Di = 180,000

Dj = 10.0005 inches ( )
NOTE: Magnifying power of the lens is the
apparent size of the image (10 inches away) di¬
Your answer shows that the distance of the vided by the apparent size of the object, also 10
image of the ship formed by the objective of the inches from the eyes (distance most people hold
telescope is a little more than 10 inches, which
a book or paper when they read).
means that the image of a distant object is
If the lens in a reading glass has a focal
practically in the principal focal plane of the length of 2 inches, its magnifying power (MP)
lens. is 5 (10 divided by 2, in the formula).
You can determine the length of the image You can find the most comfortable distance
formed by the objective by making necessary for viewing an object with a magnifying glass
substitutions in the formula and solving for Sj, by adjusting the glass until the virtual image is
by cross multiplication. about -10 inches in front of the lens and then by

76
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

2F

137.84
Figure 5-19. — Formation of a virtual image by a convex lens when
the object is closer to the lens than the focal point.
I .CENTER Of VIRTUAL MAGE
* ^

CONVERGENT
LENS

POINT OF
PRINCIPAL
FOCUS

137.85
Figure 5-20. -Magnification by a reading glass when
the object is within focal length.

77
1.The
formula
is:
putting this distance
lens in a formula
and the focal length of the
and solving for the distance
the object (D0), as follows:

1 1 _ 1
of
OPTICALMAN 3 &

disappears
2

move the match farther from the lens, past the

focal point, you see only a blur— the virtual image
and the image becomes real. Because
the image is on the same side of the lens as your
eye, you cannot see it clearly.
4. Now use the page of your book as an object
and hold it at arm’s length with one hand. Use
the other hand to put the lens in contact with the
page and observe the image created. It is virtual,
2. The distance of the image (Di) is -10 normal, erect, and slightly magnified. You can
inches. see it because your eye is farther away and you
3.In this problem, the focal length of the can bring it into clear focus on the retina of
lens is 7 inches.
4. The lowest common denominator (LCD) your eye.
5. Retain the book in the same position and
which you can use in solving the equation is move the lens slowly toward your eye and observe
-70Dq; so when you make correct substitutions the size of the virtual image. It becomes larger
in the equation and solve it, you get: and larger as you move the lens closer to your
eye, because you are now comparing the apparent
1 1=1 size of the image with the apparent size of the
+ TIO T
object.
The object looks comparatively small be¬
-70 + D0 = -10Do cause you are holding it at arm’s length. When
the lens is close to the page, the image is near
17Dq = 70 the lens and it is also fairly small. As you in¬
crease the distance of the object, however, you
DQ = 4.23 inches increase the distance of the image; and when the
object and the image are both close to the lens
A few simple experiments at this point will (both at arm’s length), they look smaller than they
enable you to understand better some of the would if the lens were close to your eye. When
things you just studied about images formed by you increase the object's distance by moving the
convergent lenses. Study the discussion care¬ lens closer to your eye, the apparent size of the
fully. Proceed as follows: image increases, even though the apparent size
1. Hold a magnifying glass, or a short- focus of the object remains the same.
lens, close to one eye and use a match for an 6. Slowly move the lens toward your eye until
object. Put the head of the match on the lens on the virtual image disappears. At first, the real
the other side and you will see a badly blurred image looks blurred, because (even though on
image, because the image is so close to your eye your side of the lens) it is so far back from the
that you cannot focus properly on it. If you lens that you cannot focus your eyes on it. If you
slowly move the match head back from the lens, bring the image closer to the lens by moving the
the image becomes sharper as the distance of lens farther from the book, the image is inverted.
the object increases; because as the distance of You cannot tell at a glance whether it is normal
the object increases, the distance of the image or reverted; but if you turn the book upside down,
also increases. The image distance, however, your lens forms an inverted image of the inverted
increases much faster than the object distance. book. The print is right side up and you can read
2. Move the match back until you can com¬ it, which means that it is backward.
fortably focus your eye on the image— about 10 As you move the lens closer to your eye, the
inches from your eye. The image is then NOR¬ image blurs again; because it is too close to your
MAL AND ERECT, JUST LIKE THE OBJECT eye and you cannot focus it sharply on the retina.
BUT BIGGER. As you know, the image is virtual, It is rather difficult for the eye to focus on any¬
because it really is not there. thing closer than 10 inches. You can see a clear
3. Slowly move the match farther away and image when the distance between your eye and the
observe the position of the image. It is at infinity lens is equal to the image distance plus 10 inches.
but you can see it clearly. The reason for this
is that your eye can focus on anything between LENS DIOPTER (generally called diopter). —
approximately 10 inches and infinity. When you A lens diopter is the UNIT OF MEASURE OF THE

78
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

REFRACTIVE POWER (dioptric strength) of a are located on the side of the lens toward the
lens or a lens system. It is based on the metric light source or object. The point of principal
system of measurement. All optical diagrams focus and other focal points are located where
give focal lengths and diameters of lenses in the emergent rays should intersect on the optical
millimeters. axis if they were extended backward as imaginary
A lens with a focal length of 1 meter has the lines toward the side of the lens on which the
refractive power of 1 DIOPTER. Study illustra¬ light strikes. Review figure 5-13 for some
tion 5-21. The refractive power of a converging terminology and focal length of a simple diver¬
lens is POSITIVE; the refractive power of a gent lens.
diverging lens is NEGATIVE. If you use a page ofthisbookas an object— at
The refractive power of lenses which do not arm’s length— and look at it through a divergent
have focal lengths of 1 meter is the reciprocal lens, this is what happens:
of the focal lengths in meters, and it varies 1. When the lens is in contact with the page
inversely as the focal length. This means that (object), the image you see is erect, normal, and
a converging lens with a focal length of 20 slightly smaller than the object.
centimeters (1/5 meter) has a power of +5 2. If you move the lens closer to your eye,
diopters; whereas, a diverging lens with a focal the image becomes even smaller.
length of 50 centimeters (1/2 meter) has a 3. When you have the lens quite close to your
power of -2 diopters. A lens with the shortest eye, you can see only a blur, REGARDLESS OF
focal length has the greatest positive or nega¬ THE POSITION IN WHICH YOU HOLD THE OB¬
tive dioptric strength. JECT.
A lens with a focal length of 25 centimeters You will understand what took place when you
has a positive dioptric strength of 4 diopters. held the divergent lens in the positions just
When converted to meters, the 25 centimeters described and looked at the page after you study
equal .25 meter. The reciprocal of .25 meter the next few pages, dealing with the construction
equals 4 diopters. The equation for this is as of a divergent lens and image formation by it.
follows: Construction of a Divergent Lens
Diopters - £ meters)
Suppose, now, that we construct a divergent
lens like the one shown in figure 5-13. Proceed
Diopters = meters as follows:
1. Sketch the double concave lens on paper.
Diopters = 4
2.
Draw a dotted line through the middle of
Another formula for determining the dioptric both ends of the lens, to represent the PRINCI¬
strength of a lens when its focal length is in PAL PLANE.
millimeters is: 3. Then draw a straight line through the
1,000 millimeters (mm) OPTICAL CENTER of the lens, PERPENDICU¬
Dioptric strength =
F (in millimeters, mm) LAR TO THE PRINCIPAL PLANE, to represent
the OPTICAL AXIS.
If the focal length of a lens is in inches, the
4. Next, draw two lines, to represent rays
formula is:
of light, near the ends of the lens to the left face,
39.37 (or 40) inches
Dioptric strength through the lens (refraction indicated), and out
F (in inches)
into space.
DIVERGENT LENSES 5. With your ruler, draw the dotted lines
along the straight portion of the emergent light
Refer again to illustration 5-1 and study the ray to the optical axis. Where the two dotted
types of simple divergent lenses. lines intersect the optical axis is the POINT OF
Divergent lenses have negative dioptric PRINCIPAL FOCUS, as indicated by the termi¬
strength, and they are always thinner in the nology and arrow.
middle than at the edges. The optical center of 6. Draw a dotted line downward from the
a divergent lens is at the thinnest point of the POINT OF PRINCIPAL FOCUS, and then draw
lens, and the lens diverges parallel rays of light. the two arrows in the positions indicated and in¬
The point of principal focus, focal points, and sert FOCAL LENGTH.
focal planes resulting from the nearness of an Now sketch another double concave lens on
object or light source to a simple divergent lens paper (fig. 5-22) and draw a line through the

79
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

FOCAL LENGTH

137.87
Figure 5-22. —Effect of parallel rays on a divergent lens.

80
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

OPTICAL CENTER, perpendicular with the between this point and the optical axis. This
PRINCIPAL PLANE, to represent theOPTICAL arrow is designated Ij. Then draw arrows I2,
AXIS. Then drawtwoother lines (parallel) above and I3 to represent the other images made by
and below the optical axis, as shown, to represent the objects (Oj, 03, and O3).
FOUR LIGHT RAYS.
The light rays you just drew (fig. 5- 22) show SIZE OF IMAGE.— Observe that the images
the PROCEDURE for TRACING LIGHT RAYS you constructed in illustration 5-23 are erect
THROUGH A DIVERGENT LENS. Rays which and normal, between the lens and its focal point,
pass along the optical axis and through the optical SMALLER THAN THE OBJECTS WHICH CRE¬
center do not refract (deviate), as you know; rays ATED THEM, and VIRTUAL.
which pass through the lens at points other than Illustration 5-24 shows what is meant by
through the optical center (along the optical axis) REDUCTION BY DIVERGENT LENSES. The
are deviated in the manner shown in the illustra¬ impression you receive that the image you see
tion. on the other side of a divergent lens is smaller
than the object is known as REDUCTION, in
Image Formation by a Divergent contrast to MAGNIFICATION PRODUCED BY
Lens A SIMPLE MAGNIFIER, as you studied earlier
in this chapter. Study the schematic diagram
When you look through a divergent lens (fig. at the bottom of the illustration.
5-22), extensions of the refracted rays of light
appear to converge at a point (POINT OF PRIN¬ CALCULATING IMAGE POSITION.-Nowuse
CIPAL FOCUS) on the same side of the lens as the lens formula to calculate the positions of the
the object, as shown in illustration 5-13. In order images you constructed in illustration 5-23. The
to learn how an image is created by a divergent lens formula is:
lens of this type, draw (sketch)thelens on paper
and then do the following: 1 1 1
1. Draw a dotted line through the middle of
each end of the lens to represent the principal
plane. The focal length of a divergent lens is nega¬
2. Draw another dotted line perpendicular to tive, because the image is on the same side of
the principal plane and through the optical center the lens as the object and the image distance is
to represent the optical axis. See figure 5-23. negative.
3. Using a focal length of 2 inches, put a dot The focal length of the lens used in the illus¬
on the optical axis to represent the focal point tration is 2 inches TO THE LEFT of the princi¬
(F). pal plane of the lens, so the focal length of the
4. Next, draw 3 arrows 1 inch high on the lens IS MINUS 2 INCHES.
optical axis in the positions indicated by Oj, To find the image distance for arrow 03 (ob¬
O £ , and O3. Observe that one arrow is INSIDE ject) drawn at the focal point some substitutions
THE FOCAL POINT (F), one arrow is ON THE must be made in the formula (lens law), as
FOCAL POINT, and the third arrow isBEYOND follows:
THE FOCAL POINT.
J_ _ I J_
5. Along the tips of the arrow heads, draw
-2 2 Di
a line to the principal plane to represent a
parallel ray of light (parallel to the optical axis). 2Dt = -2Di - 4
Note how this ray diverges up after it contacts
4Dt = -4
the principal plane. If you were to look at this
ray from the opposite side of the lens, it would Dj = -1, image distance for arrow 03
appear to emerge from the first focal point; so
extend this line (dotted portion) to the focal point The answer you got by solving the formula
(F). means that the image is 1 inch from the principal
6. At the point where the ray of light which plane of the lens, but is ON THE SAME SIDE of
passes through the optical center from arrowOj the lens as the object.
intersects the dotted extension to the focal point You can calculate the distances of the other
of the refracted ray you drew along the tips of images in illustration 5-21 in the manner just
the arrow heads, construct an arrow (erect) described.

81
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.88
Figure 5-23. —Image formation by a divergent lens.

137.89
Figure 5-24. Reduction by a divergent lens.

82
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

MAGNIFICATION.— You can use the lens law SINGLE THICK LENSES
to determine the size of each image created.
Magnification, you will recall, is the size of the Bear in mind that all lenses are made of
image divided by the size of the object. The optical glass in accordance with a specified
magnification formula is: formula, for binoculars, telescopes, and so
forth. All lenses are considered as either thin
or thick, and all lenses follow the same laws
of refraction.
Thus far, we have been discussing thin lenses;
but it is important now that we explain the dif¬
Suppose that an object’s distance is 2 inches
ference between a thin lens and a thick lens.
and the image distance is 1 inch. What is the
How thick must a lens be to be considered thick?
amount of magnification produced by the lens?
If the distance between the two principal planes
Make necessary substitutions in the formula and
of the lens is great enough to be measured, the
solve for S^, as follows:
lens is said to be THICK. It is actually a matter
of judgment of an individual working with lenses,
Di 1 however, to decide when a lens is thick; but in
M= D^ = 2’and this training manual, we consider any lens whose
principal planes are separated by 5 mm to be
m = £l thick.
So Like thin lenses, thick lenses are identified
by reading each lens surface; that is, whether
Si = MSq they are equi-convex, double convex, planocon¬
vex, and so on.
Sj = x 1, or .5 inch
Tracing Light Rays through a
The amount of magnification of the images in this Thick Lens
illustration is therefore one- half.
Two equi-convex lenses are illustrated in
NOTE: Negative image distances are con¬
figure 5-25. Both lenses have the same index
sidered only in their absolute values in the mag¬
of refraction and radius of curvature; their
nification formula; so the problem just solved in
diameters are equal, but their thicknesses are
the formula does not give a magnification of -1/2
unequal.
but merely 1/2. The negative image distance NOTE: A lens is said to be equi-convex or
merely means that the image is on the same side equi-concave if its radii or curvature are equal;
of the lens as the object and is virtual. As you that is, the radius of curvature of one surface of
learned in chapter 4, the image may even be the lens must be the same as that of the other
larger than the object and still be virtual. surface.
Refer now to the light rays in illustration
5-25. As you know, an A ray is any ray which
THICK LENSES
passes through the optical center of a lens and
emerges from the lens parallel to the incident
The types of thick lenses considered in this
ray without deviation. This rule applies to BOTH
section are:
THICK AND THIN LENSES; but note the differ¬
1. Single thick lenses. ence in the A rays of the two lenses in illustra¬
2. Thick lenses constructed from two thin
tion 5-25. In the thin lens in part A, the A ray is
lenses.
traveling toward the optical center and passes
3. Compound lenses. directly through without refraction or deviation.
Lens thickness is one of the factors which In a thick lens, however, if an incident light ray
control focal lengths in a lens, along with index (not shown in diagram) traveling toward the op¬
of refraction and radii of curvature. tical center of the lens were refracted upon
You will find from this discussion of thick reaching the lens, it would not pass through the
lenses that they FUNCTION in about the same optical center. Upon emerging from the lens,
manner as thin lenses; that is, their effect on the light ray would be slightly deviated from its
light rays is essentially the same. original path.

83
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

- f
i

GEOMETRIC
CENTER

B
137.90
Figure 5-25.— A thin lens and a single thick lens.

84
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

In order for a ray of light to pass through a keep in mind about refraction in a lens is that
thick lens without deviation, it must travel along the quality of the glass, its shape, and thickness
the optical axis, or travel in the direction of the are all factors which have a bearing on refrac¬
first principal point (where the principal plane tion and tracing of light rays through it.
intersects the optical axis). When it strikes the
lens, it is refracted in accordance with the laws
Focal Lengths of Thick Lenses
of refraction and passes through the optical
center. Upon emerging from the second surface,
the emergent ray appears to have come from the The focal length of a lens is measured from
second principal point (A') and is parallel to the the principal plane to the principal focus. In
incident ray, slightly offset (NOT DEVIATED) thin lenses, the principal plane bisects the op¬
from its original path. tical axis and is in the center of the lens; but in
If a lens is VERY THICK, the degree of thick lenses the principal planes do not bisect
convergence or divergence of rays is changed by the optical centers. Study parts A and B of fig¬
the DISTANCE the rays travel through the glass. ure 5-25. The focal length of a thick lens cannot
If the light is converging after passing through therefore be measured from the geometric
the first surface of the lens, the degree of con¬ center of the lens.
vergence is increased before the second surface In thick lenses, the focal length is measured
of the lens is reached. If the lens is thick enough, from the principal planes to the principal focus
the light could converge to a focus on the second (fig. 5-25), from the principal plane (P' ) to the
surface. principal focus (F,,), or from the principal plane
Observe that the refraction of the B rays in (P) to the principal focus (F^). In thick lenses,
the two lenses in figure 5-25 is the same; but the focal length is labeled EQUIVALENT FOCAL
the ray in the thicker lens converges more and LENGTH (EFL).
travels a greater distance than the ray in the If the thickness of a lens is measurable,
thinner lens. Observe also that the principal measure the distances from the principal focus
plane (P') of the B ray is now located to the right to the surfaces (vertex) of the lens. The dis¬
of the optical center of the thick lens. tance from the primary principal focus (Fj) to
Now compare the b rays of the two lenses. the first vertex (V) is labeled FRONT FOCAL
The refracted ray in the thin lens appears to be LENGTH (FFL); the distance from the second
refracted at the same plane where the B ray vertex (V*) to the secondary principal focus is
refracted; but ray b of the thick lens does not labeled BACK FOCAL LENGTH (BFL). ALWAYS
appear to be refracted at the same point as the READ OPTICAL DRAWINGS FROM LEFT TO
B ray— it traveled a greater distance and is more RIGHT.
convergent than in the thin lens. The location of In equiconvex lenses the EFL and the BFL
the principal plane (P) for the b ray is to the are exactly equal in length; but in double convex
left of the optical center. Refraction, therefore, lenses with unequal radii of curvatures, the FFL
DOES NOT TAKE PLACE IN THE EXACT and the BFL are of unequal length. Regardless
CENTER of the thick lens as it does in thin of whether a lens is double convex or equiconvex,
lenses. however, the EFL’s are ALWAYS EQUAL IN
Observe (fig. 5-25) that the A ray deviates THE SAME LENS.
slightly as it strikes the face of the lens, passes
through the optical center, and then REFRACTS THICK LENSES CONSTRUCTED
AGAIN as it leaves the left face of the lens. FROM THIN LENSES
Note, also, that the B ray refracts exactly the
same amount as the b ray as it strikes the left
face of the lens, as it passes through, and as it In single thicklenses, you canlocatethe EFL,
leaves the face of the lens. Both of these rays the FFL, the BFL, and the principal planes by
pass through the optical axis of the lens at following the laws of refraction. Bear in mind
EXACTLY THE SAME DISTANCE FROM THE that light always follows these laws, regardless
LENS. of the type, thickness, or shape of glass which
If you remember the rules just explained for refracts the rays.
the passage of light rays through a lens, you can In the following pages we explain how to con¬
trace the rays as necessary in order to locate struct a thick lens by using two thin lenses, when
the image of an object. The important thing to they are placed reasonably close together.

85
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Construction Procedure of lens X a distance equal to the FFL. Measure

to the LEFT if the FFL is positive; measure to
Sketch on a sheet of paper two thin lenses, the right if FFL is negative. To find the second
in the positions shown by lenses X and Y in focal point of the combination, measure theFFL
figure 5-26, and draw all lines (including dotted from the center of lens Y— to the right if FFL is
extensions) required to show the optical axis, positive, to the left if FFL is negative.
light rays B and b, F^ and F2, principal plane You can find the first principal plane of the
P', optical axis, and the principal plane of each combination by measuring a distance equal to
lens. NOTE: The detailed procedure for making the EFL from the first focal point (F^). To find
all the drawings of light rays, focal lengths, the second principal plane, measure the EFL
etc., is not given here because it was explained from the second focal point (F2). Inboth cases,
fully for illustration 5-25. measure to the left if EFL is positive; other¬
If you arrange two thin lenses in a predeter¬ wise, measure to the right. NOTE: The first
mined position, they perform as a single thick principal plane may lie to the right of the second
lens. The two lenses in illustration 5-27 are principal plane, but these planes can be formed
identical (symmetrical) in every respect. most anywhere.
The light rays (B and b) you drewto the face REMEMBER: These lenses are very thin,
of lens X would come to a focus at the secondary and the distance between the principal plane and
principal focal point (F2) if lens Y were not the vertex of each lens is practically negligible.
within the focal length of lens X. When these For this reason, measurements for the FFL and
two converging rays enter lens Y, they are re¬ the BFL of the lens combination must be from
fracted and made ever more convergent to the the principal planes of the thin lenses, NOT
first focal point (F) you put on the optical axis. FROM THE VERTEX OF EACH.
The extensions of incident ray B and emergent When thin lenses used in combination are
ray B' (dotted lines) provide the top point identical in optical characteristics, FFL and
THROUGH WHICH you drew the principal plane BFL are equal; but if the focal length of one lens
(P' ). The dotted extensions of ray b (incident) is not equal to that of the other, FFL and BFL
and emergent ray b' intersect to provide the are unequal.
other point THROUGH WHICH you drew the Although the two thin lenses used in the com¬
principal plane (P')- bination are not identical in optical character¬
istics, the EFL ON BOTH SIDES OF THE COM¬
If you were to draw two more parallel rays
of light from the right to lens Y, similar to B BINATION IS ALWAYS EQUAL. YOU CAN
and b, you would get the points THROUGH WHICH PROVE THIS STATEMENT BY USING THE
you would construct principal plane P. Review FORMULA.
illustration 5-25. The formulas for determining the three types
You can get the equivalent focal length (EFL) of focal distances just explained are as follows:
of two thin lenses used to make a thick lens by
using the focal lengths of the two convergent EFL =
F1 x f2
lenses in combination. Study illustration 5-27.
F1 + f2 - S
The EFL is equal to the distance from the first
focal plane to the first principal plane, or the
distance from the second principal plane to the BFL = (Fj x F2) - (S x F2)
second focal plane. F1 + f2 - S
The first focal point of the combination is
designated Fj, and a plane which passes through FFL = (Fj x F2) - (S x Fj)
this point perpendicular to the optical axis is the
F1 + F2 - S
first focal plane. The plane which passes through
the second focal point (F2) is the second focal
plane. The front focal length (FFL) is the dis¬ F1 “ focal length of lens A (in combination)
tance from the first focal plane to the principal
plane of lens X. The back focal length (BFL) is
f2 = focal length of lens B (in combination)

the distance from the principal plane of lens Y S separation of the two lenses (X & Y,
to the second focal plane. or left and right) in a combination,
You can find the first focal point of the com¬ measured from their principal
bination by measuring from the principal plane planes.

86
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

137.92
Figure 5-26.— Two thin lenses used as a thick lens.

EEL

E.F.L
m-
F.F.O

g§ A j
c.

FIRST
FOCAL SECOND FIRST SECOND
PLANE PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL FOCAL
PLANE PLANE PLANE

Figure 5-27.— Focal lengths in a combination of lenses.

87
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Suppose you place two lenses together to form lens is to draw in the two principal planes (after
a thick lens, with a separation of the lenses at you calculate them accurately by the formula)
their principal planes of one inch, with a focal and mark the principal points where the planes
length of 3 inches for one lens and a focal length intersect the optical axis. Study illustration
of 2 inches for the other lens, and you desire to 5-28. Next, draw a light ray (AQ) toward the
know the EFL, the FFL, and the BFL of the first principal plane (Pj), instead of toward the
combination. Make proper substitutions in the optical center, and observe that it emerges from
formulas and you get: lens Y as if it passed through the second prin¬
cipal plane (Pj>).
efl - 3i f ~T %efl - f %1^ inches
Light ray B, which strikes the surface of lens
X parallel to the optical axis, passes through the
_ (3 x 2) - (1 x 3) 6 - 3 _ 3/4 second focal point (Fo) of the combination; but it
FFL - 3-2-1 • — r- inch travels as though all the refraction tookplacein
the second principal plane. Light ray C, which
nrT (3 x 2)- (1 x 2) (6)- (2) _ 4
BFL " 3 + 2-1 - - - 1- T ' passes through the first focal plane of the com¬
bination, emerges parallel to the optical axis;
1 inch
but it travels as if all the refraction took place
in the first principal plane.
Tracing Light Rays through the
If you desire to indicate the paths of light
Combination
rays inside the lens group, draw a straight line
The best way to find the paths of light rays from the point of incidence to the point of emer¬
through a combination of lenses used as a thick gence for each ray.

137.94
Figure 5-28.— Tracing light rays through a combination.

88
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

COMPOUND LENSES C ementing the contact surfaces of lenses used

in a compound lens is generally considered
Because an optically perfect single simple desirable, because it helps to maintain the two
lens cannot be produced, two or more lenses elements in alignment under sharp blows, keeps
ground from different types of optical glass are out dirt, and decreases the loss of light as a
frequently combined as a unit to cancel defects result of reflection where the surfaces contact.
present in a single lens. NOTE: Cement used for this purpose must
The refractive power of a compound lens is have approximately the same index of refraction
less than that of the simple convex lens used in as that of crown glass.
its construction. If a double convex lens of crown A triplet compound lens has all three lenses
glass is combined with a concave-piano lens of cemented together. A lens of this type has six
flint glass, the effective refractive power of the surfaces which enable a designer of an optical
concave-piano lens is reduced about 50percent; instrument to plan the best corrections for de¬
but the latter lens has sufficient power to neutra¬ fects.
lize the dispersion in the double convex lens.
By combining these two lenses to form a com¬
pound lens, light which passes through the lens CYLINDRICAL LENSES
is brought to a practical focus at a point almost
double the distance to the point of principal focus A cylindrical lens is a lens whose surfaces
of the convex lens alone. Study illustration 5-29. (one or both) are portions of a cylinder. The
The elements of compound lenses are fre¬ power of this lens to converge light rays when its
quently cemented together with their optical axis is in a vertical position is in the horizontal
axes in alignment. Two lenses may be cemented meridian only; no refraction is produced in the
together to form a DOUBLET, three lenses may VERTICAL PLANE. When the same lens is
be cemented together to make a TRIPLET, or turned through a 90° angle, the axis is horizontal
each lens of the unit may be mounted together and its power to converge light rays is exercised
to make a DIALYTE. ONLY IN THE VERTICAL PLANE. There are
NOTE: The lenses of DOUBLETS TOO two types of cylindrical lenses, positive and
LARGE in diameter to be cemented together negative, or convergent and divergent.
(even if their inner surfaces match) form a lens
combination called an AIR-SPACED or UN¬ CONVERGENT CYLINDRICAL LENSES
CEMENTED DOUBLET.
In a dialyte compound lens, the inner sur¬ Convergent cylindrical lenses are used rather
faces of the two elements do not have the same extensively for magnifying vernier scales on
curvature, which means they cannot be cemented instruments and also for eyeglasses and the
together in order to correct for defects. The two azimuth circle in the 90° prism housing.
lenses are separated by a thin spacer ring, or A convergent cylindrical lens is shown in
tin foil shims, and are secured in a threaded part X of illustration 5-30. The shaded portions
cell or tube.
of the illustration represent planes. In planes

89
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

which pass through the object point (0) and therefore makes a larger image of the arrow,
parallel to the cylindrical surface of the lens, because the light it receives is spread over a
there is NO CONVERGENCE OF LIGHT RAYS. larger area. If the diameters of the two lenses
In planes perpendicular to the central plane were equal, the lens with the shorter focal
through the center of the object point (0), light length would form a brighter image than the
rays are refracted as they pass through the lens lens with the longer focal length, because the
and converge at a point beyond the lens with the light it receives is concentrated in a smaller
plane through the middle of the lens. area.
Observe A, B, and C onthelens. They repre¬ Study next illustration 5-32, which shows two
sent the points at which the planes emerge from lenses with the same focal length but of different
the lens. Ray OB in this lens passes straight diameters. The larger lens at the top therefore
through the center of the lens and is not re¬ forms a brighter image of the object, because it
fracted; rays OA and OC are refracted as they has a greater aperture than the bottom lens and
pass through and converge at I, the focal point. receives more light from the object.
All light rays which come from point O and are When you compare the light-gathering ability
refracted by the lens as they pass through it also of one lens with another, take into consideration
pass through line I1I2, which is a real image of O. the relative aperture (focal length divided by
If the refracted light rays were projected diameter) of both lenses. To find the relative
back through the lens (dotted lines), they would aperture of a lens, divide its focal length by its
pass through line I3I4 and create a virtual image diameter. For example, the formula for finding
of object O. the relative aperture of a lens with a diameter of
2 inches and a focal length of 8 inches is:
DIVERGENT CYLINDRICAL LENSES
Relative aperture =~r.— 7— = A = 4
Refer now to part Y of illustration 5-30 to diameter 2
learn what happens to light rays as they pass The relative aperture of this lens is there¬
through a divergent cylindrical lens. Note the fore, generally written as f:4.
object (O), the plane through the lens at B, and If you have two lenses with different relative
also the planes through A and C. Rays of light apertures, you can tell which one will form the
incident through plane O and B are not refracted. brighter image by using the formula. Suppose,
Rays of light incident through points OA and OC for example, that you have two lenses with rela¬
are diverged toward the edge of the lens and do tive apertures of f:4 and f:2, respectively. If
not converge to any central point on the central both lenses have the same diameter, the focal
plane, as did the rays through A and C in the length of the f:4 lens is twice that of the f:2 lens.
convergent lens. Use Fj for the focal length of the f:2 lens and
If the rays of light from O through A and C F 2 for the focal length of the f:4 lens in the
were projected back through the lens, they would formula and solve and you get:
pass through the central plane at I2 and 1^, re¬
F
spectively, and create virtual images where they Relative aperture = —- 7—
diameter
intersected line I3I4 .
F1 F,
LENS APERTURE 2 = -7^ , and 4 = -7^-
d ’ d
F j = 2d, and F2 = 4d
The aperture of a lens is the largest diameter
through which light can enter a lens. The light¬ If the focal lengths of these two lenses were
gathering ability of a lens is determined by: (1) equal, the f:2 lens would be twice the diameter
its aperture, and (2) its focal length. of the f:4 lens. Let dj represent the diameter of
Take a look now at the lenses in illustration the f:2 lens and d2 represent thediameter of the
5-31, both of which have the same diameter but f:4 lens in the formula and solve and you get:
not the same focal length. The arrows on the
left, the objects, have the same size; and both
lenses receive the same amount of light from
the objects, because their apertures are equal.
The bottom lens in the illustration, however, _ F , & d2 = H
has a longer focal length than the top lens and 1 2 4

90
 Chapter 5- LENSES AND PRISMS

‘4

No

137.97 137.98

Figure 5-31. —Passage of light Figure 5-32.— Image brightness increased

through lens aperture. by enlarged lens aperture.

91
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

In both examples, the f:2 lens forms the 5-35, part A of which shows howa portion of the
brighter image; because BRIGHTNESS OF THE aberration can be diminished by equalizing the
IMAGE is proportional to the light-gathering deviation at the two surfaces of a lens. Part B
ability of the lens, and the relative image bright¬ of this illustration shows how chromatic aberra¬
ness of two lenses is inversely proportional to tion in a lens can be corrected by a compound
the square of their relative apertures. lens, one part of which is positive (convergent)
The relative image brightness of the two and the other part of which is negative (diver¬
lenses just considered (f:2 and f:4) may be de¬ gent). As you learned previously in this training
termined by using the formula, as follows: course, a lens with positive dioptric strength is
made of crown glass and a lens with negative
dioptric strength is made of flint glass.
Relative image brightness Since crown glass is more strongly conver¬
gent for blue rays than for red rays, and the flint
This means that the image formed by the f:2 lens glass is more strongly divergent for blue rays
is four times as bright as the image formed by than for red rays (fig. 5-33), the high color
the f:4 lens. dispersion of the flint divergent lens sufficient
to compensate for the lower color dispersion of
the crown convergent lens, without complete
LENS ABERRATIONS neutralization of its refractive power. Note in
part B of illustration 5-35 that the two rays come
Aberration in a lens is an image imperfection to a focus. A compound lens designed in this
which prevents the lens from forming a true manner is called an achromatic lens.
reproduction of an object, because the light rays
do not converge to a single focus. Aberrations SPHERICAL ABERRATION
result from a variety of conditions, some of which
you studied in chapter 2, Optical Class. The
general types of aberration are: (1) chromatic, Spherical aberration is a common fault in all
(2) spherical, (3) astigmatism, (4) coma, (5) simple lenses. In a convergent lens, refracted
curvature of the field, and (6) distortion. light rays through its center do not intersect
rays refracted through other portions of the lens
CHROMATIC ABERRATION at a single point on the optical axis. Study figure
5-36.
You learned in chapter 3 that when white light The outer rays of light in illustration 5-36
is refracted through a prism it disperses the intersect the optical axis closer to the lens; the
light into rays of different wavelengths to form more central rays intersect the optical axis at a
a spectrum. The rays of different colors are greater distance from the lens. Failure of the
refracted to different extents, as illustrated in refracted rays passing through the lens to inter¬
figure 5-33. Observe that violet rays are re¬ sect the optical axis at a central point causes a
fracted most and that red rays are refracted blurred image.
least. Take a look now at illustration 5-37, which
Because a lens may be considered as com¬ shows rays of light passing through a divergent
posed of an infinite number of prisms, as shown lens and the imaginary extension of the refracted
in figure 5-34, dispersion also occurs in a lens rays. Intersection of outer and inner rays of light
when light passes through it. Dispersion in a on the optical axis of this lens is opposite that of
lens produces an optical defect known as chro¬ refracted rays from a convergent lens.
matic aberration, which is present in every un¬ The amount of spherical aberration in either
corrected single lens. The violet rays focus a convergent or divergent lens is influenced by:
nearer to the lens than the red rays, and the (1) thickness of the lens, and (2) its focal length.
other rays focus at intermediate points. The lens A thin lens with a long focal length has less
therefore had different focal lengths for different aberration than a thin lens with a short focal
colors of light and an image created by the lens length.
is fringed with color. One method of reducing spherical aberration,
Chromatic aberration may be corrected by at the expense of light intensity, is to test a lens
proper spacing between lenses, and also by ad¬ to find out how much of the area around the
justing the curvatures of the lenses. See figure optical axis (where the lens is most free of

92
 Chapter 5- LENSES AND PRISMS

aberration) may be used to form a sharp image, % VIOLET

and then to mask out with a field stop all rays •INDIGO
which pass through the lens beyond this circle. ^IlUE
Study illustration 5-38. i j , r green
Observe in figure 5-38 the rays blocked by
the field stop from passage through the lens. ! i ! p YELL
i rc
This field stop is a flat ring or diaphragm made
of metal (or other suitable opaque material) to i !
mask the outer portion of the lens. The stop
prevents rays from striking the lens and thus
reduces the amount of light which passes through
it.
Spherical aberration in a lens can be mini¬
mized also by BENDING THE LENS, which can
be accomplished by increasing the curvature of
one surface and decreasing the curvature of the
other surface. This process retains the same
focal length of the lens but reduces the amount of 137.99
Figure 5-33.— Chromatic aberration in a lens.
aberration.

137.100
Figure 5-34. -Lenses constructed from prisms varying in number, size, and shape
(principle of refraction shown).

93
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.102
Figure 5-36.— Spherical aberration in
a convergent lens.

A. Correction for least chromatic aberration

by curvature of the lens.
B. Correction for chromatic aberration by a
compound lens.
Figure 5-35.— Correction of chromatic
aberration in a lens.

In telescopes, spherical aberration is reduced 137.103

by placing the greater curvature of each lens Figure 5-37.— Spherical aberration in
toward the parallel rays to make the deviation of a divergent lens.
the rays at each surface nearly equal. In order to
reduce the amount of spherical aberration to a
minimum, the angle of emergence of a ray (e, (fig. 5-39). The concave curves of the divergent
fig, 5-38) must equal its angle of incidence (i). lens neutralize the spherical aberration of the
In keeping with this rule, telescope objectives convex curves of the convergent lens. Proper
are assembled with the crown side facing for¬ refractive power of the compound lens, however,
ward. is retained by selecting two single lenses with
Spherical aberration in fire control instru¬ correct indices of refraction to form the com¬
ments is generally eliminated by a compound lens pound lens.

94
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

137.105
Figure 5-39. Elimination of spherical
aberration by a compound lens.

In a lens which is producing coma, rays of

light originating at a point located off the optical
axis and refracted through the inner zone form
a well-defined image of the point. Rays refracted
through the next zone, however, form a larger,
IF ANGLE i = ANGLE •
SPHERICAL ABERRATION less-defined image of the point, which is offset
IS MINIMIZED slightly from the first. The image formed by each
137.104 successive zone is larger, less-defined, and far¬
Figure 5-38. —Reduction of spherical aberration ther removed from the initial point of light, as
illustrated by part A of figure 5-40. Displace¬
by a field lens.
ment of the successive images is in a direction
TOWARD OR AWAY FROM the center of the
COMA
lens.
The total image of the point offset from the
Coma is caused by unequal refracting power
optical axis may be a blur in any of a wide
of concentric ring surfaces or various zones of
variety of patterns— egg, pear, or comet. See
a lens for rays of light which come from a point
part B of illustration 5-40. The name COMA
a distance off the optical axis. Rays from various
COMES FROM the resemblance of the blur to a
surfaces come to a focus at slightly different
points, resulting in a lack of superimposition of comet.
When viewed under a microscope, a point of
the rays. Coma appears as blurring of the image
light influenced by coma may have a very fan¬
for points off the optical axis.
tastic shape, as a result of the effects of all
The image of a point of light is formed by a
cone of light rays refracted through a relatively types of aberration upon it . B ecause coma causes
portions of points of light to overlap others, the
wide portion of a lens. In order for them to form
result is BLURRED IMAGES OF OBJECTS IN
a sharply defined point of light, the rays which
pass through the concentric circular zones (or THE PORTION OF THE FIELD AFFECTED BY
rings of varying thickness of the lens) must come COMA.
to a focus at exactly the same place in the focal Coma can be corrected by compound lenses
made of the proper type of glass for each part and
plane.

95
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

with correct curves of the faces. A lens which 4. Thickness of lenses and distancebetween
has been corrected for chromatic and spherical them.
aberration, plus coma, is called an APLANATIC 5. Position of stops along the optical axis.
LENS.

ASTIGMATISM
NEWTON’S RINGS

If convergent and divergent lenses of slightly

Astigmatism is a lens aberration which
unequal curvature are pressed against each
makes it impossible to get images of lines equally
other, irregular COLORED BANDS or patches of
sharp when the lines run at angles to each other.
color appear between the surfaces. See figure
This optical defect is found in practically all
5-43. The pattern you see in this illustration is
lenses except some relatively complex lenses
called NEWTON1 S RINGS, after Sir Isaac Newton,
designed to eliminate this condition.
who first called attention to it. These rings con¬
A perfect lens would refract rays from a
stitute a defect in a compound lens; but the rings
point of light to a sharply defined point of light
can be used advantageously for testing the
on the image. Rays of light which form the image accuracy of grinding and polishing lenses.
are refracted as a cone (fig. 5-41). Cross sec¬
tions of these cones are circular; and successive LOSS OF LIGHT
circles become smaller and smaller until the
focal point (illustrated) is reached.
As you learned in chapter 3, when light rays
A lens with properly ground spherical or
strike the surface of a lens or prism, a certain
plane faces DOES NOT show astigmatism for
amount of the light is lost by reflection and
points near the optical axis, but it DOES show
absorption. The greater the amount of elements
astigmatism for points at a considerable distance
you have in an optical system, therefore, the
from the axis. The face of the lens is then at an
greater the amount of light you lose by reflection
oblique angle to incoming light rays. Cross sec¬
and absorption.
tions of cones of light refracted by the lens be¬
Loss of light by reflection can be reduced
come successively narrow ovals until they are a
considerably by coating the surfaces of optical
line in the vertical focal plane. They then are
elements used only for refracting light. The ex¬
broader ovals and eventually are circular, at
tra amount of light transmitted by instruments
which time they again become a line in the hori¬
with various elements coated produces brighter
zontal focal plane at right angles to the first
images.
line. Study illustration 5-42 carefully. Between
the two focal planes (horizontal and vertical) is
DISTORTION
an area known as the CIRCLE OF LEAST CON¬
FUSION, in which plane the MOST SATISFAC¬
TORY IMAGE is formed. Distortion is a form of spherical aberration
The best way TO REDUCE ASTIGMATISM in in which the relative location of the images of
a lens is through the use of a combination of different points of the object is incorrect. If a
several lenses, in the same manner explained for straight line is imaged by a lens with this defect,
eliminating spherical and chromatic aberra¬ the line is curved. Distortion of this type in
tions. When lenses made of optical glasses with instruments of high magnifying power is a
different indices of refraction are ground to dif¬ serious defect, because the amount of distortion
ferent curvatures, the various types of aberra¬ present is increased in proportion to the power
tion CANCEL EACH OTHER. of the instrument.
A lens designer has a difficult task in his When an object is held close to a lens, par¬
endeavors to eliminate aberration in a lens. Any¬ ticularly harmful distortion is caused by the
thing he does to correct one type of imperfection refraction of rays of light from different points
usually affects other types of aberration. He of the object by dissimilar portions of the lens.
must consider many variables, including: When an off-center line located close to the lens
1. Index of refraction of different kinds of extends across the field, rays from the middle
glass. of the line strike the lens nearer its center and
2. Difference in dispersion in various types refract at different angles than do rays refracted
of optical glass. from near the margin of the lens, thereby giving
3. Curvature of refracting surfaces. a curved appearance to the image.

96
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

137.106
A. Formation.
B. Appearance after formation.
Figure 5-40. —Coma.

137.107
Figure 5-41. -Refraction of light by a perfect lens.

97
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

OBJECT

137.108
Figure 5-42.— Astigmatic refraction of light.

The most common types of distortion in a lens which pass through the optical center of a lens at
system are discussed briefly in the next para¬ a considerable angle to the optical axis. Paraxial
graphs. pencils are pencils of light along the optical
axis, and eccentric pencils are those which pass
Pincushion Distortion through the lens near the rim.
Paraxial magnification (through a lens near
the optical axis) is actually less than the true
Some terms you need to understand before magnification of a lens. Spherical aberration,
you study pincushion (hourglass) distortion are therefore, appears as PINCUSHION DISTOR¬
discussed now. These terms are the definitions TION WHEN A VIRTUAL IMAGE IS VIEWED
of different types of rays and light pencils. THROUGH AN UNCORRECTED LENS. Take
Marginal rays are rim rays which pass a look at C and D in illustration 5-44. The
through a lens at points remote from its center. extensions of such a virtual image are curved
Paraxial rays are rays close to the center of a away from the lens, creating curvature of the
lens. Oblique centric pencils are cones of light image (part Y, fig. 5-44).

98
Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

137.109
Figure 5-43. —Newton's rings.

137.110

X. Barrel distortion.
Y. Pincushion distortion.
Figure 5-44. —Distortion.

99
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Barrel Distortion Unlike a lens, a prism is a block of glass

bound by plane surfaces, and it can be designed
Marginal light rays are refracted more than to refract and reflect light in numerous ways.
paraxial rays and therefore cross the optical The use of prisms in optical instruments, there¬
axis closer to the lens than paraxial rays. fore, permits variations in design which other¬
Oblique centric pencils also focus closer to the wise would be impossible. Plane mirrors, for
lens than paraxial pencils. As the real image is example, are sometimes used to change the
formed where the eccentric pencils and the angles of light rays, but the silvered surfaces
centric pencils come to a focus, such an image tarnish and cause loss of light— which becomes
formed by an uncorrected lens is curved with more serious as the instrument becomes older.
the extremities of the image close to the lens A prism, on the other hand, can be mounted in a
(part X, fig. 5-44). simpler and more permanent mount and used for
This curvature of image (fig. 5-45) is es¬ the same purpose.
pecially troublesome in wide-angle instruments. The surfaces of a prism are not easily dis¬
On a screen, this image gives barrel distortion turbed, and it can produce more numerous re¬
(A and B, fig. 5-44); and it is impossible to flection paths than a mirror. Prisms are used
focus clearly all of the image on the screen at singly or in pairs for changing the direction of
one time. In your study and work as an Optical- light from a few seconds of arc (measuring
man, however, you will learn that if the screen wedges) to as much as 360 degrees.
has the same curvature as that of the image, There are two general types of prisms, re¬
there is NO DISTORTION or OUT-OF-FOCUS fracting and reflecting, both of which are dis¬
effect. cussed in some detail in the following pages.
Distortion of the image can be partially cor¬
rected by using a compound lens made of con¬ RFFRACTING PRISMS
vergent and divergent lenses with DIFFERENT
TYPES OF DISTORTION. In some cases, it is Review illustration 3-34, which shows how
also possible to USE DIAPHRAGMS OR FIELD light is refracted by a prism. Note that the
STOPS to prevent the passage of undesirable incident ray of light is bent toward the NORMAL
marginal rays. of the front face and away from the normal of
An eyepiece or a lens system free of dis¬ the rear face (surface). Observe, also, the angle
tortion is called ORTHOSCOPIC, because it of refraction, which is a measure of the amount
gives a flat field of view and a correct image of of change in direction of a light ray caused by a
normal proportions. prism.
Prisms deviate light rays which strike them
PRISMS because the angle of incidence of the rays is less
than the critical angle of the glass.
A prism is a piece of glass whose surfaces Prisms with two plane surfaces at slight
ARE FLAT BUT AT LEAST TWO OF WHICH angles which divert the paths of light through
ARE NOT PARALLEL. PRISMS are generally angles by refraction instead of reflection are
made from borosilicate crown glass, because it called optical wedges. Optical wedges are used
has high resistance to abrasion and damage by in fire control instruments; they may be used
atmospheric elements. Some prisms are used where the angle of deviation required is a matter
for both refraction and reflection in military of fractions of seconds.
optical instruments. Much of your repair work The angle at which a wedge diverts a path of
in the optical shop concerns them and, there¬ light depends upon the relative slant of its two
fore, you should understand fully how prisms faces, which are inclined toward each other like
ACT IN CONTROLLING THE DIRECTION OF the surfaces of a house shingle.
LIGHT. Some wedges employed in fire control in¬
A prism changes the direction of light rays struments appear to be disks or plates of glass
by: with parallel surfaces, because the angle betwen
1. Refraction at two surfaces. the surfaces is so slight it cannot be detected
2. Reflection at one or two surfaces, through except by actual measurement.
total internal reflection as a result of the angle All wedges cause a certain amount of devia¬
of incidence of the light, or by reflection from tion in the path of light which passes through
a silvered surface. them. Some instruments which use wedges are

100
 Chapter 5- LENSES AND PRISMS

therefore designed to create a definite amount of number of different angles. If a right-angle prism
initial deviation of a ray of light when it enters is rigidly mounted and only rays of light parallel
the wedge. This deviation is called CONSTANT to the normal on a side opposite the hypotenuse
DEVIATION, WHICH MAKES IT POSSIBLE FOR are permitted to enter it, the rays are not re¬
THE WEDGE TO NEUTRALIZE the deviation fracted upon entering and leaving the prism— they
in the path of light, or divert the light at a neg¬ are merely reflected by the hypotenuse at a true
ative angle. 90° angle.
It is possible to change the path of light When a right-angled prism is mounted so that
passing through a wedge by rotating the wedge. the reflecting hypotenuse can betiltedatvarious
See illustration 5-46. The extent to which a angles, it can be very useful in optical instru¬
wedge diverts the path of light may also be ments. Most of the light the prism receives is at
varied by changing the position of the wedge in an angle (by incident rays) with the normal, and
relation to the other elements of the optical any ray which strikes the surface at an angle
system, as shown in part X of illustration 5-47. with the normal is refracted.
Another method for changing the path of When you mount a right-angled prism so that
light by prisms is through the use of pairs of the reflecting hypotenuse may be tilted at various
wedges geared to rotate in opposite directions. angles to the line of sight, the following state¬
Two or four elements are used and they are ments are applicable:
referred to as ROTATING WEDGES OR RO¬ 1. Part of the time, light which strikes the
TATING COMPENSATING WEDGES. Part Y of hypotenuse is incident at an angle greater than
figure 5-47 shows how light is refracted by the CRITICAL angle and total internal reflection
wedges in three different positions. occurs.
The dioptric strength of a prism is a MEAS¬ 2. At other times, incident rays of light
UREMENT OF THE DISTANCE THE RE¬ strike the hypotenuse at an angle LESS THAN the
FRACTED RAY OF LIGHT DEVIATES FROM critical angle and total internal reflection is
THE PATH OF THE INCIDENT RAY AT ONE possible only IF THE REFLECTING SURFACE
METER FROM THE PRISM. Study illustration of the hypotenuse is silvered. If you put a coat¬
5-48. A prism of one diopter bends light to such ing of silver on the reflecting surface of a right-
an extent that when a refracted ray travels one angled prism, you can change the line of sight
meter beyond the prism it deviates a distance from 0° to 180°.
of one cm from the path of the incident ray. If a Observe in illustration 5-49 that only one
prism has a power of two diopters, for example, reflection is taking place in the prism, which
the deviation of the refracte 1 light passing means that the image is REVERTED when re¬
through it is 2 cm at a distance of 1 meter from flection takes place in an horizontal plane and
INVERTED when the reflection takes place in a
the prism, and so on.
vertical plane. If there is more than one reflec¬
REFLECTING PRISMS tion acting upon the line of sight in a right-
angled prism, however, the attitude of the final
Most of the prisms used in optical systems image in relation to the original object depends
are reflecting prisms. Deviation of light by a upon the direction in which the second and sub¬
reflecting prism is brought about by internal, sequent reflections occur. This may seem a
regular reflection. Some of the most common little confusing, but keep it in mind as you study
types of reflecting prisms are discussed in the next a type of prism which makes use of two

following pages. reflections.

Porro Prism
Right-Angled Prism

A right-angled prism (fig. 5-49) is a prism A Porro prism is actually a right-angled

prism used in a different manner. When the
whose shape, from a side view, resembles an
isosecles right-angled triangle. Prisms with hypotenuse of a right-angled prism is used to
this basic shape are used in many ways in optical receive incident rays of light and exit the same
rays after the other two faces of the prism
instruments.
The name of a right-angle prism implies that reflects them TWICE, the prism is called a
Porro prism. Study illustration 5-50, and ob¬
it gives reflections of 90 only, but the prism can
serve that the line of sight is reflected a total
actually be used to give reflections at a great

101
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

A. Curvature of real image. 137.111

B. Curvature of virtual image.
Figure 5-45. —Curvature of the image.

PATH OF
LIGHT

Figure 5-46. —Direction of light changed by a rotating wedge. 137.112

102
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

Figure 5-47.— Path of light changed by pairs of prisms

rotating in opposite directions.

VERTEX

137.114
Figure 5-48. —Prism diopter .

103
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Now put your prism at the top of the printed

page, with the same half of the hypotenuse through
which you were viewing the image extended above
the top of the page, and look at the image. NOW
THE IMAGE IS INVERTED, because you get two
reflections in the vertical plane. You can de¬
termine why the image is inverted by making
another experiment.
Draw a sketch of the side view of a Porro
prism and trace the rays of light from a target
(upright arrow) through the prism. Every time
the arrow or its image is reflected, the image
inverts or reverts, according to the plane in
which you consider the prism used. Remember,
however, that you must always apply the image
attitude rule (chapter 4) when trying to decide
whether the final image is reverted or normal.
Two Porro prisms can be used as one prism
to bend light rays both horizontally and verti¬
cally, as you will learn later in this manual when
erecting systems for optical instruments are
discussed.

137.115
Figure 5-49. -Right-angled reflecting prism.

of 180°. Note also that the image of F appears

reverted; but when we apply the IMAGE ATTI¬
TUDE RULE to it, we find that it is NORMAL.
You can prove this is true by using the experi¬
ment explained next.

Prop this manual up on your table and look

at the typed words. The images of the words are
normal, because you can read them as they ap¬
pear in the image. Now take a Porro prism and
walk around the table, where you are on the cover
side of the book. Then place one-half of the ORJECT
hypotenuse of the prism over the typed page you REFLECTED LIGHT
(IMAGE)
observed on the other side of the table, and view
the typed page in the other half of the prism
137.116
(hypotenuse) which extends out past the edge of
the manual. You can read the words in the image, Figure 5-50. —Image formed by a
SO THE IMAGE IS NORMAL. reflecting prism.

104
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

The surfaces of Porro prisms act as plane PENTA PRISM

mirrors and transmit images in practically the
same manner as two mirrors placed at right A penta prism, illustrated in figure 5-53,
angles, as you learned in chapter 4. The sur¬ reflects light rays through an angle of 90° by
faces require a silver coating ONLY when the reflections from two silvered surfaces (part B,
angle at which light strikes them is less than fig. 5-50) at a 45° angle to each other. If reflec¬
the critical angle of the material from which the tion takes place in the horizontal plane, it does
prisms are made. not INVERT or REVERT the image.
A penta prism is useful in rangefinders in
Dove Prism which the angles of the light rays must remain
constant, and where the rays must be reflected
A rotating Dove prism (fig. 5-51) resembles
through an angle of 90° and the image must be
a right-angled or Porro prism with its90°angle
neither reverted nor inverted.
sliced off. Light rays which enter one end of
the prism are refracted to the longest face and
Amici or Roof-Angle Prism
reflected to the opposite face, from which they
are refracted out of the prism in the same direc¬ An Amici prism (fig. 5-54) is a one-piece
tion they were traveling before they entered the
prism which deviates light through an angle of
prism. 90° while (at the same time) it inverts and re¬
The image formed by a Dove prism is inverted
verts the image. It maybe considered as made up
or reverted by a single reflection, but not at the
of a right-angled reflecting prism with the
same time; the prism can invert or revert the
hypotenuse face or base replaced by two faces
image in accordance with the plane of the prism.
inclined toward each other at an angle of 90
Hold up a printed page as an object and observe
degrees. The last two faces form the ROOF and
it through a Dove prism in the vertical plane.
give the prism its name. When this prism is
THE IMAGE IS INVERTED. Then rotate the
inserted in the optical system of' a telescope, it
prism about your line of sight and observe how
bends the light rays within the instrument through
the image also rotates. Note, too, that when you
and angle of 90° and also erects the image. This
rotate the prism through 90° the image rotates
is a small prism but it transmits a great amount
through 180 degrees. Observe, also, that the
of light.
image is then REVERTED AND ERECT, as An Amici prism is used as an erecting prism
compared with the object.
in an elbow telescope. The light ray enters one
short face (fig. 5-54), where it strikes the re¬
RHOMBOID PRISM
flecting surface of one side of the roof and is
A Rhomboid prism consists of two right- reflected to the other side of the roof, from
angled reflecting prisms built as one piece. You which it is reflected outward at right angles to
may also consider it as a block of glass with the the direction in which it entered the prism.
upper and lower and opposite faces cut at an
angle of 45° and parallel to each other. Study PRISM ABERRATION
illustration 5-52.
A rhomboid prism has two parallel reflecting Most prisms used in fire control instruments
surfaces which provide two reflections in the reflect light; other prisms are used to refract
same plane and transmit the image unchanged. light. When a prism reflects light, there is no
It does NOT INVERT OR REVERT THE IMAGE chromatic aberration, because the light rays
OR CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT RAYS, are not dispersed. When a prism refracts light,
but it OFFSETS the light rays from their original there is chromatic aberration.
direction. This action results from double re¬ Chromatic aberration in a prism canbe cor¬
flection without reversal of the direction of light. rected by cementing two prisms together, each of
Regardless of the manner in which you hold which is made of a different kind of glass. See
or rotate a Rhomboid prism about the line of illustration 5-55. The prism in this illustration
sight, the image it produces is ALWAYS ERECT with the larger refracting angle is made of crown
AND NORMAL. The only purpose this prism glass and refracts light rays. The prism which
serves is to OFFSET the line of sight, in order has the smaller refracting angle is made of
to make the new line of sight parallel to the old DENSE, flint glass and disperses the colors of
line of sight. light primarily as a result of its greater density.

105
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

OBJECT IMAGE

C2I S3
(SIDE VIEW)

137. 117

Figure 5-51. —Rotating Dove prism.

137.118

Figure 5-52. —Rhomboid prism.

106
Chapter 5- LENSES AND PRISMS

137.119
Figure 5-53. —Penta prism.

137.120
Figure 5-54. —Amici prism.

107
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.121
Figure 5-55.— Correction of chromatic aberration in a prism.

Because of its ability to disperse light, a Some of the different types of colored filters
flint prism neutralizes the dispersion caused by employed in optical instruments in order to im¬
the crown prism without entirely neutralizing prove visibility under varying conditions of light
the deviation of the path of light. and atmosphere are amber, blue, green, red,
smoke, and yellow.
Amber and red filters are generally used
MISCELLANEOUS OPTICAL ELEMENTS
under varying conditions of fog andgroundhaze.
Red filters are also employed for observing
Lenses, mirrors, and prisms which you tracer fire. Amber and yellow filters protect
studied in chapter 4 and in this chapter form the eyes from reflections of sunlight on water
images and hold them in the line of sight in and glare from various sources. Blue filters
optical instruments. In addition to these optical are helpful in determining when objects and/or
elements, however, other types of elements are areas are camouflaged.
used in some instruments for specific functions, Greenish-yellow filters have both green and
without effect on the line of sight or the image yellow colors in their composition, and they can
created. These optical elements are known as: serve the same purpose as amber and smoke.
(1) color filters, (2) reticles, and (3) windows, A smoke (neutral) filter is a dark filter used to
each of which is discussed in sufficient detail to protect the eyes from a bright sun or a search¬
enable you to understand its function. light. This type of filter is usually too dark for
other purposes.
COLORED FILTERS

Filters (sometimes called ray filters) are RETICLES

colored glass disks (with plane parallel surfaces)
placed in the line of sight in optical instruments
to reduce glare and light intensities. They are Most reticles used in optical instruments are
separate elements and may be attached or de¬ glass disks with plane parallel surfaces, on one
tached (part A, fig. 5-56), orthey maybe mounted of which appropriate markings are engraved or
in a manner which makes insertion or removal etched. In some instances, a planoconvex lens
from an instrument easy, as shown in part C of is necessary at the point where a reticle is gen¬
figure 5-56. erally mounted and the markings are therefore

108
 Chapter 5-LENSES AND PRISMS

137.122
Figure 5-56.— Color filter mountings.

engraved on it. The function of a reticle is to reticle does not become dirty. Reticles onglass
SUPERIMPOSE reference marks on the view of are generally used in military sights.
a target.
WINDOWS
Military reticles are made of wire or a fila¬
ment material, a post (picket), an etching on a A window is a piece of glass with plane par¬
plate glass or lens surface, or a punched metal allel surfaces used to admit light into an optical
plate. Some are illustrated and explained further system and at the same time to prevent the
in the following chapter on optical instruments. entrance of dirt and moisture. The window glass
is actually an optical wedge with very small
Crosswires are commonly used in rifle angles; and it is so mounted that it may be ro¬
scopes to provide increased transmission of tated to compensate for the accummulation of
light, by eliminating one piece of glass. A wire errors in the entire system.

109
 CHAPTER 6

BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

This chapter pertains to optical elements and extreme in visual acuity is represented by the
the principle of operation of some basic optical short-range, compound eyes of insects and
instruments. The knowledge you gain by studying crabs.
these instruments will enable you to understand
better the discussion of complicated optical in¬ STRUCTURE OF THE EYE
struments in subsequent chapters of this training
manual. Refer now to illustration 6-1, which shows
Before you can qualify for advancement in how an eye is constructed and lists its nomen¬
rating to Opticalman 3, you must understand the clature. The vitreous humor maintains the
optical theory of optical instruments; and in bulbous shape of the eye. Refer to this illus¬
order to qualify for advancement to Opticalman tration frequently as you study the discussion
2, you must also know the formulas used to de¬ of the nomenclature.
termine the amount of magnification of images by
optical instruments. This chapter supplements Coats or Tunics
the information given in chapter 5 on image mag¬
nification. The three coats or tunics of the eye are:
Although we seldom think of them as such, sclera, choroid, and retina, as illustrated. The
all of us have optical instruments in our bodies. sclera is the tough, flexible, white portion of the
OUR EYES ARE OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS WITH eye. The cornea is the transparent protruding
BUILT-IN ADJUSTMENTS WHICH ENABLE US portion of the sclera in the front (center) of the
TO SEE OBJECTS CLOSE AT HAND AND AT eye.
VARIABLE DISTANCES. An understanding of The middle coat (choroid) is a deep-purple
the functioning of the human eye will therefore layer composed of veins and blood vessels which
help you to comprehend more readily and clearly provide nourishment. The color is the choroid
the operation of optical instruments used in the prevents external light from getting into the eye,
Navy. except through the cornea. The retina (inner¬
most coat) is a highly- sensitive layer of nerve
fibers which transmit visual impressions to the
THE EYE AS AN OPTICAL INSTRUMENT brain.

All earthly creatures endowed with sight Refracting Mechanisms

have either simple or complex eyes, adapted to
short and/or long- ranged vision. Animals and The chief refracting mechanisms of the eye
birds which inhabit plains and mountains (in the are the cornea and the crystalline lens. The
far-open spaces), for example, have such keen cornea provides the constant part of refraction;
visual acuity (sharpness of sight) that they can the crystalline lens provides variable refraction,
pick out SMALL OBJECTS AT GREAT DIS¬ which enables the eye to focus on NEAR OR DIS¬
TANCES. Their ability to do this appears to be TANT OBJECTS. The refracting mechanisms of
associated with small nerve endings in the ret¬ the eye, therefore, give it the POWER OF AC¬
inas of their eyes, faster retinal response to COMMODATION, IN ORDER TO SEE OBJECTS
motion, and better interpretation by theirbrains. FAR AWAY OR CLOSE AT HAND.
In other words, vision of these creatures is ad¬ The iris (figs. 6-1 & 6-2) is the colored dia¬
justed to environmental conditions. The other phragm in front of the crystalline lens, and ITS

110
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

CRYSTALLINE LENS
CORNEA

MACULA
(YELLOW SPOT)

VITREOUS
HUMOR

BLIND SPOT
(OPTIC DISK)

OPTIC NERVE
SUSPENSORY
LIGAMENT

CILIARY
MUSCLE SCLERA

AQUEOUS HUMOR CHOROID

RETINA

137.123
Figure 6-1.— Construction and nomenclature of the eye.

FUNCTION IS TO CONTRACT AND DILATE AS The transparent crystalline lens is suspended

NECESSARY TO REGULATE THE AMOUNT OF by the ligaments and muscles of the ciliary body
LIGHT WHICH ENTERS THE EYE. In ac¬ (part A, fig. 6-3). Observe that the ciliary body
cordance with the amount of illumination, the encircles the crystalline lens. The front of the
pupil opening in the center of the iris varies in lens rests against the aqueous humor and itsback
size from 2 to 7 millimeters— 2 mm for intense rests against the vitreous humor. Ligaments and
illumination, 7 mm for faint (night) illumination. muscles of the ciliary body COMPRESS AGAINST

111
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137. 124
Figure 6-2. —Comparison of iris with the diaphragm of a camera.

SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS
OF CILIARY BODY
SUSPENSORY SUSPENSORY
LIGAMENTS LIGAMENTS
VITREOUS
:%HUMOR

CORNEA

HUMOR

Wr/*
'J/.
I
m. .
-4;" AQUEOUS
CRYSTAL-
LINE LENS
J§; CORNEA- HUMOR

CILIARY
AQUEOUS
HUMOR CRYSTAL¬ MUSCLE
LINE LENS
v <S t- .* • >A . '.wJSfc. .. :
CILIARY MUSCLE

137. 125
Figure 6-3. —Suspension and action of crystalline lens.

112
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

OR RELEASE THE OUTER EDGES OF THE ABERRATIONS OF THE EYE

LENS IN ORDER TO CHANGE ITS REFRAC¬
TIVE POWER. The optical system of a human eye is af¬
The crystalline lens is double convex, and flicted with some of the same aberrations of
the front is flatter than the rear (part B, fig. optical systems which use glass lenses. The
6-3). When the eye is relaxed, the crystalline refracting surfaces of an eye, however, par¬
lens focuses upon distant objects. Increase tially correct spherical aberration, because the
in refractive power of the crystalline lens is surfaces (particularly the front surface of the
obtained through compressive action of the lens) are not exactly spherical.
muscles of the ciliary body (part C, fig. 6-3), A human eye has strong curvature of the
to enable a normal adult eye to view near objects field, but this is good because the retina is also
(about 10 inches from the eye, the NEAR POINT curved. Chromatic aberration in the eyes, how¬
OF THE EYE). Because the power of accom¬ ever, is fairly bad; because when you look at an
modation of the eyes decreases with age, bi¬ object, you automatically focus its green and
focal glasses must be worn to enable the eyes yellow rays on the retina of your eyes. A blue
to focus on near objects. Small sections of the image does not reach the retina; a red image is
glasses are ground to HIGHER REFRACTIVE formed beyond the retina. If available, take a
POWER. piece of cobalt glass into a dark room and look
at a small, bright light through it. The glass
transmits red and blue light but absorbs colors
Response Mechanism in the middle of the spectrum. When you there¬
fore look at a small light through a piece of
The response mechanism of an eye is the cobalt glass, you see only out-of-focus red and
area on which images are formed. See figure blue images in the form of halos.
6-1. The retina contains a light-sensitive layer
of nerve cells (rods and cones) connected to VISION
the optic nerve. In a human retina, the light-
sensitive layer is at the back of the retina, be¬ We can see because the lenses in our eyes
hind a transparent layer of nerve fibers and project images on the eye retinas, from which
blood cells. The macula (spot on the retina) the rods and cones in the retinas transmit the
is more sensitive to light than other areas, be¬ images to the optic nerve, which conveys them
cause it contains mostly cones. The fovea to the brain for completion of the process. The
centralis (center spot of the macula) is the details of what happens when vision takes place
most sensitive spot to light because the nerve- are not fully known; but we do know that the
fiber and blood-vessel covering of the macula is brain converts nerve impulses into pictures.
thinnest at that point, and that area contains We also know that the visual purple (substance
cones only. A blind spot occurs at the optic disk which stimulates rods for keener vision) in the
because the retina contains neither cones nor retina is responsible for the brightness or dark¬
rods at the point where it joins the optic nerve. ness of pictures formed in the brain by im¬
pulses sent to it.
COMPARISON OF THE EYE
AND A CAMERA NIGHT VISION

Our ability to see in the dark is not fully

Illustration 6-4 shows a human eye super¬ known. One belief, however, is that the cones on
imposed on a camera. Compare each part of the retina are used for day vision and the rods
the eye with the corresponding part in the are used for night vision. Some evidence which
camera— lens with lens, diaphragm with iris, supports this theory is that animals which hunt
retina with film, and sclera with light-proof at night and sleep in the day (bats, for example)
housing of the camera. As you can see, all have retinas composed almost entirely of rods.
parts of a camera must function properly to Such animals as pigeons, on the other hand, go
enable it to form a photograph on sensitized to sleep at dark, and their retinas are composed
film; all parts of the human eye, likewise, almost entirely of cones. We have both rods and
must function properly in order for it to form cones in the retinas of our eyes, and we can see
an image on the retina. in both dark and light.

113
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

As you know, after you spend some time in the which differentiates between long and short
dark, your eyes become adjusted to the darkness; wavelengths and transforms them into color.
and the longer you remain in complete darkness
the more acute your night vision becomes. The COLOR BLINDNESS
reason for this is that the visual purple in the
Color blindness is a defect in the eyes of
rods of your eyes’ retinas BUILDS UP TO
some people which causes them to confuse two
MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION.
or more colors other people can readily dis¬
Before lookouts take their positions on the
tinguish. Less than one percent of women are
deck of a ship, they generally spend from 20 to
colorblind; about seven percent of men are
60 minutes in the dark in order to give their
colorblind.
eyes a chance to adjust to darkness. Red-
Certain diseases, or large doses ’of some
colored glasses, however, serve the same
drugs, may produce temporary color blindness;
purpose, because the rods in the retinas are
but this defect in the eyes is usually hereditary.
not sensitive to red light.
Colorblind persons generally cannot distinguish
between green, red, and yellow colors, or be¬
COLOR VISION
tween blue, blue-green, and violet colors.
The manner in which our eyes react to light RESOLVING POWER OF THE EYES
waves of different lengths so that we can see
different colors is not fully known. Thomas Ability of an eye to distinguish between ex¬
Young, an English physician and scientist, and tremely fine lines and small angles is called
Hermann Helmholtz, a German physicist, pro¬ resolving power, which depends upon spacing
mulgated a theory of color vision which is most of the cones in the fovea centralis of the retina.
generally accepted. This theory holds that the There are no rods in the fovea centralis, but
retina of the eye has three types of nerve re¬ the cones at this spot ARE VERY LARGE. To
ceptors of unequal sensitivity for colors of the illustrate, suppose you are looking at two small
visible spectrum. There is one type of receptor points of light (fig. 6-5) close together and you
for each primary color (red, blue, green), and desire to know how far apart they must be be¬
the greatest amount of sensitivity for each re¬ fore your eyes can resolve them— when you can
ceptor is in a different part of the spectrum. see them as two separate points.
According to the Young-Helmholts theory, If the image of one point falls on one cone of
when all three types of receptors are equally a fovea centralis and the image of the other
stimulated, we see white only. Lack of stimula¬ point falls on the cone next to it, your eye
tion gives us the sensation of darkness. If red cannot resolve the two points. The reason for
waves enter our eyes, the waves stimulate the this is that the retina of the eye has no way of
receptors which produce a sensation of red and distinguishing between the two points and they
we therefore see red. When receptors sensitive therefore look like one point. If the two images,
only to green are stimulated, we see green be¬ however, fall on slightly separated cones, with an
cause the sensation of green was produced on unstimulated cone between them, you can see
the brain. The reason we see yellow, however, them as two separate points.
is that the receptors for red and green are If you look at two points 10 inches away,
stimulated and cause us to see yellow, not red your eyes cannot resolve them until they are
or green singly or in combination. Receptors approximately .004 inch apart. A normal
sensitive to red and blue, when stimulated, eye can resolve two points if they are separated
cause us to see purple. by an angle of from 1 to 2 minutes; so we can
Recent experiments on color vision by E. H. best express resolving power as an angle.
Land of the Polaroid Corporation indicate that When two adjacent objects become so small
rays of light do not make a color; instead, they in apparent size (part A, fig. 6-5) that further
carry information which enables the eye to reduction in size results in the eye’s failure
designate colors for various parts of an image. to separate them, the angle of resolution of the
The color of the image comes from the relative eye has been reached.
balance of longer and shorter wavelengths, not
VISUAL ACUITY
from the choice of light wavelengths. The real
answer to color vision, then, is that the human Acute vision is limited to the fovea centralis
eye may be some type of electronic computer area (about .3 mm in diameter) on the macula

114
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

. RETINA
MmBSsmSBSm
CRYSTALLINE LENS*
e>-4v.
.FILM

DIAPHRAGM 1SCLERAAND"
{CHOROID

»J LIGHTPROOF
{HOUSING

Figure 6-4. —Comparison of the eye with a comera. 137.126

(FOR EACH OBJECT)

A — APPARENT SIZE

POINTS

B— LEAST ANGULAR SEPARATION

137.127
Figure 6-5. —Visual limitations.

115
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

of the eye, which is located on the retina at When the eyes are statibnary (immobile),
the visual axis. The cone nerve endings (no their field of distant vision is extremely limited;
rods) at this position have a diameter of .002 because distinct vision is then limited to a very
millimeters. This area of acute vision covers small central portion of the retina. Portions of
a true field of view (explained later) generally the field focused on the remainder of the retina
less than 1° of arc, or a circle about 3.5 mm in are indistinct; but they help to locate objects of
diameter at 25 cm distance from the eye. interest, when the eyes turn in their sockets
The least angular separation between any two until the image falls upon the fovea and macula
discernible points in this field of acute vision to give distinct vision.
is normally one minute of arc (part B, fig. 6-5). As shown in figure 6-6, the field of vision of
Coincident readings (on a vernier micrometer), both eyes includes parts viewed by the right and
however, can be read closer, because angular left eyes, and both eyes together. THE BINOC¬
displacement of two lines can be distinguished ULAR FIELD EXISTS ONLY IN THAT PORTION
by adjacent cone endings. Some persons can OF THE FIELD OF VIEW WHERE THE FIELDS
accurately read angular measurement (between OF THE SEPARATE EYES OVERLAP.
two displaced lines) as small as 10 seconds of
STEREOSCOPIC VISION
arc.
Visual acuity is commonly measured by
viewing a standard letter of one-minute details. Stereoscopic vision is the power of depth
If you can view the letter E (composed of perception-THE ABILITY TO SEE IN DEPTH
lines with a width of one minute of angle) at a OR THREE DIMENSIONS. This power results
distance of 20 feet (standard distance), you from spacing between the pupils of the eyes,
possess 20/20 vision, which is normal. If you which enables them to see objects from slightly
can see at a distance of 20 feet a letter which different angles. The distance between the eyes
you should be able to see with perfect vision (INTERPUPILLARY DISTANCE, IPD) is
at 40 feet, your vision is 20/40. Some eyes, normally about 64 millimeters.
on the other hand, have better than average re¬ Your ability to record with each eye a slightly
solving power and can perceive letters which different picture of the image of the same object
have less than one-minute details. An example enables you to see more of one side of a given
of this is 20/15 vision, which means that a object with one eye than with the other; but both
person with this type of vision can discern at of your eyes can see farther around the object,
20 feet what a normal eye can discern at 15 thereby enabling you to get a better impression
feet. (Baseball players with this type of vision of the object with respect to position, depth,
are usually better hitters.) and relation to other objects. This ability is
increased by some fire control instruments,
BINOCULAR VISION because their optical elements increase the
Both of your eyes are generally identical virtual distance between the pupils of the eyes.
and operate as a team; the muscles used for In a military sense, stereoscopic vision implies
adaptation and accommodation dilate, contract, ability to recognize difference in the range to
and focus together. Both eyes usually meet with objects by visual means only. This ability can
the same light conditions and converge on the be developed through training and practice.
same object or field of view; and the images You can demonstrate stereoscopic vision by
received by them are fused by the brain into a looking at a near object, a small cube, for
single image. THIS IS COORDINATED, TWO- example. Study illustration 6-7. You can see
EYES BINOCULAR VISION. the left side and front of the cube with your left
THE FIELD OF VIEW OF THE EYES IS THE eye and the front and right side with the right
AREA THE EYES CAN OBSERVE WHEN THEY eye. When you look at the cube with both eyes,
ARE ROTATED IN THEIR SOCKETS. Study however, as shown in part C of figure 6-7, you
illustrations 6-6, which shows the field of view see both sides and the front of the cube, and
of both eyes and also the binocular field. What thus picture it in three dimensions. The brain
the eyes can see without movement IS CALLED also fuses the two separate pictures of the eyes
THE FIELD OF FIXATION. The field of view of into a single image to give the impression of
the eyes is 160° horizontally and 70° vertically, depth.
as compared with an average telescope with a In like manner, when you observe two objects
field of view of about 10 degrees. simultaneously, stereoscopic vision enables you

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 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

to judge the relative distance of one object from discernible, as the objects are moved farther
the other, in the direction AWAY FROM YOU. away from you, or as the distance between them
Your ability to distinguish the relative po¬ is decreased. THIS DIFFERENCE IS KNOWN
sitions of two objects stereoscopically depends AS THE DISCERNIBLE DIFFERENCE OFCON-
upon the interpupillary distance of your eyes, VERGENCE ANGLES (part B, fig. 6-9), AND IT
the distance of the objects from you, and their IS MEASURED IN FRACTIONS OF MINUTES
distance from each other. See illustration 6-8. AND SECONDS OF ARC. This is the procedure
Other factors of depth perception being equal, followed in determining a person’s keenness of
the wider your interpupillary distance, the better stereovision, MEASURED ON A PERCENTAGE
the appreciation of depth perception you secure BASIS CALLED PERCENT STEREOPSIS.
through stereovision. In order for you to dis¬ STEREOSCOPIC VISION FOR THE UNAIDED
tinguish the positions of two objects stereoscop¬ EYE IS EFFECTIVE UP TO 500 YARDS ONLY.
ically, the distance of the second object from the This distance, however, can be increased through
first object must be approximately equal to the the use of binoculars or rangefinders, which
distance of the first object from you. increase the interpupillary distance between the
When you look at two objects and attempt to eyes and therefore increase stereoscopic vision.
determine which is farther away, the lines of
sight from both eyes converge TO FORM
ANGLES OF CONVERGENCE ON BOTH OB¬
JECTS. Study part Y of illustration 6-8. If
the angles of convergence to both objects are
identical, the objects appear to be the same dis¬
tance away; but if there is a difference in the
angles of convergence to the two objects, one
object appears more distant than the other.
Even though the distance between angles of
convergence is slight, the brain has the ability
to distinguish the difference. Your ability to
see stereoscopically, therefore, depends upon
your capacity to discern the difference between
these angles. Study part A of illustration 6-9,
which shows graphically the difference between
the angles of convergence shown in figure 6-8.
Angles of convergence become smaller, and 137. 128
the difference between them becomes less Figure 6-6.— Field of view of the eyes.

137. 129
Figure 6-7. —Stereoscopic vision.

117
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

eye; and (2) binocular, for use by both eyes.

Because optical instruments affect functioning
of the eyes, certain adjustments must be made
to the instruments in order to accommodate
them to each eye. A monocular optical in¬
strument, for example, must be so focused
(proper positioning of eyepiece, discussed later)
that the amount of light which enters the instru¬
ment from an object is sufficient to form a dis¬
tinct image on the retina without undue effort
by the muscles of the observer’s eyes. The
exit pupil (rear opening of eyepiece, illustrated
later) must be large enough to admit a maxi¬
mum amount of light to the pupil of the eye; and
stray light must be kept out of the eye.

Interpupillary Adjustment

Adjustment of a binocular optical instru¬

ment requires that the two optical systems of
the unit be properly aligned with each other
and conform to the interpupillary distance of
the eyes of the observer. Precise focusing
of the instrument changes the position of the
eyepiece so that it is in correct relation to
137.130
the focal plane of the objective and the angles
at which the light rays are brought to a focus.
Figure 6-8. —Distinguishing the distance
The eyepiece of a focusing-type telescope, for
between objects.
example, is generally designed to accommodate
the refracting qualities of the eyes of an ob¬
STEREOACUITY, IN CONTRAST WITH VIS¬
UAL ACUITY, IS SHARPNESS OF SIGHT IN server.
Because telescopes with a magnifying power
THREE DIMENSIONS, OR THE ABILITY TO
of 4x or less have a sufficiently wide range of
GAGE DISTANCE BY PERCEPTION OF THE
accommodation, a single-focus setting is satis¬
SMALLEST DISCERNIBLE DIFFERENCES OF
factory. (Eye correction is not extremely
CONVERGENCE ANGLES. The minimum dif¬
large.) These telescopes have fixed-focus
ference which you can discern between two
eyepiece which cannot be adjusted during op¬
angles of convergence is dependent upon your
eration; hence the name FIXED-FOCUS TELE¬
quality of vision, your training, and conditions
SCOPES, usually with a minus 3/4 to minus 1
which affect visibility.
A well-trained observer can discern an dioptric setting.
average difference of about 12 seconds of arc;
at times, under excellent conditions of observa¬ Eyeshields and Eye Tension
tion, this difference may be reduced to 4 sec¬
onds of arc for a series of observations. An
Eyeshields on optical instruments should
average, untrained observer should be able to
EXCLUDE STRAY LIGHT FROM THE EYES
distinguish a minimum difference of 30 seconds
(particularly at night or during poor conditions
of arc between two angles of convergence under
of illumination), SO THAT THE PUPIL MAY
normal visibility conditions.
DILATE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE. Rubber
shields at the eyepiece are considered best.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
When a monocular instrument is used, the un¬
AND THE EYES
used eye should also be shielded from light.
Optical fire control instruments may be Light for illumination of the reticle must be
classified as: (1) monocular, for use by one held to a bare minimum.

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 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

A GRAPHIC VIEW OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVERGENCE

ANGLES SHOWN IN X AND Y, FIGURE 6-8

RIGHT
EYE

137.131
Figure 6-9.— Angular discernible difference.

Eye tension or fatigue causes the eyes to must be SLIGHTLY DIVERGENT before enter¬
blink, which is muscular rather than retinal ac¬ ing the eye of a person who is slightly near¬
tion and is least apparent when the eye is re¬ sighted. The eyepiece of a telescope for the
laxed, as when accommodated for distant ob¬ person must therefore be moved in (toward the
jects. In most telescopes, the eyepiece mount objective lens) to bring the final REAL image
is adjustable; and by adjusting the position of of the telescope within the focal length of the
the eyepiece you can adapt the instrument to eyepiece, and moved out (away from the ob¬
compensate for the inherent refractive errors jective) for a farsighted person.
of the eye. If a person has perfect vision,
REMEMBER: You CAN SOMETIMES bring
the light rays which leave the eyepiece of a
telescope must be parallel and enter the eye the viewed target within focus on your retinas
by accommodation of your eyes, as well as by
parallel; but the rays which leave the eyepiece

119
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

ADJUSTING THE EYEPIECE of the instru¬ accommodation. If the object is at the focal
ment, which is a serious error repeatedly point of the lens (fig. 6-10), the eye can see it
made by a beginner. He allows his eyes to without accommodation because the emergent
accommodate on the target first. This is true rays are parallel, as indicated. When the
even though he IS FOCUSING the eyepiece of object is within the focal length of the lens,
the instrument, and it causes eyestrain if the however, accommodation by the eye is necessary
instrument is used for long periods. COM¬ because the emergent rays are not parallel but
PLETELY RELAX YOUR EYES BEFORE YOU divergent, as shown in illustration 6-11. The
ATTEMPT TO FOCUS THE EYEPIECE. THIS image formed by this microscope is virtual,
TAKES CONSIDERABLE PRACTICE AT FIRST. erect, and enlarged.
The correct procedure for focusing an eye¬
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
piece with a diopter scale is as follows:
1. Move the eyepiece to the extreme PLUS You perhaps used a compound microscope to
diopter position (all the way out). look at minute plants and animals when you
2. Select an INFINITY target with a back¬ were in high school. Such an optical instrument
ground of good contrast. so magnifies small objects that it increases the
3. Move the eyepiece slowly in until the usefulness of the eyes at short distances. The
image of the target is sharply defined. If you eyes by nature are long-range optical instru¬
go past the point where the image is sharply ments of high acuity.
defined to a position where the image is blurred, Refer now to illustration 6-12, which shows
do NOT attempt to focus the eyepiece from this one of the simplest types of compound micro¬
new position; if you do, you will focus from the scopes. Study all details and the nomenclature.
MINUS to the PLUS position and serious errors Note the position of the eye, the eyepiece, the
in the diopter reading will result. To make objective, and the object. Then observe the po¬
proper correction for this error, back the eye¬ sitions of the real and virtual images. NOTE:
piece out again to the extreme plus diopter po¬ Objectives and eyepieces will be discussed after
sition and start over. microscopes.
4. When you are focusing, do not squint the Rays of light from the object strike the
eye; if you do, errors will result. objective (closest lens to the object) and then
Focusing from the PLUS to the MINUS po¬ details of an object are obtained after the object
sition of the diopter scale prevents the eye has been magnified 400 times. Magnifying power
from accommodating on the target. If the eye of a compound microscope is equal to the mag-
is focused from the minus to the plus position, D- s-
it readily accommodates to the diverging light nification of the objective lens (*=p = -^-) multi-
rays and causes errors in the diopter reading, plied by the magnifying power of the eyepiece
and also eye strain.
(MP
' Finches)
>•
MICROSCOPES Light waves from an object never focus
perfectly at a corresponding point on an image
The two types of microscopes discussed in created by them— they form instead a diffused
this section are SIMPLE and COMPOUND. Each image with a central white spot surrounded by
is considered in sufficient detail to enable you a series of concentric rings of light which fall
to understand its importance. off rapidly in intensity. THIS IS CALLED A
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE DIFFRACTION PATTERN. See illustration
6-13. Diffraction sets the final limit to the
A simple magnifier (microscope) consists of sharpness of the image formed by a lens, re¬
a converging lens located at the first focal plane sulting from the natural spreading tendency of
of the eye, though such positioning is not too light waves; and it occurs in images formed by
important. If an object is viewed by the micro¬ all lenses, regardless of the perfection with
scope when it is at or within the focal length which they are constructed. The diffraction
of the lens, the eye sees a virtual, erect, and pattern (blurred image) created is directly
enlarged image. You will recall from previous proportional to the wavelength of the light, and
study of image formation in chapter 5 that the inversely proportional to the diameter of the
eyes can focus or form an image of parallel beam of light which enters the optical instru¬
rays of light from an object at infinity without ment.

120
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

The numerical measure of the ability of an CLOSE TOGETHER. The resolving power of a
optical system to distinguish fine detail is called microscope can measure the shortest distance
resolving power. IN OTHER WORDS, RESOLV¬ between two points on an object for which two
ING POWER IS THE MEASUREMENT OF THE separate images are distinguishable.
ABILITY OF A LENS OR OPTIC AL SYSTEM TO
FORM SEPARATE IMAGES OF TWO POINTS

137. 133
Figure 6-11. —Object within focal
point of a simple magnifier. length of a simple magnifier.

121
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Because of their importance in optical in¬ allows freedom for proper shaping of the inner
struments, it is best to discuss at this time surfaces of the elements and also leeway for
objectives and eyepieces. If you know the eliminating aberrations. An objective of this
function of these optical elements in image type is generally called a DIALYTE or Gauss
formation, you will understand better the basic objective.
optical instruments discussed in the pages which
follow.

OBJECTIVES

An objective in a refractive type of optical

system is the LENS NEAREST THE OBJECT,
and its FUNCTION IS TO GATHER LIGHT
FROM THE OBJECT AND FORM A REAL
IMAGE OF IT. In order to reduce color and
other aberrations to a minimum, objectives are
compound lenses WHICH FORM REAL IMAGES
IN ALL OPTICAL SYSTEMS.

CONSTRUCTION

Most objectives have two elements: (1) a

double convex converging lens of crown glass,
and (2) a planoconcave lens, as shown in part A
of illustration 6-14.
When the elements of an objective have large
diameters, or when the faces of the elements have
different curvatures, the elements are not
cemented together; they are held in their correct
137. 135
relative positions by retaining and locking rings.
Part B of figure 6-14 shows an objective with Figure 6-13. —Diffraction pattern
unsealed elements. This plan of construction (greatly magnified).

137. 136
Figure 6-14.— Types of objectives.

122
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Part C of illustration 6-14 shows a third the image and CAN THUS AFFECT ITS QUAL¬
type of objective, a TRIPLET, which has two ITY, AS SEEN BY THE EYE. The lens in the
positive lenses cemented to a negative lens, eyepiece nearest the objective is called the
though one of the positive lenses can be mounted FIELD LENS, which GATHERS LIGHT from the
separately from the negative lens cemented to objective and CONVERGES IT INTO THE EYE-
the other positive lens. An obj ective of this type LENS. NOTE: The field lens and the eyelens
provides six surfaces and therefore gives an are used in combination to provide the principle
instrument designer more freedom for correct¬ of a thick lens.
ing aberrations. Without a field lens, much of the light
gathered by the objective would not be brought
RELATION TO OPTICAL SYSTEM into the field of the eyelens. Note the marginal
rays in parts A and B of illustration 6-15.
The size of an objective affects the amount of
magnification by an instrument, because the RELATION TO OPTICAL SYSTEM
amount of light which can pass through a given
objective is limited. The focal length of the
objective, of course, also affects magnification; The objective receives parallel rays of light
and the diameter of the objective affects the from a distant object, brings them to a focus,
RESOLVING POWER of a telescope. The size and turns them into diverging angular rays.
of the objective also affects brightness of the The eyepiece receives these diverging angular
image. rays and directs them to the eye, as a parallel
If greater magnification of the image is beam when the eyepiece is at zero diopters.
desired, more light must be admitted and dis¬ At this point, you need to learn the meaning
tributed over a larger image area, RESULT¬ of another term: EXIT PUPIL. The eyepiece
ING IN A DIMMER IMAGE. The effective size forms an image of the objective lens at the
to which an image may be magnified is there¬ POINT WHERE THE EYE IS PLACED. This
fore GOVERNED TO A GREAT EXTENT BY THE image IS THE EXIT PUPIL, WHICH IS DIS¬
SIZE OF THE OBJECTIVE, AS WELL AS THE CUSSED FULLY, and illustrated later in this
LIMITS SET BY DISTORTION RESULTING chapter under MAGNIFICATION IN TELE¬
FROM DIFFRACTION. SCOPES.
An increase in the size of an objective be¬ The axial rays which pass through the eye¬
yond a certain point does not appreciably im¬ piece are so close to the optical axis, and so
prove the brightness of an image, because the nearly parallel, that spherical and chromatic
size of the pupil of the eye imposes a restric¬ aberration in the eyepiece is generally not seri¬
tion. ous. The field of view must be reasonably flat,
Some optical instruments have objectives and the eyepiece must be corrected for COMA,
smaller than their eyepieces, but this arrange¬ which automatically gives FLATNESS OF
ment gives the instrument lower magnification. FIELD.

EYEPIECES (OCULARS) TYPES OF EYEPIECES

The function of an eyepiece in an optical General types of eyepieces used in optical

instrument is TO ENLARGE THE IMAGE PRO¬ fire control instruments are discussed in the
DUCED BY THE OBJECTIVE, which means that following paragraphs. Specific types of eye¬
it is similar to a magnifying glass. Study il¬ pieces are usually modified as necessary to
lustration 6-15. meet the requirements for particular optical
Eyepieces used in modern fire control in¬ instruments.
struments generally consist of eyelenses and
field lenses, of which one or all may be com¬ Ramsden Eyepiece
pound.
Ramsden eyepiece consists of two plano¬
CONSTRUCTION convex lenses made of crown glass (with equal
focal lengths) and separated by a distance
THE EYELENS IS THE LENS (OF THE equal to two-thirds of the numerical value of
EYEPIECE) NEAREST THE EYE. It magnifies either focal length. The reticle is located in

123
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

FIELD LENS EYELENS

FIELD LENSj j EYELENS

IMAGE: IMAGE

FOCAL PLANE
FOCAL PLANE
OF OBJECTIVE MARGINAL
MARGINAL OF OBJECTIVE

RAY A

137. 137
Figure 6-15. —Typical paths of light through the lenses (field and eye) of eyepieces.

defined as a DIFFERENCE IN IMAGE SIZE for

each color. This type of eyepiece, however, is
widely used with reticles, which are marks or
patterns placed in the focal plane of the ob¬
jective of an optical instrument (chapter 7) for
the following reasons: (1) to measure angular
distance between two points, (2) to determine
the center of the field, or (3) to assist in the
gaging of distance, determining leads, or meas¬
urement.
A reticle may be a pair of crosslines (fig.
6-17) composed of fine wire, or it may be etched
on glass plate with plane parallel surfaces. When
a reticle is etched on glass, the entire piece of
glass is referred to as the reticle.
Because it can be used as a magnifier, a
Ramsden eyepiece is called a POSITIVE OCU¬
LAR

Kellner Eyepiece

A Kellner eyepiece is a modification of the

front of the field lens at a point equal to one- Ramsden eyepiece. See illustration 6-18. It is
fourth of its focal length, as shown in illustra- a simple type of eyepiece with a field lens and
ion 6-16. an eyelens. The eyelens is an achromatic
The field lens of a Ramsden eyepiece there¬ DOUBLET with its flat, flint lens toward the eye.
fore contributes to the amount of magnification Dense, barium-crown glass and light-flint
and quality of the image produced. Dirt on its glass used in a Kellner eyepiece help to reduce
principal plane is not in focus and is practically aberration; and in order to procure full cor¬
invisible. Dirt on the optical element near the rection for chromatic aberration, the image
image planes may appear as a blur(s). MUST LIE in the plane surface of the field lens.
A Ramsden eyepiece has one fault: CON¬ NOTE: If a reticle is desired in an optical
SIDERABLE LATERAL COLOR, which can be system containing a Kellner eyepiece, some

124
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

B— RETICLE PATTERN ETCHED ON GLASS.

D— ETCHED DESIGN WITH NUMERALS.

C— STADIA LINES FOR
ANGULAR MEASUREMENT.
137.139
Figure 6-17.— Representative types of reticles.

chromatic aberration is sacrificed in order to from light reflected SUCCESSIVELY FROM

use the reticle. This means that all Kellner THE INNER AND OUTER SURFACES of the
eyepieces are not oriented to have the image lens.
formed on the plane surface of the field lens. A Kellner eyepiece is commonly used in
When a reticle is desired, the eyepiece is so prism binoculars.
designed that the image is farther from the field
lens, so that the eyepiece may be focused IN or Huygenian Eyepiece
OUT of the instrument without contact of the field
lens with the reticle. A Huygenian eyepiece, illustrated in figure
A Kellner eyepiece gives an achromatic and 6-19, employs a collective (field) lens so moved
orthoscopic field (free of distortion) as large as away from the eyelens that the real image lies
50° in some models. Its most serious dis¬ between the two lenses. The lenses are sep¬
advantage is a pronounced GHOST, resulting arated by a distance EQUAL TO HALF the sum

125
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.140
Figure 6-18. —Kellner eyepiece

_ | FIELD
LENS
SHIFTS
IMAGE

Figure 6-19. —Huygenian eyepiece. 137. 141

126
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

of their focal lengths. This amount of separa¬ Orthoscopic Eyepiece

tion of the lenses corrects chromatic aberra¬
tion of the eyepiece as a whole, but it does not An orthoscopic eyepiece gets its name from
correct the aberration in the individual lenses. the fact that it is free of distortion. It employs
A Huygenian eyepiece is not suitable for use a TRIPLET FIELD LENS which may or may not
with a reticle, because the individual com¬ be planoconvex; and a single, planoconvex eye-
ponents are not corrected for aberration and lens, with the curved surface of the field lens
the reticle is therefore distorted. A Huygenian facing the curved surface of the eyelens (fig.
eyepiece, however, is sometimes used in micro¬ 6-21).
scopes with a small reticle in the center of the Because they give a wide field, orthoscopic
field; and a reticle of any SIZE MAY BE eyepieces are used extensively in high-powered
PLACED IN ANY IMAGE PLANE of the optical telescopes. They are also useful in range¬
instrument, EXCEPT the image plane between finders, as they permit use of any part of the
the eyepiece lens (ocular). field.
The focal length generally used in a Huy¬
genian eyepiece is over one inch, which is
sufficient to provide adequate eye relief. Both TELESCOPES
elements of the eyepiece are normally made of
the same type of crown glass, with convex sur¬ The primary purpose of a telescope is to
faces facing forward, as illustrated. IMPROVE VISION OF DISTANT OBJECTS. In
its simplest form, a telescope consists of two
parts: (1) a lens, called the objective (near the
Symmetrical and Two-Doublet object), or an object glass (if a mirror), which
Eyepieces ALWAYS FORMS A REAL IMAGE of the field
or area the telescope can pick up; and (2) an
Symmetrical and two-doublet eyepieces are eyepiece which enables you to view the image.
constructed of two cemented, achromatic doub¬ The objective of a telescope forms a REAL,
lets (fairly close together) with their positive INVERTED, and REVERTED image of a distant
elements facing each other. If the doublets are object and therefore serves the same purpose
identical in every respect (diameters, focal as the lens of a camera. The eyepiece is the
lengths, thickness and index of refraction), the optical element which produces an enlarged,
eyepiece is symmetrical. If the doublets differ virtual image of the real image produced by the
in one respect or another, however, they are objective and thus serves as a simple micro¬
considered as a TWO-DOUBLET eyepiece. The scope.
eyelens of the two-doublet eyepiece is gen¬ The amount of light which enters a telescope
erally slightly smaller in diameter and has a is dependent upon the size of the objective.
shorter focal length than its field lens. Doub¬ In contrast with a microscope, a telescope
lets in a symmetrical eyepiece, on the other objective lens has a long focal length suitable
hand, ARE IDENTICAL IN EVERY RESPECT for viewing distant objects. The objective of a
AND CAN BE INTERCHANGED. microscope forms an image relatively far from
Symmetrical and two-doublet eyepieces are the lens, but the object is very close to the lens;
often used in fire control instruments which in a telescope, the objective forms an image
recoil. The eye distance on these instruments relatively near the lens (in the focal plane of the
must be fairly long, to prevent the eyepiece objective lens), but the object is very far from
from striking the gunner’s eye. These eye¬ the lens (infinity).
pieces may also be used in terrestial telescopes As you study telescopes in the following
(not only in gunsight telescopes), or in any pages, keep in mind one thing: TELESCOPES
ARE THE BASIS OF PRACTICALLY ALL OP¬
other telescope designed to carry them.
A symmetrical eyepiece provides long eye TICAL INSTRUMENTS— binoculars, gunsights,
relief, because it has a large exit pupil and periscopes, rangefinders, and so forth.
low magnification, qualities which ensure eye
relief. For this reason, symmetrical ASTRONOMICAL TELSCOPES
eyepieces— along with Kellner— are used ex¬
tensively in optical instruments, particularly There are two types of astronomical tele¬
scopes: (1) refracting, and (2) reflecting; and
rifle scopes and gunsights.

127
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

FIELD LENS EYELENS

137.142
Figure 6-20. —Symmetrical and two-doublet eyepieces.

each type is constructed in the manner neces¬

sary to have it satisfy a particular require¬
ment. An astronomical telescope used for
viewing the heavenly bodies, for example, does
not require the image to be erect, because all
images of heavenly bodies look round. All
astronomical telescopes therefore produce an
inverted image.

Refracting Telescopes

A refracting astronomical telescope has

high-quality lenses which form images of stars
and the sun by refraction. A positive objective
lens alone forms only real images of distant
objects, but such real images in space cannot
be brought to focus by the eye, as shown in
illustration 6-22. In order for an eye to bring
an image to a focus, the rays of light from the
object which enter the eye MUST BE PARALLEL
OR ONLY SLIGHTLY DIVERGING, as if from an
137. 143 object no closer than the near point (10 inches)
Figure 6-21. —Orthoscopic eyepiece. of the eye. If another positive lens, however, is

128
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Since the real image formed by the objective

lens is located at one focal length (at the primary
OBJECTIVE
focal point) of the eyepiece, the eyepiece acts
as a magnifying lens to magnify the real image.
If you look through the telescope eyepiece, you
see a VIRTUAL, INVERTED, ENLARGED image
which is formed at infinity.
In an astronomical telescope, in which the
focal points of the objective lens and the eye¬
piece lens coincide, the length of the telescope
is the SUM OF THE FOCAL LENGTHS OF THE
137.144 TWO LENSES.
Figure 6-22. —Passage of refracted rays from Observe in illustration 6-24 that the light
an objective through the image plane. rays from the object are refracted by the eye¬
piece and emerge from it in a divergent manner
to give a minus value to the emergent rays. If
placed between an image and the eye, and the you were to look through the telescope eye¬
real image is at the primary (first) focal point piece in this case, you would see a virtual image
of the eyepiece, the eye can see without ac¬ which appears to have moved toward the near
commodation a virtual image of the object point of the eye; that is, the image appears to
picked up by the objective lens. See figure 6-23. have moved IN from infinity TO or NEAR the
This is known as the KEPLERIAN SYSTEM. near point of the eye (10 inches).
NOTE: In illustration 6-24 the focal point of
Refer to illustration 6-24, which shows the the objective lens DOES NOT COINCIDE WITH
position of an objective lens in relation to the THE FOCAL POINT OF THE EYEPIECE LENS.
eyepiece in the Keplerian system of telescope The image formed by the objective lens is lo¬
construction. Such an arrangement of optical cated within the focal length of the eyepiece.
elements is the simplest form of a refracting
astronomical telescope. Observe that the par¬ Reflecting Telescopes
allel light rays entering the objective lens are
refracted and converge to the focal plane of the Although magnifying power of a telescope is
lens. (The image plane and the focal plane co¬ of the greatest importance in astronomical work,
incide when parallel rays are refracted by any most emphasis MUST BE PLACED ON light¬
lens.) In the focal plane of the objective lens a gathering ability and resolving power OF THE
real, inverted image of the object is formed. OBJECTIVE LENS, so that stars (heavenly
The eyepiece is so placed that the image bodies) may be observed at greater distances.
formed by the objective lens is located on the
primary focal point of the eyepiece. The
diverging rays, diverging from the real image,
image formed
enter the eyepiece, are refracted, and emerge BY OBJECTIVE
parallel to the optical axis of the telescope.

OBJECTIVE

(VIRTUAL)

137.146

Figure 6-23.— Objective and eyepiece arrange¬ Figure 6-24.— Refracting astronomical
ment in the Keplerian system. telescope.

129
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

Increasing the diameter and the size of an pose of this deviation is to prevent an observer
objective lens of a telescope, however, pre¬ who is viewing the image from cutting off a
sents many problems; because it is difficult large part of the light before it reaches the
to grind and polish large pieces of optical mirror.
glass, such as large doublets. For this reason, As in the refracting telescope, at the point
large, front-surface-aluminized-concave mir¬ where the real image is formed an eyepiece is
rors (The reflecting surface of the concave placed to magnify the image. If you look
mirrow is coated with aluminum.) are used as through the eyepiece of a reflecting telescope,
objectives in some astronomical telescopes. The you see a VIRTUAL, INVERTED, ENLARGED
advantages of using a concave mirror instead image formed at infinity.
of a large, converging doublet are as follows: When there is a need for lengthening the
1. Mirrors do not absorb light and they focal length of a concave mirror, or when the
have no aberration. design of a telescope is altered (Cassegranian
2. A mirror has only one surface which reflecting telescope, for example), a small
requires grinding, as compared to four sides convex mirror can be used with the concave
for a doublet. mirror. See figure 6-26.
3. Concave mirrors weigh less than doub¬
lets of the same diameter.
You learned in a previous chapter of this
manual that when parallel rays of light from
an infinity target strike a concave mirror
the rays are reflected and made convergent to
come to focus at the focal point of the concave
mirror. A REAL, INVERTED, DIMINISHED
image of the target is formed at the focal
point. This image is the same as that formed
by a convergent doublet objective lens in a
refracting telescope.
Study next illustration 6-25. Before the
reflected rays of the concave mirror in this
figure are brought to focus, a 90° prism is
placed in the converging rays to deviate the 137.147
rays at an angle of 90°, as shown. The pur¬ Figure 6-25.— Reflecting Newtonian telescope.

CONCAVE MIRROR

130
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

The concave mirror in a Cassegranian tele¬ Galilean Telescopes

scope has a small hole ground through the mid¬
dle (center), and the convex mirror is placed The first telescope Galileo made had a
in the converging rays in place of the 90 prism power of 3, but he later made one with a power
to reflect the rays and make them less diver¬ of 30. His telescope is based on two major
gent and focused at a point greater in distance principles:
than the original focal plane of the concave mir¬ 1. It makes use of an eyepiece consisting
ror. Study illustration 6-26 carefully. of a negative eyelens positioned a distance equal
When the rays are reflected from the convex to its focal length (fe, part B, Fig. 6-28) in
mirror, they pass directly through the hole in front of the objective focal point. Such po¬
the concave mirror and come to focus to pro¬ sitioning of the negative eyelens makes converg¬
duce an image like the one produced by the ing rays from the objective parallel before they
doublet lens. The eyepiece is placed behind converge to form a real image; so no real image
exists in this optical system. The light rays do
the reflecting surface of the concave mirror
to magnify the real image and give a VIRTUAL, not converge to a point to form a real image;
INVERTED, and ENLARGED image of the object but if you look through the negative lens you
see an enlarged, virtual image of the object,
at infinity.
Converging mirrors with long focal lengths which appears to be at a point between 10
are used in telescopes as objectives to form inches and infinity.
real images. The light in this type of mirror The virtual image viewed through the nega¬
is incident on the same side as the center of tive eyelens is therefore at infinity and can be
curvature of the sphere. The focal point is viewed by the eye without accommodation.
halfway between the center of curvature and The relation of the optical elements in a
the reflecting surface. Galilean telescope (part B, fig. 6-28) isalsore-
A real image created by a convergent mir¬ ferred to as the ZERO DIOPTER SETTING,
ror used as an objective in a telescope can be which means that ALL LIGHT RAYS FROM
viewed through a magnifying eyepiece or photo¬ ANY POINT SOURCE LOCATED AT INFINITY
graphed by a camera attachment. EMERGE FROM THE EYEPIECE PARALLEL.
If the eyelens, however, is moved in or out, the
TERRESTIAL TELESCOPES
emergent light rays converge or diverge and
the instrument can therefore be adjusted for
farsighted or nearsighted eyes, and also for
A terrestial telescope gets its name from
distance.
the Latin word TERRA, which means earth. The INVERTING EFFECT of the objective
A terrestial TELESCOPE IS USED TO VIEW lens in a Galilean telescope is canceled by the
OBJECTS AS THEY ACTUALLY APPEAR ON negative eyelens, because the real image is not
EARTH. allowed to form; that is, the emergent rays
Any astronomical telescope can be converted from the negative eyepiece are refracted farther
to a terrestial telescope by inserting a lens or away from the axis instead of recrossing it.
prism erecting system between the eyepiece and The virtual image of the object viewed is there¬
the objective to erect the image. See illus¬ fore ERECT.
tration 6-27, which shows the optical elements The principle of the Galilean system is
of the simplest form of terrestial telescopes. diametrically opposite to that of the Keplerian
Note the positions of the REAL AND VIRTUAL or astronomical system with a positive lens,
IMAGES. which causes the emergent rays from the posi¬
A lens erecting system requires such po¬ tive eyelens to recross the axis and form an
sitioning of the objective and the eyepiece that INVERTED, VIRTUAL IMAGE of the REAL
the erectors are between the focal point of the IMAGE formed by the objective lens.
objective and the first principal focus of the
2. A Galilean telescopic system is one in
eyepiece. A prism erecting system, on the
which the diameter of the objective controls the
other hand, must be placed between the objective
field of view (width of visible area), because
and its focal point. the objective is both the field stop and the entrance
You will learn more details about the use of
window, as indicated in figure 6-29. This type
erecting systems when you study magnification
of telescopic system is therefore limited to
of images in telescopes later in this chapter.

131
OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

132
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

small fields of view and low magnifying power Observe in illustration 6-31 the original
(2 or 3). position of the lens (C), the optical axis of
the lens (AB), rays of light (white lines) from
One-Erector Telescope point A to the lens, and the refracted rays to
The arrangement of optical elements in a point B. As illustrated, the distance the lens
one-erector lens telescope is illustrated in is from the object is 1 1/2 F, and the distance
part A of illustration 6-30. Observe that the of the image from the lens is 3F.
parallel rays entering the objective lens from When the lens is moved to position D, the
an infinity target are refracted, converged, and distance of the object (A) from the lens is 3F,
form a real, inverted image in the focal plane and the distance of the image from the lens is
of the objective lens, as is true for all objec¬ 1 1/2 F.
tive lenses of telescopes. According to the law of reversibility, you
Rays which leave the real image diverge as know that if the object were at B, its image would
though the image itself were an object. When be at A. Points A and B are therefore con¬
another lens (erector lens) is placed two focal jugate points, because each is the image of the
lengths (2F) from the real image, the erector other. Suppose that the lens is 3 inches from
receives the diverging rays and refracts them point A and 6 inches from point B and you move
to two focal lengths (2F) behind the erector. the lens to D, 6 inches from point A and 3 inches
The image produced by the erector is the same from point B. POINTS A AND B ARE STILL
size as the image produced by the objective CONJUGATE POINTS.
lens. (When an object is placed two focal This lens, therefore, forms an image of A
lengths in front of a positive lens, the image at B WHEN IT IS AT TWO DIFFERENT PO¬
produced by that lens is located two focal SITIONS. If you place a real object such as an
lengths behind the object and is the same size arrow in the plane at A, its image will be in
as the object but inverted.) An erector lens plane B, regardless of whether the lens is at
inverts its image, which in this case is ERECT, C or D; but WHEN YOU MOVE THE LENS
FROM ONE POSITION TO ANOTHER, YOU
in comparison with the target at infinity.
Rays which leave an erect, real image formed CHANGE THE SIZE OF THE IMAGE. As you
know, the relative size of the object and the
by an erector lens are divergent and are re¬
ceived by the eyepiece. The eyepiece is po¬ image depends upon their relative distances.
sitioned so that the image is in its focal plane When the lens is at C, the image is TWICE AS
(one focal length). For this reason, the re¬ BIG AS THE OBJECT; when the lens is at D,
the image is ONLY ONE-HALF THE SIZE OF
fracted rays which leave the eyepiece are par¬
allel to the optical axis of the telescope. If THE OBJECT.
you look through the eyepiece of the tele¬ Two-power terrestial telescopes may be
scope, you see a VIRTUAL, ERECT, EN¬ classified as: (1) one-erector, and (2) two-
LARGED image formed at infinity. erector (symmetrical). NOTE: In order for a
Part B of illustration 6-30 shows how a two-erector lens system to be called a sym¬
single erecting lens diminishes the size of an metrical system, both erectors must be IDEN¬
image. If the erecting lens is placed 3F from TICAL IN CONSTRUCTION AND HAVE THE
the inverted objective image, as shown, the SAME FOCAL LENGTH. Both types of ter¬
erect image the erecting lens creates is twice restial telescopes will be discussed immediately
as small as the inverted image of the objective after the following explanation of lens erecting
lens and is twice as far from the erector lens systems.
(3 focal lengths of the erector lens).
A two-power telescope has TWO DIFFERENT Lens Erecting Systems
MAGNIFYING POWERS (not a magnifying power
of 2) which can be selected without changing the A lens erecting system is employed in an
optical instrument to allow changing of magni¬
eyepiece and without refocusing. All you need
fication of the instrument, because different de¬
do in order to change from one power to the
grees of magnification can be obtained by
other power in a 2-power telescope is move the
changing the RELATIVE POSITIONS of the
erecting lens TO ONE OF TWO DIFFERENT
POSITIONS, as illustrated by parts B and C in lenses. This type of erecting system increases
the length of an optical system; and it is there¬
illustration 6-30 and the C and D positions of
fore used in systems where length is a distinct
the lens in figure 6-31.

133
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

OBJECTIVE EYELENS

137.151
Figure 6-29. —Field of view limitations in a Galilean telescope.

134
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

.0 Study illustration 6-32, which shows two

/
types of lens erecting systems. The erecting

\ 8
system in the top portion
is the simplest
ing lens in the proper
type, because
position
of this illustration
it uses an erect¬
(as indicated) in
rj 1 1 order to pick up the inverted
the objective and form a second
image formed by
erect image
Aj which is magnified by the eyepiece.
j%¼ \ /
Lens erecting systems for fire control in¬
struments generally have two lenses, instead
137.153
of a single erecting lens, as shown in the bottom
Figure 6-31.— Conjugate points. part of figure 6-32. Study this system carefully.
The complete lens erecting system functions as
a single lens.
When two lenses are employed in a lens
advantage, as is true for periscopes and range¬ erecting system, they are compound and achro¬
finders. matic (without color; corrected for aberration).
At this point, it is best that you learn the
If a third lens is used with an erecting system,
distinction between VARIABLE MAGNIFICA¬
it is planoconvex or double convex and serves
TION and CHANGE OF MAGNIFICATION. Vari¬ as a collective lens for collecting and bending
able magnification is obtained (produced) in an
light rays to the next optical element.
optical system when the image STEADILY
BECOMES LARGER AND LARGER throughout NOTE: A collective lens ERECTS THE
movement of the erecting lenses. Change of IMAGE. Its ONLY purpose is to collect rays
magnification in an optical system is obtained from the optical axis (rays which otherwise may
ONLY WHEN the instrument is changed FROM be lost) and send them into the erecting lens,
ONE POWER TO THE NEXT POWER. Between thereby making the final, REAL image brighter,
positions, the image is badly blurred. with a larger field of view.

OBJECTIVE ERECTING LENS EYELENS

OBJECTIVE
ERECTING SYSTEM

FOCAL PLANE

l
INVERTED
REAL IMAGE

EYELENS

137.154
Figure 6-32. —Lens erecting systems.

135
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

Because a collective lens is sometimes As is true for all objective lenses, parallel
placed at the point in the optical system where rays from an infinity target are refracted and
the image of the objective lens is formed, where converge to the focal plane of the objective lens
a reticle MUST ALSO BE PLACED, the reticle to form an INVERTED, REAL image. The first
markings are engraved on the flat face of the erecting lens is so positioned that the real image
planoconvex lens used as a collective lens. is in its focal plane. (The image is one focal
A lens erecting system can INCREASE OR length from the first erecting lens.) The diver¬
DECREASE the magnifying power of an optical gent rays which enter the erecting lens are re¬
instrument; but when the lenses are placed in fracted and emerge parallel to the optical axis.
certain positions, the erecting system DOES Since the rays which emerge from the first
NOT AFFECT the magnifying power of the erecting lens are parallel, the second erecting
instrument. lens may be placed at any reasonable distance
If lenses in an erecting system are moved from the first erector, because the rays which
closer to the focal point of the objective lens enter the second erecting lens are ALWAYS
and farther from the eyepiece, magnification is PARALLEL, regardless of the amount of lens
increased but the field of view is decreased. If separation. Separation of the erectors infixed-
the erecting lenses are located at the same power telescopes is generally THE SUM OF
distance from the focal points of the objective THEIR FOCAL LENGTHS, which is sufficient
and the eyepiece, there is no additional magnifi¬ to ensure good eye relief. As separation of the
cation of the image. This method of changing erectors varies, eye relief of the eyepiece also
the degree of magnification is used in optical varies.
instruments which have a change of power. Parallel rays which enter the second erecting
lens are refracted and converge to the focal
plane to form a REAL, ERECT image. If the
Two-Erector Telescopes (Symmetrical) erectors are SYMMETRICAL, the image pro¬
duced by the second erector is of the same size
Refer now to illustration 6-33 to see how a as the image produced by the objective lens.
terrestial telescope with two erecting lenses is If the erectors are ASYMMETRICAL, the size
constructed. The erectors (lenses) shown are of the image produced by the second erector
SYMMETRICAL; that is, they are IDENTICAL varies directly in proportion to its focal length—
in every respect— diameter, thickness, index of the longer the focal length of the second erect¬
refraction, and focal lengths. ASYMMETRICAL ing lens, the larger the image produced by it.
erectors (with different focal lengths) may also The eyepiece of the telescope is again po¬
be used in this type of telescope for design sitioned as necessary in order to have the image
purposes, or to help increase magnifying power, of the second erector at its focal plane. When
which the objective and eyepiece alone could not the eyepiece is placed one focal length from the
do.

ERECTORS
EYEPIECE
OBJECTIVE
E, E2

f o

f E, =* E2
137.155
Figure 6-33.— Two-erector telescope (symmetrical).

136
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

image, divergent rays from the image are re¬ Now study illustration 6-34, part A of which
fracted by the eyepiece and emerge parallel shows two asymmetrical erectors in the low-
to the optical axis. If you look through the power position. When these erectors are
eyepiece of the telescope, you see a VIRTUAL, shifted toward the object, the position of the
ERECT, ENLARGED image formed at infinity. image shifts toward the eyepiece (part B,
fig. 6-34) and magnification of the telescope
A two-erector telescope can also be con¬
is increased. If the distance between the two
structed with a power of two, by moving the
erectors in the forward position (toward ob¬
erectors together as a unit in the same di¬
ject) is decreased by moving the second lens
rection (with their separation fixed). Their
toward the first lens, magnification is slightly
distance from the real image formed by the
decreased and shifting of the resulting image
objective lens must be 1 1/2 EFL, or 3 EFL
position is also decreased (part C, fig. 6-34).
of the erecting lens combination. The two
The image position CAN BE THE SAME
erecting lenses FUNCTION together as a single,
for all possible magnifications produced by the
thick lens to produce an image in the same
optical system of a variable-power telescope.
manner as the one-erector lens used for the
Separation between the erectors in a variable-
same purpose. magnification telescope (fig. 6-34) is always
You cannot continuously vary the power in a
such that the IMAGE POSITION REMAINS FIXED
two-power telescope, because there are ONLY
for any amount of magnification, and the EYE¬
TWO positions of the erecting lens (one-erector
PIECE REMAINS FIXED (part C, fig. 6-34).
lens, or a two-erector lens used as a unit) for
which the TWO IMAGE PLANES ARE CON¬ GUNSIGHT TELESCOPES
JUGATE.
A telescopic sight (military telescope) is
NOTE: Varying the power means to increase
generally a terrestial telescope with a reticle
the magnifying power of the telescope steadily in the focal plane of the optical system. A
and constantly with the image in sharp focus at
gunsight telescope permits viewing of the ret¬
all times, as is true for a ZOOM LENS on a
icle and the target in the same optical plane,
television camera. and it does not require precise alignment of the
When the erecting lens (or lenses) is in an
eye with respect to line of sight. A telescopic
intermediate position, the image IS OUT OF
sight is universally considered as an instru¬
FOCUS. The only way to keep the two image
ment with an erecting system.
planes conjugate when the erecting lens is
changed to any position, therefore, is to CHANGE
ITS FOCAL LENGTH each time you move it; and
you can do this by USING THE TWO ERECTING
OBJECT IMAGE
LENSES and VARYING THEIR EQUIVALENT ASYMMETRICAL ERECTORS I
FOCAL LENGTH (EFL) of the combination; that IN LOW-POWER POSITION I
is, by varying the separation between the erec¬
tors. By varying the separation of the erectors,
simultaneously moving the erectors at different
speeds in relation to each other, you can form
the image of the second erector in the same
plane while its image varies in size.
Variable-magnification erecting systems
used in variable-power telescopes provide two
to three times as much power in the high-power
position as in the low-power position.
Magnification of an erecting system com¬
posed of a COMBINATION OF LENSES can be ASYMMETRICAL ERECTORS FORWARD
varied by doing the following, simultaneously: AND CLOSER TOGETHER
1. Varying the position of the erecting
137.156
system from its object.
2. Varying the separation between the opt¬ Figure 6-34.— Two-erector telescope
ical elements of the erecting system. (asymmetrical, variable -magnification).

137
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

Reticles are used in fire control instru¬ A reticle in a gunsight telescope may be
ments for superimposing a predetermined pat¬ placed AT THE FRONT OR AT THE REAR OF
tern of range and deflection graduations on a
THE LENS ERECTING SYSTEM OF THE IN¬
target. In its simplest form, a reticle is a STRUMENT, or RETICLES MAY BE PLACED
POST or PICKET, or two INTERSECTING AT BOTH POINTS, IN WHICH CASE THEIR
LINES. Line of sight through the intersection PATTERNS ARE SUPERIMPOSED UPON EACH
of these two lines is in the center of the field of OTHER. THE PREFERABLE POSITION FOR
view. The reticle represents the axis of the THE RETICLE IN A TELESCOPIC SIGHT IS BE¬
bore of the weapon, when it is adjusted for TWEEN THE OBJECTIVE AND THE ERECTING
short-range firing or fixed at a definite angle SYSTEM, because the objective and reticle then
to the bore of the weapon for long-range firing. form a unit and a shift of the erecting system
A reticle serves as a reference point for does not disturb the alignment of these ele¬
sighting a gun, but it may be designed also for ments. When a prism erecting system is used
measuring the angular distance between two in a telescopic sight, however, the reticle is
points (grid lines in a gunsight telescope). Since usually placed between the erecting system and
it is in the same focal plane as a real image, it the eyepiece, in the focal plane of the objective
appears superimposed on a target and CAN BE lens.
VIEWED BY THE EYE WITH THE SAME If the objective lens of an optical system is
ACCOMMODATION REQUIRED FOR VIEWING incorrectly located with respect to the reticle,
A TARGET OR FIELD. parallax is introduced, because the reticle is not
In an optical system containing an erecting directly in the image plane. Study illustration
system, a reticle may be placed in one of two 6-36. PARALLAX IS APPARENT DISPLACE¬
positions, as indicated in illustration 6-35. It MENT OF AN OBJECT WHEN AN OBSERVER
may be placed IN THE IMAGE PLANE OF THE CHANGES HIS POSITION (part A, fig. 6-36).
OBJECTIVE OR AT THE FOCAL POINT OF Parallax in a telescope WHICH HAS A RETICLE
THE EYEPIECE (image plane of the erectors). IS ANY APPARENT MOVEMENT OF THE
If the erecting system of the telescope in¬ RETICLE IN RELATION TO DISTANT OBJECTS
creases its magnification, and the reticle is in IN THE FIELD OF VIEW caused by MOVE¬
the image plane of the objective, reticle lines MENT OF THE OBSERVER’S HEAD. This con¬
appear wider on the target than if placed at the dition exists when the image in the telescope
focal point of the eyepiece. For this reason, a lies in one plane and the reticle lies in another,
reticle in a low-powered rifle scope is usually as shown in part B of illustration 6-36. Ob¬
placed in front of the erectors; in a high- serve the three positions of the reticle in re¬
powered scope, it is placed at the focal point lation to the image. The middle portion of
part B of the illustration shows the reticle
of the eyepiece.

SETTING)

137.157
Figure 6-35.— Location of a reticle in a Galilean-type rifle scope.

138
Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

A. Demonstration of parallax. 137.158

B. Parallax in a telescopic sight.
Figure 6-36. —Parallax.

139
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

superimposed on the image, in which case Power in an optical instrument is denoted

parallax does not exist. by the letter x; for example, a 7 x 50 binocular
Parallax can be removed from the optical is a 7-power instrument with an entrance pupil
system by repositioning the objective lens as or objective size of 50 millimeters.
necessary to have its image in the same plane Another method for determining the mag¬
as that of the reticle. When the objective lens nifying power in all types of telescopes is
is moved forward or backward within the instru¬ this: DIVIDE THE DIAMETER OF THE EN¬
ment, the image moves in the same direction, TRANCE PUPIL BY THE DIAMETER OF THE
respectively. EXIT PUPIL. The formula to use in doing this
is:
MAGNIFICATION IN TELESCOPES AP
MP, or P =

The formula for computing the magnifying

power of an astronomical telescope, which has AP is the diameter or aperture of the entrance
no erecting system, is: pupil, and EP is the diameter of the exit pupil,
as shown in figure 6-37. Observe the position
f0 (focal length of objective) of AP and also the position of EP. You will
recall that ENTRANCE PUPIL means the CLEAR
^e (focal length of objective)
APERTURE OF THE OBJECTIVE; and that the
This means that you can DETERMINE THE EXIT PUPIL is the diameter of the bundle of
MAGNIFYING POWER of an astronomical tele¬ light which leaves an optical system. The exit
scope by dividing the focal length of the objec¬ pupil is actually AN IMAGE OF THE OBJEC¬
tive by the focal length of the eyepiece, pro¬ TIVE LENS PRODUCED BY THE EYELENS.
vided the virtual image is at infinity, or the
You can measure the diameter of the en¬
emergent light rays fromthe object areparallel.
trance pupil with a transparent metric scale—
Remember the two conditions when this formula directly across the objective. This method of
can be used for measuring magnifying power in measurement is sufficiently accurate for most
an astronomical telescope. If the image is moved
to the near point of the eye (10 inches), it in¬ purposes.
You can determine the diameter of the exit
creases slightly in size. pupil of a telescope by: (1) pointing the in¬
This formula can be used also for determin¬ strument toward a light source (out a window,
ing the amount of magnifying power produced by for example), (2) inserting a piece of trans¬
terrestial telescopes which have PRISM ERECT¬
lucent material in the plane of the exit pupil,
ING SYSTEMS; but it cannot be applied to
and (3) measuring the diameter of the exit
terrestial telescopes which have LENS ERECT¬
pupil on the paper.
ING SYSTEMS, because such erecting systems The best way to measure the diameter of
can (usually do) contribute to the power of the
an exit pupil, however, is with a dynameter.
optical system. See illustration 6-38. This dynameter is es¬
Magnifying power in a one-erector optical sentially a magnifier or an eyelens with a fixed
system for a telescope is equal to the distance reticle on a frosted glass plate, both of which
of the focal length of the objective divided by move as a unit within the dynameter tube.
the focal length of the eyepiece, multiplied by
magnification of the erecting lens. To measure the exit pupil with a dynameter,
You learned previously in this chapter that place the dynameter between the eye and the
magnification in a variable-power telescope is eyepiece of the instrument and focus the dyna¬
accomplished by moving the erectors. When meter until you have the bright disk of the exit
the erectors are moved forward as a complete pupil sharply defined on its frosted reticle.
unit to increase magnification, or when the rear Then measure the diameter of the exit pupil on
erector element only is moved forward, the the dynameter reticle (usually graduated in .5
image formed by the erectors moves back. mm) and read the eye distance on the scale on
This is the only case when the image position the dynameter tube. This means that in order
is not the same for all magnifications produced to keep the image in focus the eyepiece must
by the optical system of a variable -power be moved a distance equal to the amount of
telescope. shift of the image.

140
 Chapter 6-BASIC OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

You will learn more details concerning used in the Navy consist of two telescopes—
the positioning of elements in the optical sys¬ one for each eye— hinged together. Most of the
tem of a telescope (and measuring magnifica¬ first binoculars made consisted of two Gali¬
tion) when you study chapter 7, which deals with lean telescopes and WERE CALLED FIELD
mechanical construction of optical instru¬ OR NIGHT GLASSES. They were compact in
ments. construction, as binoculars should be, but they
WERE LIMITED TO EITHER LOW MAGNI¬
BINOCULARS FICATION OR A NARROW FIELD OF VIEW.
Navy binoculars in use today consist of an
A binocular is an optical instrument for use objective, an eyepiece (eyelens and usually a
by both eyes at the same time. Binoculars field lens), and Porro prisms (to erect the

137.159
Figure 6-37. —Entrance and exit pupils.

FIRST FACE RACK PINION

141
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

image). Prisms are much better erecting the size of the pupil of the eye of the observer.
systems than lenses in binoculars for three The size of the pupil of an observer varies from
about .1 inch (approximately 2.5 mm) for very
reasons:
1. They enable manufacturers to make bi¬ brilliant illumination to about .3 inch (about
noculars short and compact, to facilitate han¬ 7 mm) for very faint illumination. Binoculars
dling, because no lens erecting system is re¬ with large objectives and exit pupils are gen¬
quired. (A lens erecting system must have erally better suited for observation at night and
space equal to four times its focal length.) under poor conditions of visibility. The larger
2. They double the line of sight back on exit pupil of the binocular allows the observer
itself twice. (Four reflections are required to make full use of his larger exit pupil.
to continue the light in an unchanged path. ) Binoculars of this type are called NIGHT
3. By increasing an observer’s effective GLASSES.
interpupillary distance, most prism systems Binoculars are usually designated by the
increase the stereoscopic effect. power of magnification and diameter of their
objectives. A 7 x 50 binocular magnifies 7
The left telescope of many models of binoc¬ diameters and has objectives 50 millimeters in
ulars contains a reticle. The optical axis of
diameter.
each scope must be parallel to the hinge me¬ The radius of stereoscopic vision is also
chanical axis throughout the entire movement increased by binoculars, because an observer
of the interpupillary range; otherwise, each views an object through them from the two
eye sees a different field, resulting in a double objectives, which are more widely separated
image. than his eyes. Magnification provided by
Magnification by binoculars depends upon the binoculars increases an observer’s range of
focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece vision. If, for example, the distance between
groups. True field of view varies in accord¬ the lines of sight of the observer’s eyes is
ance with the design of lenses and their power, doubled by prism binoculars and a 7-power
and the size of the objective determines the instrument is used, the radius of stereovision
brightness of the image. The amount of the is increased from approximately 500 yards (non-
exit pupil which can be used is determined by mal) to about 7,000 yards (500 x 2 x 7).

142
 CHAPTER 7

CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Before you can qualify for advancement to telescope. Note the reticle adjustment knob and
Opticalman 2, you must know the “characteris¬ the monocular eyeguard. The positions of the
tics pertaining to the construction and assembly various optical elements in the instrument are
of optical instruments," and also the “use and shown, and on the right they are shown in sche¬
function of drafting machines.” matic form with the nomenclature listed. The
This chapter is therefore limited in scope arrow shows the path of light through the instru¬
primarily to a general discussion of optical in¬ ment. Observe that, in contrast with the optical
struments from the standpoint of basic con¬ elements of the telescope illustrated in figure
struction, and the construction and operation of 7-1, the optical elements of the instruments
drafting machines. The discussion of instrument shown in figure 7-2 do not consist of lenses
body housings, lens mounts, eyepiece arrange¬ only. It has two right-angled prisms (for bending
ments, prism mounts, instrument bearings and the light at the elbows) and two reticles, as
gears, and other optical elements will help you illustrated.
to understand better the construction, operation, Refer frequently to appropriate illustrations
and maintenance of optical instruments con¬ as you study next some important parts of
sidered in detail in chapters 9 through 17. optical instruments.

EYESHIELDS
BODY HOUSINGS

The housings for optical elements of various Eyeshields (fig. 7-1) are shields of metal,
optical instruments must be made in accordance plastic, or rubber fastened over the end of an
with requirements for the location of and the optical instrument which contains the eyepiece.
distance between the optical elements of the The function of such shields is (1) to protect the
instruments. You will recall that the function observer’s eyes from stray light, wind, and
of the mechanical portion of an optical instru¬ injury from gunfire shock or similar disturb¬
ment is to hold the optical elements in position, ances; and (2) to maintain proper eye distance.
to protect them from foreign substances and Shields made of soft rubber can most effectively
damage, and to keep out light where it is not meet all of these requirements.
desired. Study illustration 7-1, which shows
the body housing for the optical elements of one SUNSHADES AND OBJECTIVE CAPS
type of telescope, and you will then understand
the importance of the body housing of an optical
instrument. Sunshades are tubular sections of metal
Observe the length of the housing; then note secured in slots around the objective cells of
the different optical elements and their positions many optical instruments to protect them from
in the instrument. All of these elements must rain and direct rays of the sun. See illustration
be so positioned and secured in the housing that 7-3. The lower part of the shade is generally
they will not move under normal circumstances cut away in the manner illustrated.
and impair the effectiveness of the optical Sunshades also eliminate glare produced by
system.
sunlight on unprotected objectives (outer faces),
Refer now to illustration 7-2 and study the and they protect the thermosetting cement used
housing and optical elements in a periscope-type to secure the elements of the objectives.

143
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

RUBBER PYfSHlflD

\ OBJECT'VE
WINDOW
COLLECTIVE LENS

Diaphragm

RETICLE-

^--filter
FIELD LENS— -
EYELENS- -

137.161
Figure 7-1. —Body housing and optical elements of a telescope.

WINDOW

RIGHT ANGLE
OBJECTIVE PRISM
w>_
• OBJECTIVE

RETICLE

COLLECTIVE LENS

% ^ERECTOR
RIGHT ANGLE PRISM

F ELOLENsl
f EYELENsh"",,c*
* '

MONOCULAR EYEGUARD

Hwri

137.162
Figure 7-2.— Housing and optical elements of a periscope-type telescope.

144
 Chapter 7-CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

in this illustration are in the image planes. Non¬

reflecting paint and baffle finish on the inner wall
of the instrument housing eliminate most of the
undesired light. Light from a brilliant source
may still be reflected off a dark wall and cause
serious trouble, especially if a glass reticle is
used. This is particularly true in wide-angle
telescopes and antiaircraft instruments pointed
toward the sun.
Stops in straight-tube telescopes (fig. 7-1)
are washers or disks with holes in their centers,
and placed at intervals along the interior of the
telescope body tube to prevent stray rays from
reflecting internally, and to control certain
aberrations. The prism shelf in binoculars is
designed to function as a stop. This is also true
of Porro prisms with round corners and grooves
in their faces.
Antiglare stops are usually located between
137.163 the objective and the erectors, or wherever an
image of the aperture stop is formed, as shown
Figure 7-3.— Sunshade and objective cap.
in figure 7-4. When located between the erectors,
they are known as erector stops; and THEY
Objective caps (fig. 7-3) are leather or metal PROVIDE BALANCED ILLUMINATION BY
LIMITING THE RAYS OF LIGHT FROM THE
covers which fit over the sunshade and/or objec¬
CENTER OF THE FIELD TO THE SAME
tive end of the instrument to protect the objec¬
AREA AS THOSE FROM THE EDGE OF THE
tive when the instrument is not in use. Note the
strip of leather attached to the objective cap to FIELD.
A field stop limits the field to that area which
prevent loss.
is fully illuminated and sharply focused, because
DIAPHRAGMS OR FIELD STOPS it eliminates the peripheral region of poor
imagery (aberration) and prevents the observer
Diaphragms (fig. 7-1), sometimes called field from viewing the inside of the instrument.
When a field stop is located in the image plane,
stops because they limit the field of view, are
as shown, it provides a sharply defined limit to
rings of opaque material placed in optical sys¬
the field. It is designed to admit as much light
tems in such manner that light passes through
as is required by the next element in the optical
their centers only. When placed around the edges
system (erectors or an eyepiece). If a field
of lenses, stops prevent rays of light from
stop is used in each image plane, as illustrated,
passing through the margins of the lenses to
the second stop must be slightly larger than the
cause aberrations.
image of the first stop (where the second stop
When a diaphragm is placed between the
is located), so that inaccuracy in size or posi¬
objective and erecting system, between the
tioning of the stop will not conflict with the
erecting system and the eyepiece, or between
sharply defined image of the first stop.
parts of an erecting system, it eliminates
marginal rays which would cause glare and haze
if they were allowed to reflect from the inside LENS CELLS OR MOUNTS
walls. Such a stop in an optical system also
prevents ghost images, which result from Lens cells or mounts (same meaning) are
internal reflection of light rays from curved tubular mountings for optical elements in an
lens surfaces. optical instrument. See illustration 7-5. This
Antiglare stops (fig. 7-4) improve contrast cell is always made of metal, and it holds one
by preventing rays of light exterior to the field or more lenses, generally secured in the cell
of view from bouncing off the interior of the by a retainer ring or by burnishing (discussed
instrument and fogging the field or causing glare later in chapter). An entire lens assembly may
(rays 1 & 2, fig. 7-4). Observe that field stops be mounted as a unit in one cell.

145
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

SEPARATOR

SEPARATOR

EY ELENS

.RETAINING RING

137.165
Figure 7-5.— Lens cells, lenses, separator, and retaining ring.

When two or more lenses are mounted in a Some of the methods employed by the Navy
cell, they are held in their proper positions by for mounting lenses in optical instruments are
spacers or separators (fig. 7-5). Adjoining considered in the following pages.
faces of these separators are usually beveled
to fit snugly on the faces of lenses. As illus¬ RETAINER RING MOUNT
trated, the retainer rings are threaded on the
outside in order that they may be screwed into A retainer ring lens mount (fig. 7-6),
lens cells to secure lenses. machined internally, allows a lens to slide into it

146
 Chapter 7 -CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

three tinfoil shims placed 120° apart around the

edges of the lens. The shims, usually .001" or
.002" in thickness, are cemented to the concave
surface of the negative lens in order to hold
them in their proper positions.
The two elements with the shims are then
placed in the mount against a shoulder, as in a
retainer ring mount. A metal ring (spring),
same diameter as the elements, is machined flat
on one edge and machined with three lugs 120°
apart on the other edge. The spring ring is
then placed in the mount with its flat surface
against the rear surface of the negative lens,
after which a retainer ring is screwed into the
mount against the three lugs of the spring ring
and tightened, so as the distribute even pressure
on the elements and hold them securely in place.
BEVELED MOUNT
Retainer ring mounts are used for securing
SHOULDER optical elements in the housings of optical in¬
136.166 struments because they make removal of lenses
Figure 7-6. —Retainer ring lens mount. easy— for cleaning, recementing, or replacing.

BURNISHED MOUNTS

A burnished lens mount is illustrated in

and fit snugly against a shoulder. An externally figure 7-7. It is constructed in a manner
threaded ring (retainer ring) screws into the similar to that of a retainer ring mount except
mount and holds the lens in place against the that the lens is not secured in a cell by a re¬
shoulder. Note that the lens cell shown in figure taining ring. As shown in the illustration, you
7-6 is threaded externally, so that it can be must press or form part of the mount over
screwed into the housing of a telescope. the edges of a lens in order to hold it securely
Some retainer ring mounts are threaded in position.
externally so that they may be screwed into the The difficulty with a burnished lens mount
telescope body for axial adjustments. Mounts is that NO PROVISION IS MADE for removing
which do not have an external thread can be the lens for cleaning, recementing, or re¬
slipped into the body of a telescope against a placing. If an attempt is made to remove a
shoulder (as per Navy specifications). Both lens from this type of mount, damage to the
mounts are then secured in place with another lens and mount may result. When necessary,
retainer ring which screws into the telescope replace both the lens and the mount. Although
body. burnished lens mounts are not used in modern
Another type of retainer ring mount is part naval optical instruments, some of them are
of the main body of a telescope (by design), and still in use in older naval and foreign-made
the lens slides into the body and is held in place optical instruments.
with a retainer ring.
A retainer ring mount (sometimes secured ECCENTRIC MOUNTS
by a setscrew, as shown in fig. 7-6), is used
for holding compound lenses too large to be An eccentric lens mount (fig. 7-8) is used
cemented together. to mount the objective of an optical instrument
CAUTION: To prevent severe strain in the in a manner which permits moving of the op¬
lens, distortion of the lens image, and possible tical center of the lens laterally to the me¬
lens breakage, DO NOT TIGHTEN the retainer chanical axis of the optical instrument. Such
ring TOO tight, and DO NOT REVERSE the spring movement is necessary to align the optical
ring to such an extent that the three lugs bear axis of the lens to the mechanical axis of
against the glass. The positive and negative the instrument. This type of lens mount is
elements of the lens are therefore separated by used in an optical instrument when extreme

147
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

exactness in performance of the optical system PORRO PRISM MOUNTS

is required.
Take another look at illustration 7-8. Ob¬ A porro prism mount (fig. 7-10) consists
serve in part A that the objective lens is primarily of a flat metal plate shaped to the
mounted in an eccentric mount, over which an interior of a telescope body. It is machined to
eccentric ring is placed. By rotating the inner hold one prism on each side of the plate.
mount as desired in the outer ring, or by rotat¬ The hypotenuse surfaces of the prisms are
ing the outer ring over the inner mount, you mounted parallel to each other, and they are
can move the optical axis of the objective to set over holes machined in the plate to allow
any point in a relatively large area. When light to pass from one prism to the other.
you have both rings properly positioned, you In order to maintain the frosted surfaces of
can lock them in position. the two mounted prisms at 90° angles with each
The outer surface of an eccentric lens other, a rectangular, metal adjustment ring
mount is concentrically machined to a bearing (prism collar) is placed snugly around each
surface; and the inner surface (which holds the prism. If the two prisms are NOT AT 90°
objective lens) is also machined concentrically, ANGLES with each other, an effect CALLED
but the centers of the concentric surfaces DO LEAN IS CREATED IN THE PRISM CLUSTER,
NOT COINCIDE. The mount is thicker on one which means that the IMAGE APPEARS TO LEAN
side than on the other side. AT AN ANGLE IN COMPARISON WITH THE
An eccentric ring, machined in the same ACTUAL OBJECT.
manner as the lens mount, fits over the mount; Each prism is secured to the mount with a
and both are then ready for placing in the hous¬ spring clip or prism strap, pressed against the
ing of the telescope. A retainer ring is used to apex of the prism. The strap itself is secured
secure them. If the ring or mount (or both) to two posts, one on each side of the prism;
is then rotated, the optical axis of the objective and the posts, in turn, are screwed into the
rotates in a circle to cause circular movement prism plate. A metal shield placed over each
of the image created by it. prism under the prism strap prevents stray
light from entering the other prism surfaces.
SCREW ADJUSTING MOUNT These shields must be so placed that they do
not touch the reflecting surfaces of the prisms;
A screw adjusting lens mount is employed because if they touch, total internal reflection
to position a reticle of a telescope in one of does not take place and some of the light is
two ways: (1) by adjusting the reticle mount, refracted through the reflecting surface and
or (2) by adjusting the entire telescope body. absorbed by the light shields.
This mount has four adjusting screws placed
90° apart around the mount (fig. 7-9, from AMICI PRISM MOUNTS
Mk 75 boresight) for positioning horizontally
and vertically. The ends of these screws (thumb¬ An Amici (roof-angle) prism mount (part
screw type or slotted-head type) have bearing A, fig. 7-11) consists of a right-angled bracket
pads which press against the reticle mount or on which the prism sits. Shoulders are ground
the telescope body to hold it firmly in position. on the frosted sides of the prisms in order to
secure them to the bracket. Two prism straps
(one on each side) are placed against the prism
PRISM MOUNTS
shoulder, and then secured by screws to the
bracket. The bracket is fastened to the tele¬
scope body with four screws which can be
loosened when it is necessary to adjust the
Prism mounts hold prisms securely in their prism mount. Part B of the illustration shows
proper positions in a telescope body. As you disassembled parts.
know, a prism in an optical system must have
correct positioning with respect to all other RIGHT-ANGLED PRISM MOUNTS
optical elements in the system. Various types
of mounts are used to hold the prisms in cor¬ Mounts for right-angled prisms vary in de¬
rect position, a few of which are explained sign in accordance with needs. One mount (fig.
briefly. 7-12) holds the silvered or reflecting surfaces

148
 Chapter 7-CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

137.167
Figure 7 -7.— Burnished lens mount.

OBJECTIVE

137.169
Figure 7-9.— Screw adjusting lens mount.

of prisms securely in place and properly aligned

OUTER INN
INNER on bearing pads which prevent the surfaces from
RING RING touching the base of the mount. Four prism
straps, two on each side, hold the prisms in
position. The straps also contain bearing pads
A. ECCENTRIC OBJECTIVE MOUNT
which help to keep the prisms properly aligned
without chipping.

EYEPIECE ASSEMBLIES

Lenses in an eyepiece (figs. 6-15 through

6-21) are secured in a retainer ring-type mount.
The field lens and the eyelens may be fastened
separately, each with a retainer ring; but they
may also be secured together with the same re¬
tainer ring, with a separator placed between
the field lens and the eyelens to hold both at
the correct distance from each other.
The distance between the reticle and the eye¬
piece in an optical instrument must be so ad¬
B. ECCENTRIC MOUNT OF A justed to the observer’s eye that the reticle and
7X50 BINOCULAR image of the object are sharply defined and
eye fatigue is eliminated. In order to pro¬
137.168 vide this adjustment, the lenses (2 or more)
Figure 7-8.— Eccentric lens mount of the eyepiece are mounted in a single lens

149
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

137.170
1. Prism clip. 8. Prism post A.
2. Prism clip screw. 9. Prism post B.
3. Prism shield. 10. Prism post C.
4. Prism clip pad. 11. Prism post D.
5. Porro prism. 12. Left prism plate and dowel pins.
6. Prism collar. 13. Right prism plate and dowel pins.
7. Prism collar screw. 14. Prism plate dowel pin.
Figure 7-10.— Porro prism mount.

cell or tube, whose distance from the reticle DRAW TUBE

(also focal plane of the objective) can be ad¬
justed by a rack and pinion, a draw tube, or by A draw tube focusing arrangement (fig. 7-13)
rotation of the entire eyepiece during adjust¬ consists of a metal tube carrying the lenses
ment of the diopter scale. and their retainer ring. The tube is focused

150
 Chapter 7 -CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

surface
of

137.171
Figure 7-11.— Amici prism mount.

trunnion BEARING
SEARING PADS

TRUNNION
BEARING

137.172
Figure 7-12.— Right-angled prism mount.

151
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

E
DRAW TUBE
MOUNT

SPIRAL KEYWAY
EYEPIECE ASSEMBLY

137.173
Figure 7-13.— Drawtube focusing arrangement.

manually by sliding it forward or backward in A straight slot which guides the focusing
a guide tube at the rear of the telescope body key is cut through the guide tube parallel to
or housing. The draw tube can be secured to the optical axis of the telescope. The focusing
the guide tube or withdrawn completely from key is fastened to the draw tube and protrudes
it. This type of eyepiece focusing arrangement, through the straight slot to engage a spiral
however, is not widely used in the Navy, be¬ groove or keyway in the focusing ring. The
cause the draw tube focus can be disturbed by focusing ring is permitted to turn on the guide
a slight jar. tube, but it is prevented from moving along
the optical axis by a shoulder on the guide
SPIRAL (HELICAL) KEYWAY tube and the retainer ring on the opposite side.
The diopter-scale ring is mounted on the
A spiral keyway focusing arrangement (fig. shoulder of the eyepiece guide tube and is read
7-14) is a modification of a draw tube. It is against the index mark on the focusing ring.
similar in construction to a draw tube, but has Study illustration 7-9.
the additional following components: (1) a The diopter scale is graduated on either
focusing key or shoe, (2) a focusing ring, (3) side of 0 DIOPTER TO READ FROM PLUS TO
a retainer ring, and (4) a diopter-ring scale. MINUS DIOPTERS. The number of plus or

152
 Chapter 7-CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

137.174
1. Eyeguard 10. Stop ring lock screw.
2. Eyeguard clamp. 11. Knurled focusing ring.
3. Eyeguard clamp ring screw. 12. Focusing shoe.
4. Eyepiece collective retaining ring. 13. Focusing key.
5. Eyepiece collective lens. 14. Focusing key screw.
6. Eyelens retaining ring. 15. Eyepiece lens mount.
7. Cemented doublet eyelens. 16. Diopter ring.
8. Eyepiece focusing assembly. 17. Diopter ring lock screw.
9. Focusing ring stop ring. 18. Eyepiece diopter,
Figure 7-14.— Spiral keyway focusing arrangement.

minus diopter graduations depends upon the THREADED LENS MOUNTS (MULTIPLE-
design of the instrument, but it usually runs THREAD)
from +2 to -4 diopters. When the focusing
ring is turned either way, the focusing key A multiple-thread eyepiece lens mount (fig.
follows the spiral keyway and moves the draw 7-15) is a retaining-ring type with external
tube in or out to focus the eyepiece. If an multiple-lead threads, and it screws into a guide
operator focuses the eyepiece to his eye and tube or eyepiece adapter with multiple-lead
notes the diopter scale reading, he can save threads. When the eyepiece mount is screwed
time by adjusting to that reading each time he all the way into the adapter, it is stopped
uses the optical instrument. by a shoulder in the adapter. A stop ring is

153
9. Left cover and eyepiece

OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.175
1. Eyepiece cap.
2. Collective lens retaining ring. mount assembly.
3. Collective lens. 10. Right cover and eyepiece
4. Eyepiece lens spacer. mount assembly.
5. Cemented doublet eyelens. 11. Right eyepiece stop.
6. Eyepiece clamp ring. 12. Eyepiece lens mount.
7. Eyepiece clamp ring lock screw. 13. Right cover with eyepiece
8. Knurled focusing ring. adapter.
Figure 7-15.— Multiple-thread eyepiece lens mount.

then screwed into the top of the adapter, which INTERNAL FOCUSING MOUNT
prevents extraction of the eyepiece mount when
the threads reach the stop ring as the mount is An internal focusing eyepiece mount shown
screwed all the way out. A focusing ring with in figure 7-16, consists of a housing secured
a diopter scale engraved on it is attached to and sealed to the rear of the telescope body.
the top of the eyepiece .mount. The housing contains an eyelens secured by a

154
 Chapter 7-CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

retaining ring; and in the housing a movable draw tubes which slide in and out without ro¬
lens mount or cell containing the field lens tating are generally preferred in instruments
and an intermediate lens is free to move with reticles. NOTE: The reticle must be
forward or backward when the focusing knob superimposed ON THE SAME SPOT OF THE
and shaft are activated. As the focusing knob TARGET ALL THE TIME, REGARDLESS OF
rotates, it turns the focusing shaft and rotates THE MANNER IN WHICH THE EYEPIECE IS
an eccentrically mounted actuating plate which, FOCUSED. If the eyepieces or lens mounts ro¬
in turn, slides the movable lens mount toward tate with eccentricity in a telescope which has
or away from the eyelens during focusing for a reticle, the image of the target appears to
individual eye corrections. The dioptric scale move under the reticle image in a small circle.
is on the focusing knob and the index mark is One advantage internal-focusing and fixed
on the focusing shaft housing. eyepieces have over spiral keyway and multiple-
A fixed-type eyepiece, (part D, fig. 7-12) as lead-thread eyepieces is that they can be sealed
the name implies, is fixed in position and can¬ well enough to prevent entrance of foreign
not be focused for individual eye correction. matter and moisture. Telescopes with these
The eyepiece mount may consist of a housing eyepieces can even be submerged under water,
secured and sealed at the rear of the telescope because they will not leak. On some optical
body, which contains the eyelens, separator, instruments, fixed-type eyepieces must also
field lens, and the retainer ring. The eye¬ be capable of withstanding a hydrostatic pres¬
piece housing may also be part of the main sure test (subjected to water pressures applied
telescope housing with its component parts. externally) prior to approval for service in the
If the eyepiece housing is part of the main fleet.
telescope housing, the lenses and the spacer Spiral keyway and multiple-lead-thread eye¬
slide into the eyepiece housing from the rear pieces cannot be submerged under water, and
and are secured in place with a retaining cap they also BREATHE DURING FOCUSING; that
screwed onto the rear of the housing. is, WHEN YOU FOCUS THEM IN, THEY COM¬
Because this eyepiece cannot be focused PRESS THE AIR WITHIN THE TELESCOPE AND
for individual eye correction, the light rays FORCE IT OUT THROUGH THEIR JOINTS AND
which leave it are slightly divergent, with a LOOSE FITTINGS. NOTE: Some telescopes
value of -3/4 or -1 1/2 diopters. It is set at have a small hole near the eyepiece mount
this value because the majority of operators set which enables the air in them to escape freely.
focusing eyepieces slightly on the minus side of WHEN YOU FOCUS THESE EYEPIECES OUT,
the dioptric scale. THEY DRAW AIR AND DUST INTO THE TELE¬
Focusing-type eyepieces are mechanically SCOPE. This breathing action can be caused
designed to provide fast focusing with minimum also by changes in atmospheric pressure or
turning of the focusing ring or knob. This design temperature changes (day to night, for example).
permits the eyepiece (when turned completely As time passes, dirt and moisture collected
out) to stop on the plus side of the diopter scale; in the optical elements of the telescope diminish
and to be focused all the way in to the stop on or obliterate vision through the instrument.
the minus side of the scale, with one rotation Multiple-lead-thread eyepieces have few me¬
(or less) of the focusing ring. Multiple-lead chanical parts and are therefore light in weight.
threads of eyepiece mounts, because of their Another advantage they have over some other
long lead, are responsible for this type of types of eyepieces is that their threads reduce
focusing. In internal focusing eyepieces, the ec¬ backlash, hold eccentricity to a tolerable mini¬
centric plate slides the lens mounts from maxi¬ mum, and provide smooth focusing action.
mum to minimum throw with a half turn (or less) One disadvantage of a fixed-type eyepiece is
of the focusing knob. that IT DOES NOT PROVIDE MEANS FOR FO¬
The lenses of the spiral keyway and internal CUSING TO THE EYES. This is a fairly serious
focusing eyepieces do not rotate when they are disadvantage to a slightly farsighted operator
focused, and this is an advantage over a multiple- who requires that convergent rather than di¬
lead-thread eyepiece. When multiple-lead vergent light rays leave the eyepiece. It is
thread eyepieces are rotated, eccentricity in the also a serious disadvantage for a slightly
lenses or their mounts (if present) causes the nearsighted operator who requires that more
image of a target to appear to rotate in a divergent rays than the eyepiece itself provides
small circle. For this reason, eyepieces with leave the eyepiece. Normally, only trained

155
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

3. operators with natural 20/20 vision operate AXIAL LOAD.— An axial load is one di¬
gunsights; but both a person of normal vision rected along the axis of rotation or surface of
and another with vision corrected by glasses to an object.
normal vision have NEARLY THE SAME diopter ANGULAR LOAD.— An angular load is a
setting for focusing an eyepiece. No two in¬ combination of the other loads just described.
dividuals, however, with or without eyes cor¬ Bearings are generally classified as: (1)
rected by glasses, have the same diopter set¬ SLIDING SURFACE, and (2) ROTATIONAL
ting. An individual’s setting can change (sometimes called rolling contact bearings).
(usually does) from hour to hour during the
day, in accordance with the amount of time spent
SLIDING SURFACE BEARINGS
looking through optical instruments.

A sliding surface bearing usually has a

OPTICAL INSTRUMENT BEARINGS stationary member which forms the base on
which its moving part slides. See figure 7-17.
When a shaft is mounted in a device to A lathe, for example, has this type of bearing
hold it during rotation, friction develops at the in the holding and guiding of the carriage, and
contact point of the shaft with the device. tailstock on the lathe bed. The sliding sur¬
Friction develops heat, and the amount of fric¬ faces are not always flat; they may be square,
tion produced in a shaft housing must therefore angular, or circular. The piston and cylinder
be reduced to a minimum in order to obtain bore of an internal combustion engine constitute
satisfactory performance and longer life of the a circular sliding surface bearing.
shaft. Devices which reduce the amount of fric¬ There are many variations of sliding sur¬
tion produced by shafts in their housings are face bearings used in optical instruments, some
called BEARINGS. A bearing may also be of the more common of which are:
defined as a device used to guide and support 1. Cylindrical
RECIPROCATING and ROTATING elements 2. Spherical
which may be subject to external loads re¬ 3. Square (quadrangular)
solved into components possessing normal, ra¬ Cylindrical and spherical sliding surface
dial, or axial directions, or two-dimensional bearings are used to mount some of the smaller
loads in combination. gunsights in order that they may be easily
boresighted (aligned with the gun). Refer to
Unless it is a simple type such as a single
illustration 7-18, which shows these two bear¬
lens reading glass, an optical instrument has
ings used in an assembly. The cylindrical slid¬
many moving parts. Movement of these parts,
ing surface bearing is secured in its mating
however, must be so restricted that motion takes
place ONLY IN THE DIRECTION DESIRED. surface on the gun mount. The function of the
spherical sliding surface bearing is to hold the
Freedom of movement is also essential, and
front of the gunsight securely in the cylindrical
it can be attained by reducing friction between
sliding surface bearing; and at the same time to
moving parts. Movable parts of an optical in¬
allow radial movement of the rear end of the
strument must therefore be supported and re¬
gunsight (within certain limitations imposed by
tained by some suitable means, so that friction-
the construction of the spherical sliding surface
free movement in a specific direction may be
bearing).
obtained.
The purpose of the SQUARE BEARING(quad-
Before we get into the discussion of dif¬ rangular) is to move and to hold the rear por¬
ferent types of bearings, it is a good idea to tion of a gunsight. Study illustration 7-18 again,
explain the different types of loads which bear¬ and then study figure 7-19, which shows the
ings must carry, as follows: position of a spherical bearing and a quadran¬
1. NORMAL LOAD.— A normal load is one gular (square) bearing in an optical instrument.
applied TOWARD and PERPENDICULAR to The bearing surfaces in this instance are sub¬
the bearing surface. jected to NORMAL LOADS by four ADJUSTING
2. RADIAL LOAD. —A radial load is a load SCREWS in an adjusting-screw mount (fig. 7-9).
directed AWAY FROM a surface, the opposite Each adjusting screw exerts pressure on its
of a normal load. Rotation of a wheel or object respective bearing surface; and by loosening
on an axis is an application of radial load. and tightening opposing screws, as necessary,

156
 Chapter 7-CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

MOVABLE LENS CELL FIELD LENS

BEARING
SURFACE

137.77
Figure 7-17. —Sliding surface bearing.

you can boresight the telescope. Adjusting-

screw mounts are also good for holding and ad¬
justing reticle mounts.
Although not a sliding surface bearing, the
137.176 square bearing is used as a LOCATING BEAR¬
Figure 7-16.— Internal focusing eyepiece ING SURFACE, with little sliding motion (if
mount. any) exerted upon it. When accurately machined,

SPHERICAL
8EARING QUADRANGULAR
BEARING

137.178
Figure 7-18. -Cylindrical sliding surface bearing and square bearing in an instrument assembly.

157
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Trunnions are attached permanently to the

body casting at the central point of a telescope
or mount; but they may be part of the body
casting. The trunnions make it possible to ro¬
tate a telescope (or mount) during elevation or
depression; and if the telescope is stopped at
any position, it remains in that position, PRO¬
VIDED THE TELESCOPE IS PERFECTLY
BALANCED.
Because their resistance to rolling friction
is much less than for sliding friction, precision
BALL BEARINGS are used extensively in optical
instruments. Precision ball bearings in self-
contained units are classified in accordance with
design. Differences in design in ball bearings
are generally not apparent externally. When
making a design of these bearings, the OUTER
RACE, the INNER RACE, and the STEEL BALLS
BEARING
(which roll between the races) must be taken into
consideration.
137.179
As you study the most common designs of
Figure 7-19. —Positions of sliding surface self-contained precision ball bearings in the
bearings in a telescope. following paragraphs, refer to illustrations 7-20
and 7-21 to determine their differences.

Radial and Thrust Ball Bearings

a square bearing is used as a bearing pad for
holding large gunsights in gun mounts and di¬ Radial ball bearings (part A, fig. 7-20) are
rectors, and for locating and holding parts inside designed to carry loads applied to a plane
optical instruments. During overhaul of a gun- perpendicular to the axis of rotation in order
sight telescope, bearing pads become reference to prevent movement of the shaft in a RADIAL
surfaces. DIRECTION. Thrust ball bearings (part C,
fig. 7-20) are designed to take loads applied
ROTATIONAL BEARINGS in the SAME DIRECTION as the axis of the
shaft in order to prevent free ENDWISE MOVE¬
A rotational bearing generally has a sta¬ MENT.
tionary member for holding the rotating mem¬ Radial and thrust ball bearings are there¬
ber. The stationary member is called the fore designed to carry loads in a specific
BEARING. The rotational member is usually direction: PERPENDICULAR OR PARALLEL
in the form of a shaft, whose precision-finished TO THE AXIS OF SUPPORTED SHAFTS.
surfaces are called TRUNNIONS and rotate
in the stationary member. Trunnions are by
Angular Ball Bearings.
necessity circular in cross section, but their
profile may be cylindrical, conical, spherical,
or an even more complex form. The most An angular ball bearing (part B, fig. 7-20)
common TRUNNION PROFILE in use is cylin¬ supports an ANGULAR LOAD— a load which has
drical. components of radial and axial thrust— and it
Trunnion bearings (fig. 7-12) such as those is exemplified by the bearing in the front wheel
on the ends of a Mark 61 telescope, right- of a bicycle. Angular ball bearings are NOR-.
angled prism mount are used on MANY KINDS MALLY USED IN PAIRS, in a manner which
of telescopes. A trunnion is a shaft which ro¬ enables the ANGULAR CONTACT SURFACES
tates around a true horizontal axis in order to of the outer and inner race of ONE BEARING
keep the optical axis of a telescope or prism to oppose the ANGULAR CONTACT SURFACES
mount in a true vertical plane during elevating of the OUTER and INNER RACE of the OTHER
or depressing operations. BEARING. This arrangement of the bearings

158
 Chapter 7- CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

CONTACT

A B C
77.66
Figure 7-20.— Different types of ball bearings.

provides a technique designated as PRE LOAD¬ a bearing is used between polaroid filter plates
ING, which REMOVES what is called GIVE or in optical instruments, in order to secure
SOFTNESS before the bearings are subjected to SMOOTH and FREE rotation.
their normal loads. The RAY FILTER ASSEMBLY in a ship’s
The principle of PRELOADING is illustrated telescope uses ONLY ONE precision steel ball
in figure 7-21. Preloading can be obtained (and as a detent, which starts or stops the move¬
normally is) by subjecting the inner races to a ment. The steel ball in this assembly is held
STATIC THRUST directed axially TOWARD the against the ray filter plate by a recessed spring
angular contact surfaces of the OUTER RACES. and follower. When each glass filter is cor¬
In some cases, individual precision steel rectly positioned in the line of sight, the detent
balls are used as a bearing between two parts. ball is thrust into a groove on the plate to hold
When this is true, the parts themselves act the desired filter in the line of sight.
as the BEARING RACES, with the desired num¬ CAUTION: Dry metallic surfaces under an
ber of steel balls rolling between them. Such appreciable load, though smoothly machined,

159
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

will not slide over each other without abrasion; 8. Root diameter (Dr) is the outside dia¬
so they must be kept covered CONTINUALLY meter less TWICE the whole depth.
with an approved lubricant, which actually keeps 9. Although not shown in the illustration,
them separated and prevents abrasion and fric¬ center distance (C) is the distance between the
tion. Like metals do NOT RUB TOGETHER axes of a pair of gears correctly meshed.
WELL unless completely covered with a film 10. Chordal addendum (ac) represents the
of lubricant. If properly lubricated, precision- distance (measured on a radial line) from the
made ball bearings wear very little. When wear top of a gear tooth to a chord subtending the
does occur in ball bearings, replace them. intersections of the tooth-thickness arc and
Adjustment is impossible. the sides of the tooth. Chordal tooth thickness
(tc) represents the length of a chord sub¬
tended by the circular -tooth-thickness arc.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENT GEARS Several methods have been devised for
checking the accuracy of gear teeth, one of
An instrument designer must know what types which is checking the thickness of a gear tooth
of gears to use for a specific function in order on a straight line through the points at which
to provide the TYPE OF MOTION and SPEED the pitch circle touches the gear tooth. This
required. Because you must work with these is the measurement of CHORDAL THICKNESS.
gears in optical shops, knowledge concerning Various instruments are used for measur¬
the basic types will be beneficial to you. ing chordal thickness, including a gear -tooth
vernier caliper with a horizontal scale and a
GEAR NOMENCLATURE vertical scale. Tables of chordal thicknesses
and corrected addenda are shown in standard
In order for you to calculate dimensions of engineering handbooks for a range of gears
a gear, you need to know the terms used to from 10 teeth to 140 teeth (and over), based
designate the parts of a gear. The brief dis¬ on a diametrial pitch of 1. For other pitches,
cussion which follows provides this informa- divide the values in the tables by the specific
ion. diametral pitches.
Refer to illustration 7-22 for terms used 11. Backlash (B) represents the difference
in referring to or describing gears and gear between the tooth thickness and the tooth space
teeth. The symbols in parentheses are standard of engaged gear teeth at the pitch circle.
gear nomenclature symbols.
1. Outside diameter (Do) is the overall dia¬ SPUR GEARS
meter of a gear.
2. Pitch diameter (D) represents the dia¬ Some spur gears are shown in figure 7-23
meter of a circle used to calculate the dimen¬ (from a Mark 74 gunsight), and they are used
sions of a gear. This pitch diameter is less more than any other type of gear in optical
than the outside diameter by an amount equal instruments to transmit power from one shaft
to twice the addendum. to another.
3. Diametral pitch (P) is a ratio or number
Teeth on spur gears vary in size (in ac¬
of teeth per inch of pitch diameter.
4. Circular pitch (Cp) represents the length cordance with requirements), stated in terms
of an arc of the pitch circle measured from a of QUANTITY as PITCH, or DIAMETRAL PITCH
(number of teeth per inch of pitch diameter).
point on one tooth to a corresponding point on
the next tooth. There are as many circular This means that a spur gear with 16 pitch and
pitches (of equal length ) in a gear as there are a pitch diameter of 1 inch has 16 teeth, and so
teeth in that gear. forth. The FACE OF A GEAR is its thick¬
5. Addendum (a) is the height of a tooth above ness, measured across the base of its teeth.
the pitch circle along a radial line. A gear with a face of 3/4 inch, for example,
is 3/4 inch thick at that point.
6. Dedendum (b) is the depth of a tooth Speed ratios between shafts having spur
below the pitch circle along a radial line. gears is important, and ratio is defined as the
7. Whole depth of tooth (H) represents the RECIPROCAL OF THE RATIO OF THE QUAN¬
total depth of a tooth groove. It consists of TITY OF TEETH OF THE TWO GEARS, or
one addendum plus (+) one dedendum. reciprocal of the ratio of their pitch diameters.

160
 Chapter 7-CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

ness of operation is important, it is best to use

gears with at least 20 teeth in a 14 1/2 degree
system, and at least 14 teeth should be used on
20 degree gears with full-depth teeth.
Metals generally used in small spur gears
are brass and steel; but cast iron is widely used
in large spur gears. Spur gears, however, are
also made of non-metallic substances.

BEVEL GEARS

Bevel gears used in optical instruments can

be put on shafts which intersect at desired angles,
provided the angle of the teeth is correct in
relation to the shafts.
Bevel gears are made with straight or curved
Figure 7-21. —Preloading produced by pairs teeth, but they CANNOT BE INTERCHANGED
of angular ball bearings. WITH SPUR GEARS. By using the proper type of
bevel gear, however, you can get a different
If more than 40 teeth are required on a gear, speed ratio, as desired. When these gears are
used to change the direction of motion 90°, with
14 1/2 degree gears are generally preferable;
if 40 teeth are not required, 20 degree gears no change in speed, THEY ARE CALLED MITER
with full-depth teeth are preferred. When quiet¬ GEARS. NOTE: If lapped pairs of bevel gears
X

a- -addendum t --chordal tooth thickness H- -whole depth of tooth

c D- -pitch diameter
a --chordal addendum
c
t--arc tooth thickness on D0- -outside diameter
b--dedendum pitch circle
Dr- -root diameter
c- -clearance cp--circular pitch
B--backlash
28.259

Figure 7-22. —Gear nomenclature.

161
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

are used in an optical instrument (and others),

almost perfect quietness of operation is obtained.
The shape of bevel gears, especially those
with spiral teeth, causes them to exert much
thrust. For this reason, the end of a shaft which
contains the gear is generally supported by an
angular ball bearing, and the other end has a
radial ball bearing.
When one component of a pair of gears which
mesh together is bigger than the other (B, C, and
D, fig. 7-24) THE BIGGER COMPONENT IS
USUALLY CALLED THE GEAR AND THE
SMALLER COMPONENT IS CALLED THE PIN¬
ION.
Spiral bevel gears (part B, fig. 7-13) are
used in optical instruments (and others) because
they are interchangeable for varying the speed
ratio and can be used indifferent ways, as illus¬
trated. They are cut right- and left-hand, and
they are specified like spur gears with refer¬
ence to face, pitch, and pitch diameter.
Spiral bevel gears which have the same cut
(right or left hand) operate at right angles; those 5.22.1
which have opposite cuts are used on parallel Figure 7-23.— Types of spur gears.

BEVEL GEAR

81.195
Figure 7-24.— Types of bevel gears.

162
 Chapter 7-CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

shafts. Because the teeth of spiral bevel gears in a linear motion, as indicated; and it is simply
slide over one another, bronze or hardened steel a straight bar into which the gear teeth have been
is used in their manufacture to make them more cut. The pinion, of course, moves in a rotary
durable. motion.

WORM GEAR AND WORM

DRAFTING MACHINES
Study part A of illustration 7-24, the top part
of which is called a WORM, and the bottom part
of which is called a WORM GEAR. Worm gears A person with drafting experience knows the
and worms are used extensively in instruments value of a T-square and triangles, used to draw
because they provide an effective means for straight parallel lines and angles. T-squares
reducing velocity and transmitting power. Study and triangles, however, are not satisfactory for
the worm and sector gear from a gunsight ele¬ general drafting purposes; but drafting machines
vator shaft in illustration 7-25. (with parallel motion protractors) combine the
If a worm has ONLY ONE continuous thread, features of the T-square and triangles.
it is called a SINGLE-THREAD worm; but more The drafting machine illustrated in figure
than one thread may be cut on a worm. Two 7-27 is one of many different designs. It is con¬
continuous threads on a worm constitute a structed with two arms, each with one end con¬
DOUBLE-THREAD worm; three continuous
nected by and pivoted about a common shaft on
threads on a worm are called a TRIPLE -THREAD ball bearings to give an elbow effect. The free
worm. end of ONE ARM is secured to the drafting
Single-thread and double-thread are terms table by a bracket, shaft, and ball bearings,
which indicate the TOTAL NUMBER of contin¬ about which the arm can be rotated. The free
uous threads, NOT number of threads per inch. end of the OTHER ARM is equipped with a pro¬
Pitch of a worm means linear distance from a tractor head. There is a pulley at the free end
of each arm; and there is an elbow pulley at the
specific point on one thread to a corresponding
center pivot, where the two arms are joined by
point on the adjacent thread, measured parallel
to the axis of the worm. The pitch can also be the same shaft.
determined by dividing one (1) by the number Each of the arms shown in figure 7-27 has
of threads per inch. two hollow bars through which a steel band runs
Pitch is therefore the RECIPROCAL of the around pulleys at the ends of each arm; and the
number of threads per inch; and LEAD is the bands of both arms run around the elbow pulley.
axial distance (parallel to worm axis) moved by Regardless of the manner in which the machine
the worm thread upon completion of one revolu¬ is pivoted or moved about, the arms remain
tion of the worm. On a worm with a single thread, parallel to the surface of the drawing board.
lead and pitch are therefore equal; but the lead The protractor head is equipped with a pro¬
is TWICE the pitch on a double-thread worm and
tractor and other component parts to enable it
THREE TIMES the pitch on a triple-thread to function properly. The protractor is gradu¬
ated from 0 to 359 degrees and can be rotated
worm. and locked in any desired position. A straight¬
As is true for spur gears, worms are speci¬
fied in DIAMETRAL PITCH and PITCH DIAM¬ edge or scale is attached to other component
ETER; because they must be so machined that parts of the head, which may also be rotated
they fit the worm gears with which they mesh. and locked in any position.
This means that such factors as thread number, A drafting machine of this type enables you
threads per inch, face length, and pitch diameter
to select any desired angle with the scale, lock
it, and draw that angle at any location on the
must be taken into consideration.
drafting paper. Regardless of how you move the
machine over the paper, provided you lock the
RACK AND PINION protractor head and scale in position, the scale
remains locked and parallel to that angle. This
Some fire control equipment and optical in¬ is beneficial, because parallel lines (regardless
struments use a rack and pinion such as the one
of number chosen) can be drawn by moving the
protractor head to the desired position. The steel
illustrated in figure 7-26. The rack gear moves

163
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

bands which run around the pulleys make this

action possible. When the arms are positioned
as desired, the bands and pulleys function to¬
gether to hold the scale in suspension.
Two scales may be attached to some pro¬
tractor heads, as shown in figure 7-28. The
scales are held at right angles to each other to
enable you (the operator) to draw vertical lines
and horizontal lines simultaneously. Such draw¬
ing is impossible if you have only one scale,
because the single scale must be readjusted each
time you desire a vertical or horizontal line
line.

The procedure for attaching the scales to the

protractor head is shown in illustration 7-28. A
male dovetail fitting attached to the scale is
fitted to the female dovetail fitting of the scale
bracket. The scale alignment adjusting screw,
5.22.9 which fastens the male dovetail fitting to the
Figure 7-25.— Sector gear and worm. scale, permits slight angular adjustments for
truing the two scales at a 90° angle to each other.
This adjustment is rarely necessary.

5.22.13
Figure T-26.— Rack and pinion.

164
 Chapter 7- CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

45.137
Figure 7-27.— Drafting machine.

45.137
Figure 7-28. —Scale fittings for a drafting
machine.

165
 CHAPTER 8

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

The primary purpose of this chapter is to HANDLING PROCEDURE

provide repair and maintenance information ap¬
plicable to all optical instruments. Chapters Most containers for optical instruments have
10 through 13 contain additional information catches or locks for securing the instruments in
pertaining to the repair and maintenance of par¬ position; so when you put an instrument in its
ticular types of optical instruments— alidades, container, place it GENTLY INTO POSITION
binoculars, boresights, collimators, telescopes, and carefully close the lid. DO NOT TRY TO
and so forth. Other information pertaining to FORCE AN INSTRUMENT INTO ITS CON¬
the repair and maintenance of these instruments TAINER OR SLAM THE COVER SHUT. The
is available in such publications as: Basic contour of the interior of the case was made in
Handtools, NavPers 10085-A; Blueprint Reading the best manner possible by the manufacturer
and Sketching, NavPers 1007-B; Mathematics, to hold the instrument snugly in place to pre¬
Vol. 1, NavPers 10069-B; and Mathematics, vent damage during handling. If the instrument
Vol. 2, NavPers 10071-A. does not go into its case without difficulty,
check for an extended draw tube or something
Another objective of this chapter is to im¬
else which is hindering smooth entrance into
press upon your mind the importance of (1)
CARE IN HANDLING and (2) CLEANLINESS OF proper position. CAUTION: Always secure the
cover to the container with the catches installed
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. These instruments
by the manufacturer.
are precision-built and very expensive, and
the importance of care in handling and main¬
taining them CANNOT be overemphasized. You The most important word for you to remem¬
will learn through experience, for example, that ber relative to the handling of optical instru¬
even a small amount of dust can impair the ef¬ ments is CARE. If you handle binoculars
ficiency of an optical instrument; and you will roughly or drop them, for example, shock may
also learn from experience that extreme care result in misalignment or breakage of optical
must be exercised in handling delicate optical and mechanical parts. Prisms and reticles
elements. usually have adjustable mounts, and a very
small amount of shock may knock them out of
adjustment. When this happens, you have only
one choice: REPAIR. This means that you
HANDLING AND STOWING
must unseal the instrument, disassemble parts,
repair (as necessary), reassembly, adjust, and
Optical instruments are shipped in specially collimate. As you know, this adds to much
constructed containers designed for adequate work, all of it resulting (perhaps) from thought¬
protection during transportation. When you re¬ lessness and negligence in handling.
ceive optical instruments in the optical shop,
check their containers for damage and cleanli¬ Gunsight telescopes have bearing surfaces
ness; then, if there is no reason why you should by means of which they are mounted onto other
remove the instruments from the containers, components; and a dent or scratch on the sur¬
stow them in clean storage cabinets or spaces faces may make mounting impossible. You will
provided for them. CAUTION: When you MUST soon find out that it is difficult to repair such
MOVE AN INSTRUMENT from one location to bearing surfaces and decide that CARE IN HAN¬
another, if possible, move it in its container. DLING CAN PREVENT UNNECESSARY WORK.

166
 Chapter 8- MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

STORAGE INFORMATION When the air is humid (in the tropics, for
example), protect instrument bearing surfaces
The elements which cause most harm and/or with a thin film of petrolatum. Cover unpainted
damage to optical instruments in storage are: metal surfaces with a thin film of oil; but KEEP
(1) contaminated dust, (2) moisture and chemi¬ OIL AND GREASE OFF OPTICAL SURFACES,
cals, and (3) heat and light, each of which is and also from locations from which it may be
discussed in some detail in the next paragraphs. carried to optical surfaces.
The reaction of moisture with acid fumes
Contaminated Dust and dust in contact with optical glass results in
rapid deterioration (etching) of the glass. Salt
Much of the dust which settles on objects water causes serious corrosion to unprotected
aboard ship comes from lint-producing bedding, metal parts of instruments, as is also true of
furniture, and clothing. Other dust comes from fresh water mixed with acid fumes. In the
various sources throughout the ship, including presence of moisture, bacteria which settle on
shops and storage spaces. The air surrounding glass surfaces may cause a dull-gray film on
a ship in port, of course, may contain contami¬ the glass. Moisture also helps to form stains
nated dust. on lens surfaces.
Dust alone may cause damage to optical in¬ The reaction of uric acid, acetic acid, and
struments when it settles on them; but dust salt with sweat on your fingers causes reflection-
usually contains mineral particles which are in reducing films on optical glass and deteriora¬
some instances as hard as glass or steel. When tion and etching of the glass itself.
you therefore try to remove the dust, unless you CAUTION: Do NOT put your bare fingers on
are careful and use proper procedures, you may optical surfaces. Use lens tissue when you pick
damage the optical elements or other parts of optical elements up to clean them; and clean
instruments. If you try to wipe the dust off them with a swab or clean tissue.
optical elements, you may simply grind it into Such mineral acids as sulfuric and nitric do
their optical surfaces and cause scratches. The NOT harm most types of glass when other chemi¬
procedure for cleaning optical and mechanical cals are absent. You can, in fact, use these
parts is outlined later in this chapter. acids to clean optical surfaces. Hydrofluoric
The best way to protect optical instruments and phosphoric acids, or their fumes, may
in storage is to keep them in their cases or quickly ruin optical surfaces. On the other hand,
containers. Before you stow optical parts, you can use controlled amounts of hydrofluoric
WRAP THEM CAREFULLY WITH APPROVED acid fumes to etch cross lines on glass to make
WRAPPING MATERIAL. Should it be necessary a reticle. To protect optical instruments and
for you to remove a part of an instrument for parts from chemical fumes, KEEP THEM AS
repairs (the objective, for example), cover the FAR AS POSSIBLE FROM THE ROOM IN WHICH
opening with a cap of bond paper or masking YOU USE CHEMICALS.
tape to keep dust out. Secure the paper cap with
a rubber band or tape. If an instrument has Heat and Light
lens caps, leave the caps in place (except when
the instrument is in use). Optical glass and metal generally are not
harmed by moderate amounts of dry heat, but
Moisture and Chemicals very high temperatures damage them. Even
moderate amounts of dry heat, on the other
Moisture is always present in the air in hand, DO HARM CEMENTED FILTERS AND
minute quantities, and occasionally an optical LENSES. High temperature softens the cement,
instrument is covered with spray. Water in it¬ and may cause separation of the elements. When
self causes some damage to instruments; but subjected to heat for a certain time, cement
when it contains acid fumes or salt, the damage used for making compound lenses becomes dry
it inflicts upon optical instruments may be and brittle; and when this is true, slight shock
serious. or vibration may crack it, or separate the opti¬
CAUTION: When an optical instrument re¬ cal elements.
ceives a spray of salt water, remove the water Strong sunlight hardens cement and often
immediately from optical surfaces with lens discolors it, thereby affecting the quality of
paper and dry the housing with a clean cloth. compound lenses or rendering them useless.

167
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

For this reason, when available or provided, The next day, and during successive days, this
ALWAYS KEEP LENS HOODS OR SUN SHADES procedure continues until a film of moisture
IN PLACE ON OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS EX¬ covers an optical surface (perhaps several) and
POSED TO THE SUN. renders the instrument temporarily useless.
Inspect assembly screws for tightness. If
retaining rings are exposed at the end of the
INSPECTING OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS tube of an instrument, check them also for
tightness, by applying light pressure with your
There may be occasions when you will be fingers.
assigned duty on a large combat vessel and given
CAUTION: Do NOT TOUCH the lens with
full responsibility for inspecting all optical in¬
your fingers, and do NOT USE a retainer ring
struments aboard the ship. By carefully inspect¬
wrench to test the rings for tightness. The set¬
ing the instruments and taking care of little screw of the ring (or the ring itself) may be
troubles, you will be able to save yourself and
sealed with shellac; and if you attempt to turn
your repair activity much work. Make notes on
the ring with a wrench, you may break the seal.
your inspection of each instrument and recom¬
Take a close look at the condition of the paint
mend appropriate remedial action, aboard your
on exposed metal parts. To prevent corrosion,
ship or at a repair facility.
cover worn or cracked and chipped paint with a
CAUTION: When you inspect an optical in¬
thin film of approved oil. As soon as possible,
strument in use aboard ship and follow up with
send the instrument to the shop for repainting.
minor repairs, do NOT DISTURB the optical
system.
When you are assigned duty in a repair ac¬ MECHANICAL CONDITION
tivity afloat or ashore, inspect every instrument
sent to the optical shop for repairs. If an in¬
Carefully examine mechanical adjusting
strument is unfamiliar to you, get all informa¬
screws, and check knob and gear mechanisms
tion concerning it from Ordnance Pamphlets
for slack or excessive tightness. If the instru¬
(OP's), Bureau of Naval Weapons publications,
ment moves on bearings, test them for binding
NavShips Manuals, and blue prints. Never at¬
or looseness.
tempt to disassemble and repair an instrument
Try the focusing action of the eyepiece to find
until you fully understand it.
out if you can focus it (in and out) without bind¬
During your predisassembly inspection of
ing or dragging. If binding or dragging exists,
an instrument, try to locate difficulties. Inspect
the eyepiece adapter or the draw tube is eccen¬
the physical and mechanical condition of the
tric, which condition is generally caused by
instrument and also its optical system. Use a
dropping or jarring.
casualty analysis inspection sheet and record
all your findings on it. Backlash in the focusing action of an eye¬
piece is usually caused by a loose stop or a re¬
PHYSICAL CONDITION tainer ring; but it may be caused by a loose key
and its screws in the spiral keyway assembly.
The defects to look for when inspecting an Check the mechanical, 0 diopter setting of the
optical instrument are: dents; cracks; and eyepiece to determine whether the index mark
breaks in the housing, mount, and bearing sur¬ points to 0 diopters when the eyepiece draw tube
faces. Unless they are on a bearing surface, is at mid-throw (halfway in and halfway out).
small breaks are generally not serious, but they The focusing action should be such that the in¬
still require immediate attention. A crack in dex mark clears all diopter graduations (plus
the housing (or a loose or broken seal), for ex¬ and minus) during full travel of the drawtube.
ample, soon causes condensation of moisture If the instrument has turning shafts (ray fil¬
within the instrument. ter or input), check them by turning the shafts.
Temperature changes from day to day cause If rotational action of the ray filter shafts does
an optical instrument to BREATHE through a not turn the color filters in or out of the line of
crack; that is, during the day the instrument sight, the cause is most likely improper meshing
takes in warm, moist air through the crack, of gears, or detachment of the gear itself from
and at night (when the instrument and air cool) the shaft. If the shaft does not rotate, it is
the moisture condenses inside the instrument. corroded or bent.

168
 Chapter 8- MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

All mechanisms must move freely, without 5. FUNGUS OR WATER MARKS. Brown or
binding, slack, backlash, or lost motion. Mov¬ green patches, or stains, indicate the presence
ing parts should be just tight enough to keep of fungus or water marks. Deposits of salt may
them in proper position. cause a grainy, milky color similar to that of
Check for missing or broken parts —retainer frosted glass.
rings, set screws, and so forth. You can locate 6. DETERIORATED BALSAM. Deteriora¬
loose or broken internal parts by shaking the tion of Canada balsam used to cement lenses to¬
instrument. gether is indicated by cracking, or a dark or
If the instrument is gas sealed, CHECK ITS yellow color; and areas between the elements
GAS PRESSURE by attaching a pressure gage appear milky, colored or opaque, splotched, or
to the gas inlet fitting. Then crack the valve net- or thread-like. When the cement just begins
screw and read the pressure on the gage to find to separate, bubbles and areas of splotches
out if it is correct. Correct pressure in most shaped like oak leaves appear between the ele¬
nitrogen-charged optical instruments is ap¬ ments. If there are brightly colored bands or
proximately two pounds per square inch, or as rings (Newton’s Rings) between the elements,
indicated in the manufacturer’s technical man¬ the lenses are under strain in their mounts, or
ual for a particular instrument. If the gage in¬ a sudden, sharp blow on the instrument caused
dicates NO PRESSURE in the instrument, there the cement to break down.
is a bad gasket, a loose fitting, or a loose screw. 7. HAZY OR CLOUDED IMAGE. Foreign
Check for all of these defects when you disas¬ matter on the objective lens, the erectors, or
semble a gas-filled optical instrument. the prisms of an optical system cause a hazy or
clouded image.
Optical System You can examine color filters in an optical
system, provided they are within the focal length
Because optical elements constitute the of the eyepiece, by holding one eye a few inches
HEART of an optical instrument, inspection of from the eyepiece and turning the ray filter
the optical system is very important and you shaft. Defects on a filter show up when it ro¬
should learn to do this phase of your work well. tates in and out of the line of sight.
When you first examine an optical system, you If the field of view (true field) is not per¬
may have difficulty in distinguishing one element fectly round, there is a loose diaphragm within
from another. Through adequate experience, the instrument or the color filter plate is not
however, you will be able to make this distinc¬ properly engaged with the detent ball or roller.
tion; and you will know where each element be¬ Check the anti-reflection (magnesium fluo¬
longs in the system and when it is defective. ride) coating on coated optics by holding the in¬
The best method to follow in inspecting the strument under a daylight fluorescent lamp
optical system of an instrument is to point it (white light). If the coating is of proper thick¬
toward an illuminated area and look for the ness on the optic, its color is light-reddish
following: purple. If the coating shows signs of wear
1. DIRT AND DUST. Dirt and dust show up (too thin), it is pale-yellow, straw, copper, or
as dark spots (specks) on the surface of an op¬ reddish-brown in color.
tical element. If the coating on a lens is too thin, the best
2. CHIPS, SCRATCHES, BREAKS. These thing to do is replace the lens. The coating
defects in an optical element show up as bright, must be of adequate thickness in order for the
star-like specks, scratches, or areas, when light lens (coating) to reduce reflection properly. If
is reflected from them. the coating is of satisfactory thickness and
3. GREASE OR OIL. Grease or oil on an color but has scratches, the lens is still usable;
optical element in a system is indicated by for a few scratches do not cause noticeable loss
streaked, clouded, or nebulous areas, with an of light.
occasional bright, translucent spot. You may Optical elements (reticles and collective
even be able to detect the color by knowing the lenses) placed in or near image planes of an
color of the grease used on the instrument. instrument are not coated, because scratches on
4. MOISTURE. Moisture shows up as a them, or deterioration of the coating, appear to
sharply defined nebulous area, with brilliant be superimposed on the image in the field of
reflection or a diffused, clouded appearance view. Optical surfaces cemented to other opti¬
when the area is not illuminated. cal surfaces are not coated, as is true for the

169
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

concave and convex surfaces of a cemented the cement when the elements were joined with
doublet. Cement will NOT adhere to coated it.
surfaces. STRIAE. Striae (part G, fig. 8-1) look like
Reflecting surfaces of prisms which use the veins or cords running through the glass, and
principle of the critical angle and total reflec¬ you can see them by looking through the glass at
tion are NOT coated, for the coating causes too a contrasting light and dark background. This
much loss of light. is a manufacturing defect in the optical element.
Inspect prisms and mirrors for signs of BLISTER. A blister (part H, fig. 8-1) is an
wear, peeling, or darkening of the silvered or air bubble trapped in the layer of cement be¬
aluminum surfaces. All of these defects show tween two lenses. If it extends toward the cen¬
up as blisters and cracking of the coating or a ter of the lens, it is called a RUN-IN, generally
yellowish color. produced by the dissolving action of a cleaning
Some optical defects are illustrated in parts fluid. A blister, however, may result from un¬
A through K of illustration 8-1. If available, even mounting during assembly in the instru¬
get some lenses with the defects shown and ment, or by dirt between cemented lenses.
study them as you read the following discussion Blisters can be seen best by reflected light,
of various lens defects. and they usually increase in size over a period
CHIP. A chip (part A, fig. 8-1) is a break at of time.
the edge of a lens or prism caused by uneven DIRT FUZZ. Lint, dust, or dirt (part I, fig.
pressures or burrs on the lens seats of the 8-1) in the layer of cement between lenses may
lens mounts. eventually cause a blister. You can see this
NOTCH. A notch (part B, fig. 8-1) is a type of foreign matter in a lens most easily by
ground off surface of a chip on a lens or prism transmitted light against a dark background.
outside the free aperture. A notch, however, Dirt fuzz is a manufacturing defect in a lens.
cannot be considered a defect in the true sense STAIN. A stain (part J, fig. 8-1) is usually
of the word, because an optical repairman (Op- brown or green in color and is produced by the
ticalman) must place it in the position indicated evaporation of water or moisture which gets on
in order to prevent internal reflections. lenses or prisms and dissolves some of the
SCRATCH AND STRIPE. A scratch (part C, anti-reflecting coating, thereby causing a very
fig. 8-1) remains visible as you rotate a lens faint deposit (sometimes bacterial in growth).
or prism through 360 degrees; a stripe, on the UNPOLISHED CONDITION. An unpolished
other hand, vanishes at some position as you state or condition in a glass optic (part K, fig.
rotate the optical element. You can most easily 8-1) results from the manufacturer’s failure to
see scratches and stripes in optical elements remove grinding pits from it. In some instances,
when you place the elements against a dark however, this condition is produced on optical
background. surfaces exposed to gases, grit, and particles
RING. A ring (part D, fig. 8-1), is a cir¬ of all sorts in the atmosphere.
cular scratch or stripe around the external The last step in checking the optical system
edges of a lens, and it is caused by pressure of an instrument is TESTING FOR PARALLAX,
against the lens by the mount seats and the re¬ or COLLIMATION of the instrument. Always
tainer ring. An INTERNAL RING between the check the collimation of an instrument before
elements of the lens may appear at the edges of you disassemble it, for the information you thus
the lens when lens cleaning fluid dissolves the procure will help you during the making of your
Canada Balsam. casualty analysis.
CRACK. A crack (part E, fig. 8-1) is gen¬ You can check the collimation of an optical
erally caused by a sudden change of tempera¬ instrument in two ways: (1) by looking through
ture, resulting in sudden contraction or expan¬ the instrument at an infinity target, or (2) by
sion of the outer surface of the glass and checking it more accurately with an auxiliary
fracture of the lens or prism because the cen¬ telescope. The first method, however, is genr
ter of the optical element does not expand or erally used when quick results are necessary.
contract as rapidly as its edge section, which Focus the instrument on a distant target and
is thicker in convex lenses and some prisms. check for parallax by moving the eye from side
BUBBLE. A bubble (part F, fig. 8-1) may to side and up and down. If parallax is present,
result from gases left in the glass during man¬ the reticle (crossline) appears slightly out of
ufacture, or from air which did not escape from focus and seems to move back and forth, up and

170
Chapter 8- MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

NOTCH

137. 181

Figure 8-1.— Optical defects.

171
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

down, over the target. If parallax is not present, MAGNIFYING POWER

the reticle is in sharp focus with the target and
remains superimposed in one spot on the tar¬ The procedure for determining the magnify¬
get, regardless of the direction in which you ing power produced by a telescope, or a similar
move your eye behind the eyepiece. optical instrument, is summarized in the next
paragraphs. Repetition of information given
Hold the instrument up to your eye in the about magnifying power in previous chapters of
position in which it is normally used and look
this manual is held to a minimum.
at the horizontal wire of the reticle to deter¬
mine whether it is parallel with the horizon, or Ratio of Apparent Field to True Field
square in appearance. The only manner in
which you can make an accurate check of the You have already learned that the TRUE
SQUARENESS of the crossline, however, is with FIELD of an optical instrument is the width of
a collimator and an auxiliary telescope. the target area, or field, which you can see
To check the eyepiece diopter setting, focus when you look through the eyepiece, expressed
the instrument on an infinity target and observe as either angular true field or linear true field;
the position of the index mark on the diopter and you know the objects you see are greatly
scale. If the index mark is not pointing to your
magnified.
personal diopter setting, the 0 diopter is in¬ APPARENT FIELD is the opposite of true
correct. At this point, you can determine the field, and it is the width of the target area, or
number of diopters from the 0 setting your field, which you can see when you look through
PERSONAL DIOPTER SETTING is off. the objective end of a telescope, expressed in
If the index mark points to three graduations either angular apparent field or linear apparent
past your personal setting, for example, the field. The objects you see through the objective
eyepiece diopter setting is off three diopters end of a telescope are greatly MINIFIED; that
from 0 diopter to the minus side, provided you is, they are not as large as they would be when
focused from plus to minus on the scale. If the
viewed with the naked eye.
index mark points to your personal diopter set¬ The apparent field is always larger than the
ting on the diopter scale, the instrument is op¬ true field, provided the optical instrument’s
tically set to 0 diopters, even though the index original purpose was to magnify targets. You
mark is NOT pointing to 0 diopters. can therefore determine the angular magnifica¬
If the instrument has a porro prism erecting tion of an optical instrument by COMPARING
system, check the optical system for LEAN by THE RATIO BETWEEN the angular apparent
looking through the instrument with one eye at field and the angular true field.
a vertical target (flag pole or side of building) To determine the angular apparent and true
and by looking directly at the target with the field of an optical instrument, you must have
other eye. If the two images are not PER¬ some means for measuring these angles directly
FECTLY parallel, there is leaning (termed with the instrument. This you can do by placing
LEAN) in the optical system; that is, the image the instrument on an angle-measuring instru¬
through the instrument appears to LEAN away ment such as a bearing circle (chapter 14), or
from the image observed with the naked eye. some other instrument by means of which you
The reason for this LEAN is that the frosted can measure the angular movement of the in¬
sides of one porro prism are not at a 90° angle strument when you have it positioned horizon¬
with the frosted sides of the other porro prism. tally.
Place the instrument you are checking on the
angle-measuring instrument in the normal view¬
ing position (eyepiece toward you), and focus
TESTING OPTICAL QUALITIES OF the instrument on a distant object (flag or tele¬
INSTRUMENTS phone pole, for example). Then turn the meas¬
uring instrument (with the telescope on it as
The optical qualities of optical instruments necessary in order to have one side of the pole
include: (1) magnification, (2) size of the field at one extreme edge of the field of view and take
of view, (3) brightness of the image, (4) flares a reading on the measuring instrument. Next,
and ghosts, (5) illumination and contrast, and (6) turn the measuring instrument (with pole still
aberrations. in view) until you have the SAME SIDE OF THE

172
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

POLE on the OPPOSITE EXTREME EDGE of Suppose that the entrance pupil of an instru¬
the field of view and take another reading to ment is 50 mm and the exit pupil diameter on
find out how many degrees you moved the in¬ the dynameter was 10 mm. If you substitute
strument to get from one reading to the other these numbers in the formula and solve for MAG,
reading. This measurement is the TRUE FIELD. you get 5, which is the magnfication of the instru¬
Now turn the telescope around on the angle¬ ment.
measuring instrument, with the objective end In such optical instruments as rangefinders,
toward you, and look through the objective lens you cannot measure the diameter of the objective
at the same object. The object is MANY TIMES lens; because the objective lens is notatthe end
SMALLER than when you were looking at it of the housing (as generally true for other tele¬
through the eyepiece. Finally, turn the meas¬ scopes) but at a point within the main housing
uring instrument and telescope (with it) as nec¬ inaccessible without disassembly.
essary to have the same side of the pole on the In order to measure the magnification of an
same extreme edge of the field of view. When instrument of this type, you must have an assist¬
you now repeat the same steps you follow in ant. Place an outside caliper (opened to the
measuring the true field, you will find that your desired measurement) on the entrance window
measurement is much larger than the true (sometimes several feet from objective) and
field. This larger measurement in degrees is have your assistant hold the calipers while you
the APPARENT FIELD of the telescope. place the dynameter to the eyepiece of the instru¬
To determine the magnification of this instru¬ ment and focus it until you get a sharp image of
ment, divide the apparent field by the true field. the caliper on the frosted reticle of the dynam¬
The formula follows: eter. Then read through the dynameter the open¬
ing between the jaws of the caliper.
MAG _ Apparent Field
Use the following formula to determine the
True Field magnification of the instrument:
.. . __ Actual Opening between Jaws of Caliper
Now use the formula to determine magnifi¬
cation of an instrument with an apparent field of * Measur ed Opening between Jaws of C aliper
50° and a true field of 5 degrees. Substitute the
Suppose the caliper jaw opening is 60 mm and
measurement for each field in the formula and
your measured opening between the jaws of the
solve for MAG and you get 10, which means that
caliper (through dynameter) is 5 mm and you wish
the telescope is 10 power.
to determine the magnification of the instrument.
Substitute your actual opening of the jaws of the
Ratio of Focal Lengths caliper and the measured opening of the same
(Astronomical Telescope)
jaws through the dynameter in the formula and
solve for MAG. Your answer is 12, the magnifi¬
You can determine the amount of magnifica¬
cation of the instrument.
tion produced by an astronomical telescope by
dividing the focal length of its objective lens IMAGE FIDELITY
by the focal length of it9 eyepiece.
Image fidelity is the FAITHFULNESS AND
Ratio of Entrance Pupil to Exit Pupil SHARPNESS OF AN IMAGE VIEWED WITH AN
OPTICAL INSTRUMENT. As you know, good
You learned in chapter 6 how to use a dynam- performance of an optical instrument is obtained
eter to measure the diameter of the exit pupil only when the images it creates are free of
and the eye distance of an optical instrument. aberrations and distortions.
Review that procedure now. You can make a rough test of image fidelity
When you know the diameters of the entrance in a telescope, or a similar instrument, by doing
and exit pupils, you can calculate the magnifica¬ the following:
tion of an optical instrument by dividing the 1. Find and measure the greatest distance at
diameter of the entrance pupil by the diameter which you can read clearly a newspaper head¬
of the exit pupil. The formula is: line, or any print of comparable size.
.. . „ Diameter of Entrance Pupil
MAG= - — ^Measurement must be taken through the dynam¬
Diameter of Exit Pupil eter

173
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

2. Multiply the distance measured by the test of the resolving power on the optical axis-
magnification of the instrument you are testing. central resolution— is a good check on the overall
3. Mount the print at the distance you cal¬ image fidelity.
culated in item 2 and observe it through the tele¬
scope. If it is now just as clear and readable as Image Fidelity Test Chart
it was with your naked eyes at the closer dis¬
tance, THE IMAGE IS SHARP (IMAGE FIDELITY Take a close look now at illustration 8-2,
IS GOOD.); if the image is fuzzy, IMAGE which shows a standard test chart for testing
FIDELITY OF THE INSTRUMENT IS POOR. image fidelity in optical instruments. This is a
You can make a more accurate test for image standard test chart available through naval sup¬
fidelity by placing a small, glass globe where ply channels.
you can see the reflection of the sun in its The 56-line-per-inch group at the top of the
surface and focusing your telescope on that image fidelity test chart is used for testing cen¬
reflection. Adjust the eyepiece as necessary to tral resolution of 7 x 50 binoculars and Mark 1,
create a small, sharp image ofthesunand move Mod 0, ship’s telescopes. The 28-line-per-inch
the eyepiece in or out from the setting. When you group is used for testing central astigmatism
do this, you can see a number of rings around in these instruments. You can makeup a separate
the sun’s image. If these rings are circular and chart for each required line spacing by cutting
concentric, IMAGE FIDELITY (SHARPNESS) OF out the groups of lines from two standard charts
THE INSTRUMENTS PERFECT. Any distortion (fig. 8-2) and pasting them on a white back¬
of the rings indicates A LACK OF IMAGE FI¬ ground.
DELITY— the greater the distortion of the The resolution test requires a test pattern
rings, the poorer the quality of image fidelity. which represents objects at critical distances
When you check the image fidelity of an and spacing. The following paragraphs describe
optical instrument, check for two things: (1) the selection of resolution test patterns. The
CENTRAL ASTIGMATISM, and (2) CENTRAL astigmatism test does not require critical line
RESOLUTION. Optical performance is basic¬ spacing or distance, but it is convenient to use
ally a function of design of the instrument and the same chart and setup for both tests. The
cannot be varied unless the characteristics of group of lines around number 28 is an easily
the optical elements are changed. There are viewed pattern for testing astigmatism in 7 x 50
several possible service defects, however, binoculars and the Mark 1, Mod 0, ship’s tele¬
WHICH CAN CHANGE THE OPTICAL QUALI¬ scopes.
TIES OF ONE OR MORE ELEMENTS. An op¬ The width of the black lines on the test chart
tical element under strain by mechanical parts, IS EQUAL TO THE WHITE SPACES BETWEEN
for example, or tilted and improperly positioned THE LINES. Image fidelity test chart values
elements (faulty mounting), badly matched re¬ (fig. 8-3) give the reciprocal of the space be¬
cemented optics, and even wrong optical parts tween the centers of adjacent lines as line per
all cause poor image fidelity. inch, the distance from which you should view
Tests for central astigmatism and central the chart and the resolution requirements in
resolution provide an overall check of both basic terms of ANGLE IN fHE FIELD FOR EACH
optical performance and service defects. CLASS OF INSTRUMENT. The corresponding
A test for central astigmatism is made ON patterns for the astigmatism test are also given
THE AXIS of the optical system with the test in terms of the number of lines per inch. These
figures in the center of the field of view, which is are selected for convenient viewing at the same
zero (0) on the axis of an optical system; and it distance prescribed for the resolution test.
is called CENTRAL OR AXIAL ASTIGMATISM It can be proved that the angular limit of
to distinguish it from aberration astigmatism resolution is related inversely to the diameter
(OFF-AXIAL ASTIGMATISM). of the lens. According to Dawes’ rule (an ap¬
Resolution (resolving power) is the ability of
proximation): a (in minutes of arc)= =^- in fifths
an optical system to distinguish details in an Do
object; so it is therefore a very important of an inch, which means that it is advisable
characteristic of an instrument, usually stated TO HAVE LARGE OBJECTIVES FOR SHARP
in terms of the ANGLE SUBTENDED BY THE DEFINITION. A target shooter uses a scope
CLOSEST POINTS ON AN OBJECT THAT THE with a 1 1/4" objective (diameter), or even
SYSTEM CAN REVEAL SEPARATED. A strict larger. A pair of 7 x 50 binoculars provides

174
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Focal length of Eyepiece = Diameter of Eye

Pupil
x Focal Length of Objective
Diameter of Objective

NOTE: All values in this formula are in milli¬

meters. Although the resolving power of the
human eye is equal to 1 minute of arc, after long,
continuous observation, this is reduced to 2 or
3 minutes of arc by resultant eye fatigue. For
continuous operation, therefore, an instrument
of greater power is needed to provide the same
definition obtainable with a lower-power tele¬
scope used for short intervals. Transparent
foreign material (grease or fingerprints, for
example) on a lens impairs definition (resolving
power). Opaque, foreign material on the eye¬
= 11 piece may either impair definition or blot out
NATIONAL
BUREAU
|0F STANDARDS small portions of the field.
TESTCHART| 25 X
137.182 Central Astigmatism
Figure 8-2.— Image fidelity test chart.
The procedure for testing an optical instru¬
good resolution because of the large size of the ment for astigmatism follows.
objective (50 mm in diameter), and for this 1. Use the proper test chart and set it at
reason, it is better in daytime than a pair of the distance given in the listing of values.
7 x 35 binoculars, with a 35 mm objective. Sight the test pattern for astigmatism on the
For best resolution, the power of the eye¬ chart with the instrument to be tested, and line
piece in an optical system should be ascer¬ up the center of the astigmatism pattern in the
tained by the following formula: center of the field of view.

e Resolution Astigmatism
Resolution Min. 1 1
Limit in Seconds S D S
of Lines in Lines
Instrument Arc per inch feet per inch

7 x 50 4 56 77 28
Binocular

11 40 39 20
Telescopic
Alidade

4 56 77 28
Ship
Telescope

Azimuth 8 40 54 20
Telescope

Sextant 18 40 24 20
Telescope

137.183
Figure 8-3.— Image fidelity test chart values.

175
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

2. Place an auxiliary telescope to the eye¬ Central Resolution

piece of the instrument undergoing the test and
adjust it to bring the horizontal set of lines If the instrument you are testing passes the
into sharp focus. Note the diopter reading astigmatism test, keep the test setup intact and
on the auxiliary telescope. CAUTION: The use the following procedure to test for central
focusing adjustment on the primary instrument resolution:
(one undergoing the test) must NOT BE 1. Sight the proper chart at the correct dis¬
CHANGED after you perform the preceding op¬ tance with the instrument you are testing with
eration. an auxiliary telescope and adjust the instrument
3. Check the vertical set of lines for focus. in order TO BRING THE CENTER OF THE
If it is not sharp, ASTIGMATISM IS PRESENT. RESOLUTION PATTERN INTO THE CENTER
To put the vertical set of lines in sharp focus, OF THE FIELD OF VIEW.
adjust the auxiliary telescope diopter ring. CAUTION: Be sure you have the pattern
OBSERVE THE DIOPTER READING. centered. The resolving power falls off away
4. The maximum allowable difference in from the optical axis. Focus on one set of lines.
diopters between the horizontal and vertical Because the minimum resolving power of a
lines is 0.15 diopters for the primary instru¬ well -designed instrument is finer than the eye
ment being tested. Divide the diopter dif¬ can observe, always use an auxiliary telescope
ference found in the auxiliary telescope, steps to make a test for central resolution. The instru¬
2 and 3, by the square of its power to arrive ment is better than the eye, and the auxiliary
at the corresponding change that would be found power reveals details to the eye.
in the primary instrument without the auxiliary 2. When the black horizontal and vertical
telescope. For example, the diopter change in lines on the test chart (and the other diagonal
the primary instrument equals: sets of lines) APPEAR SHARP AND CLEARLY
SEPARATED, resolution in the instrument is
Diopter Change in Auxiliary Telescope (DCA) satisfactory.
(Power of Auxiliary Telescope)^ Poor resolution is caused by defective ob¬
jective lenses and prisms. Always replace the
objective lens first. Misplaced, unmatched,
As you can see, the auxiliary telescope increases and shifted prisms cause trouble because they
the sensitivity of the test BY THE SQUARE OF displace the line of sight. A bad reflecting face
ITS POWER. The maximum allowable diopter on a prism also causes poor resolution.
difference for typical auxiliary telescopes is as
follows: FLARES AND GHOSTS

To check an optical instrument for flares

and ghosts, point it toward a small, bright
Power of Maximum Allowable
object against a dark background and focus
Auxiliary Telescope Diopter Difference
sharply. If you observe rings or streaks of
light, or one or more faint GHOST IMAGES,
3 1.35
the image HAS EXCESSIVE INTERNAL RE¬
4 2.40
FLECTION. Flares and ghosts in an instrument
5 3.75
INDICATE A PROBABLE NEED FOR RE¬
6 5.40
COATING OF LENSES.
ILLUMINATION AND CONTRAST
5. If the horizontal and vertical lines are in
focus within the allowable tolerance, repeat steps
niumination of an image depends upon the
2 and 3 for the diagonal sets of lines. The same
amount of light received by the objective and
tolerance prevails.
the specific intensity (bright daylight or twi¬
NOTE: Excessive astigmatism maybe caused light) of these light rays. As you know, the
by a defective or poorly mounted lens. Check the amount of light received is determined by the
objective lens first, and then the reflecting sur¬ diameter of the entrance pupil of the objective;
faces of the prisms (objective prism first). and the amount of light which enters the eye is
These surfaces must be optically flat to close limited by either the exit pupil of the instrument
tolerances. or the pupil of the eye, whichever is smaller.

176
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

For maximum illumination at any given light the instrument sharply. When the image is in
intensity, the exit pupil of an optical instrument focus, IT SHOULD HAVE NO COLOR FRINGES.
must equal the entrance pupil of the eye under 2. Push the draw tube in a short distance
the same conditions. With any instrument, and look for a light-yellow fringe which should
furthermore, retinal illumination is never be around the image of the disk.
greater than illumination by the unaided eye. 3. Refocus and pull the draw tube out a short
Opaque foreign substances— dust or lint, for distance, AT WHICH POINT THE IMAGE
example— on any optical surface (except one in a SHOULD BE FRINGED WITH PALE PURPLE.
real image plane) reduces the amount of il¬ The two colors (light-yellow and pale-
lumination in the system. purple) you got by focusing the instrument con¬
To test for illumination and contrast in an stitute the SECONDARY SPECTRUM OF THE
optical instrument, focus the instrument on a OPTICAL SYSTEM, and they show that THE
distant object and check the image for bright¬ SYSTEM IS WELL CORRECTED FOR PRIMARY
ness. The IMAGE SHOULD BE NEARLY AS CHROMATIC ABERRATION (RED AND BLUE).
BRIGHT AS THE OBJECT APPEARS TO THE
NAKED EYE. If the image is dim, the exit pupil Coma and Astigmatism
may be too large; if the size of the exit pupil
is correct (about 0.1" for bright light, to 0.3" Focus the instrument sharply on a small,
for very dim light), look for dirty, stained, or round, white object near the edge of the field
uncoated optical surfaces and darkened mirrors and study the image produced. If the image is
or cement. circular and flareless, the INSTRUMENT IS
Contrast of the image produced by the in¬ FREE OF COMA.
strument should be just as good as the contrast NOTE: Test for coma at FIVE OR SIX DIF¬
FERENT POINTS around the outer edge of the
of the object seen by the naked eye. If the image
is dull and cloudy, look for dirty, oily, or damp field.
optical surfaces. An optical instrument has excessive astig¬
matism if one of the cross lines of the reticle
TESTS FOR OPTICAL DEFECTS shows parallax after you have eliminated paral¬
lax for the other cross line. Review illustra¬
When you test the optical system of an in¬ tion 6-30 and the related discussion.
strument, check for all defects, including aber¬
ration (all types), coma, astigmatism, flatness Flatness of Field
of field, and distortion. All of these defects,
singly or in combination, can affect the quality Point the instrument being tested toward the
of image formed by an optical instrument; or horizon and focussharplyonANOBJECTINTHE
even render the instrument useless. CENTER OF THE FIELD. If the edges of the
field are IN SHARP FOCUS, THE FIELD IS
FLAT; if the edges are not IN FOCUS, RE¬
Spherical Aberration
FOCUS THE INSTRUMENT AS NECESSARY in
To test an optical instrument for spherical order to create a sharp image of objects at the
aberration, cover the outer half of the objective extreme edge of the field. The change you made
with a ring of black paper, focus sharply on a in the diopter setting of the eyepiece shows the
distant object, and read the diopter scale. Then amount and direction of curvature.
remove the ring of paper and cover the inner NOTE: If refocusing of the instrument does
half of the objective with a black disk. Refocus not sharpen the image of objects at the edge of
the instrument and read the diopter scale again. the field, ASTIGMATISM OR COMA IS RESPON¬
If the amount of movement of the eyepiece for SIBLE.
focusing is very small, the instrument is well
corrected for spherical aberration. Distortion

You can test an optical instrument for dis¬

Chromatic Aberration tortion in the following manner:
You can test an optical instrument for chro¬ 1. Rule a pattern of vertical and horizontal
lines on a large sheet of cardboard and put it
matic (color) aberration by doing the following:
1. Set up a white disk against a black back¬ where the pattern nearly fills the field of view
ground, far enough away to enable you to focus of the instrument.

177
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

2. Focus the instrument sharply and check CAUTION: Grip wrenches have much leverage
the image, which should be composed entirely and you can exert tremendous pressure with
of straight lines. IF ANY OF THE LINES AP¬ them. Most optical parts are by necessity thin
PEAR CURVED, THE IMAGE IS DISTORTED. and light; so to prevent crushing of parts, try to
use the grip wrench over that portion of a tube
OVERHAUL AND REPAIR externally reinforced with a retainer ring or lens
mount.
The discussion of overhaul and repair of
optical instruments in this chapter pertains to Retainer Ring Wrenches
general procedures for disassembly, repair, re¬
assembly, and adjustment of all basic instru¬ Study the different types of retainer ring
ments. A detailed discussion concerning par¬ wrenches shown in part A of figure 8-5. These
ticular optical instruments— disassembly, over¬ wrenches are also known as SLOT or OPTICAL
haul and repair, reassembly, collimation, and wrenches. Part B of illustration 8-5 shows an
inspection— is presented in subsequent chapters Opticalman using the blade portion of a retainer
of this training manual. The procedures for ring wrench to rotate a slotted retainer ring in
repairing different optical instruments vary in a lens mount. A retainer ring may be equipped
accordance with their variations from the basic with two small holes (instead of slots) spaced
design of optical instruments. 180° apart, in which case the pointed tips of the
retainer ring wrench are used to turn the re¬
REPAIR TOOLS tainer ring. This special tool is adjustable, and it
can be used to remove or tighten a retainer ring
You cannot accomplish satisfactory work on of any size.
optical instruments unless you have the tools CAUTION: Slippage of a retainer ring wrench
required for doing a particular task; and you during use can cause much damage to unprotected
must then acquire skill in using them and keep optical surfaces, as well as the retainer ring
them in excellent condition. and mount. To prevent such damage, be very
Many tools used for repairing optical instru¬ careful when you use the wrench; be sure it fits
ments are illustrated and explained in Basic properly in the slots or holes of the retainer
Handtools, NavPers 10085-A. These tools are ring. Protect optical surfaces with disks —
of the common variety available through normal rubber, blotting paper, or clean cardboard.
supply channels. There are some tools, however,
which were specially made for use on optical Geneva Lens Measure
instruments by manufacturers and they are dis¬
cussed along with the particular instrument for A Geneva lens measure (fig. 8-6) is an
which they were made. There is still a third instrument designed to measure the dioptric
class of tools which can be used on almost all strength of thin lenses, by measuring the amount
optical instruments but cannot be procured from of curvature of their surfaces.
a supplier. Your only alternative, therefore, The dial of a Geneva lens measure is
is to draw a sketch or make a blueprint of the graduated in diopters. The outside red scale is
tools and make them in the machine shop. The graduated to read clockwise in quarters of a
tools considered in the following paragraphs be¬ diopter from 0 to -17 diopters; the inner black
long in this class. scale is graduated to read counterclockwise in
quarters of a diopter from 0 to +17 diopters.
Grip Wrenches The index of refraction of the glass for which
a Geneva lens measure is designed for meas¬
Illustration 8-4 shows a grip wrench (part uring dioptric strength is printed on the dial
A) and the procedure for using it (part B). A (1.53), and this number is the index of refraction
grip wrench is made of fiber in sizes at inter¬ of crown glass. A formula which is provided,
vals of 1/16 inch until a size of about one inch however, permits use of the gage to measure
is reached; and then at 1/8 inch intervals up to types of glass with different indices of refrac¬
sizes of about 3 1/2 to 4 inches. tion.
When you use a grip wrench, select the To use a Geneva lens measure, place the
smallest size which meets a specific need, with¬ contact points directly on the polished surface of
out forcing it onto the part you must turn. the lens you desire to check for dioptric strength.

178
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

137. 184
Figure 8-4.— Grip wrench and
usage procedure.

The outer points (2) of the gage are STATION¬

ARY, and the CENTER POINT must be activated
until the outer points contact the lens surface.
To ensure accurate readings and/or measure¬
ments, hold the gage perpendicular to the sur¬
face of the lens.
If the dial hand of the lens measure reads 0,
the surface of the lens is PLANO or flat. Read¬
ings for convex surfaces must be PLUS; read¬
ings for concave surfaces must be MINUS.
Take the reading in diopters of one lens surface
and then measure the other surface. If you ADD
THE DIOPTRIC STRENGTH of each lens sur¬
face, you get the TOTAL dioptric strength of
the lens, provided its index of refraction is 1.53.
When you wish to take a reading of a lens
with an index of refraction other than 1.53, use
the following formula:

True DP of _ n - 1 DP reading of lens

137. 186
Lens Surface 0.53 surface with the gage
(n = index of refraction of lens) Figure 8-6. —Geneva lens measure.

179
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

To use this formula, take a reading of the Other special optical instrument tools are
first lens surface and transpose its dioptric illustrated and discussed in later chapters of
strength into the formula and obtain a true di¬ this manual, as applicable.
optric strength of the first surface. Then take
a reading of the second lens surface, put your PREDISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE
results in the formula, and solve it for the true
dioptric strength of the second surface. The Before you do any repair work on optical
sum of the two answers you got by solving the instruments, clean your work space and get
formula is the TOTAL dioptric strength of the everything ready and in position. Your working
lens. space, your clothes, your tools, your hands, and
Because a compound lens is constructed of a everything should be almost immaculate before
positive and a negative lens of different indices, you begin work on an optical instrument, es¬
you cannot use a Geneva lens measure to obtain pecially on optical elements. Cover your work¬
its dioptric strength; but if the two elements of bench with a sheet of clean, dry paper of light
the lens are separated, you can obtain the diop¬ color.
tric strength of the individual elements and add Clean outside metal and painted surfaces
both results to get the dioptric strength of the with a clean, soft cloth (used for this purpose
combination. NOTE: The lenses must be in only). If a solvent is required to remove grease
contact and used as a unit in order to use the or foreign matter, use benzene or an approved
correct dioptric strength of the combination. dry cleaning solvent. Clean the outside surfaces
Remember that the dioptric strengths of the of objectives and eyepieces in their mounts.
two lenses have opposite signs; that is, the posi¬ Some particles of dust on an objective do not
tive lens has a positive dioptric value and the have a particularly harmful effect on an image
negative lens has a negative dioptric value. You produced by the objective, though they do pre¬
must remember this when you add the two values. vent passage of light through the area they
Another thing to keep in mind concerning a cover; but a film of dust on the objective may
Geneva lens measure is that it is designed to affect the quality of the image and you must
measure only the curvature of a lens' surfaces; therefore remove it.
so the thicker the lens, the less accurate the If your casualty analysis indicates that the
results derived through its use. When you are instrument must be partially or completely
cementing lenses together, use a Geneva lens disassembled in order to effect necessary re¬
measure to make certain that the positive lens pairs, follow the procedure discussed next.
surface matches the negative lens surface.
DISASSEMBLY
Special Telescope Wrenches
Some special wrenches are useful for only When you disassemble an optical instrument,
one or two purposes and are used on optical in¬ do not mix non-interchangeable parts of one
struments with similar design features. A bi¬ instrument with non-interchangeable parts of
nocular hinge pin puller is an example of such a another instrument. In the interest of produc¬
tool, almost indispensable for repairing binocu¬ tion and/or competence of performance, ex¬
lars. Part A of illustration 8-7 shows a cross perienced optical repairmen work on more than
section of a hinge pin puller, with which you can one instrument at a time; and this same state¬
pull and install a tapered binocular hinge pin ment is true for many Opticalmen, especially
without damaging other components of the hinge. when all the instruments require a major over¬
Part B of figure 8-7 shows a special telescope haul.
wrench used for adjusting crossline mounts and If you must work on more than one instru¬
tightening adjustable collars. ment at a particular time, keep the parts of
Take a look now at part A of illustration 8-8 each instrument in separate containers; and
which shows a special wrench used to remove label the parts for double safety and easy identi¬
or tighten a retainer ring. Part B of this il¬ fication. One of the surest and best ways to
lustration shows another type of retainer ring label parts is to scribe each metal part with an
wrench which is used frequently. This type of identifying mark. When you are giving four
wrench is especially useful for adjusting re¬ pairs of binoculars a general overhaul, for ex¬
tainer rings inaccessible to an adjustable re¬ ample, you can label the parts of the first
tainer ring wrench. binocular #1, the parts of the second binocular

180
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

137. 187
A. Binocular hinge pin puller
B. Special telescope wrench
Figure 8-7.— Special wrenches for optical instruments.

#2, and so on. In order to identify satisfactorily You can identify the function of the optic by
the parts for right and left barrels, add an R writing on the frosted portion the following:
(right) or an L (left), as appropriate. Your Obj. (objective lens), #1 Er. (first erector), #2
markings on the parts for the right and left Er. (second erector), and so on until you mark
barrels would then be #1R, or #3L, and so forth. the last element in the system. The first
Be careful to scribe these marks where they erector receives the light from the objective
will not be covered with paint later, and where and should therefore be numbered first. Use a
they will not affect the performance of the in¬ soft-lead pencil or an instant-drying marking
strument. pen.
The accepted method for determining the di¬
Other markings which you may be required
rection an optical element must face in a sys¬
to make or check during disassembly are AS¬
tem is to mark an arrow on the frosted edge of
SEMBLY MARKS. When a manufacturer makes
a lens or prism, the tip of which indicates the
an optical instrument, he fits certain parts by
direction of light through the instrument.
hand; and if there is danger of incorrect as¬
If you presume a lens in a system is facing
sembly of these parts during a later overhaul, the wrong direction, study the diagram for that
he marks them with a small punch mark or a
particular instrument (MARK and MOD) as you
scribe line (on each part of an assembly).
remove the lens. You can also use a Geneva
When you disassemble an optical instrument,
lens measure to check the readings of the lens
therefore, look for these assembly marks; and
against those listed on the optical diagram.
if they are missing, make appropriate marks of
your own. See figure 8-9, which shows the
If you do not fully understand an instrument
procedure for marking a part.
you must overhaul, obtain and follow a disas¬
Optical elements (glass) require another sembly sheet, or follow the disassembly proced¬
marking technique, which must meet two re¬ ure in the applicable naval publication (NavShips
quirements: (1) the direction the optic must manual; Ordnance Pamphlet, OP; or NavWeps
face when reassembled, and (2) the function the OP). These authentic sources provide in¬
optic serves in the optical system. formation on troublesome areas pertaining to

181
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

auxiliary window
RETAINER RING WRENCH

(Protecting Tape)

TELESCOPE BODY
MK 2, Mod 3

(Protecting

disassembly, and they also list the precautions

you should take.
CAUTION: Before you disassemble any op¬
tical instrument, determine whether it is a
pressure-tight type. If it is gas filled, release
the gas pressure slowly by opening the gas out¬
let valve. Never remove anything from the in¬
strument until the pressure is fully released.
Start your disassembly of an optical instru¬
ment by removing exterior parts which hinder
further disassembly, or by removing an ex¬
terior retainer ring, cover cap, or access plate
(secured by screws). These exterior parts may
occasionally be frozen, because they have been
exposed to the weather; that is, metal parts in
close contact become secured together as a re¬
sult of corrosion, electrolytic action, or natural
affinity for each other. Aluminum-to-aluminum
joints have the greatest tendency to freeze (also
called seize). Salt-laden atmosphere enhances
137. 187 the tendency of metal parts of navigational in¬
Figure 8-8.— Special retainer ring wrenches. struments to seize together; and if the moisture

182
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

seal of the instrument was unsatisfactory, salt¬ machining away the other frozen parts or parts.
laden moisture will most likely be present in¬ When a retainer ring is frozen, for example,
side the instrument (breathing process ex¬ drill a hole down through it towards the lens;
plained previously). If this moisture is present but use care, lest you drill too deeply and ruin
inside the instrument, some of the interior parts the lens with the drill. The diameter of your
may also be frozen. drill should be slightly less than the thickness
of the ring.
Removal of Frozen Parts After you weaken the ring by drilling the
hole, carefully bend the ring out at that point
The procedure for removing frozen parts and remove the free ring and lens. Some re¬
follows: tainer rings are kept in place (made vibration
1. To prevent damage to parts which come proof) by an application of shellac or a similar
off easily (especially optics), remove them first. substance on the threads of the mount and to
2.Use proper tools, and do not crush parts the edge of the ring. You can soften this com¬
with wrenches. pound by repeated applications, as necessary,
3.If you could not remove a lens, cover it of acetone or alcohol.
8. with a pad of blotting paper, or a rubber disk of To remove screws and set screws with
the same size. stripped slots or heads twisted off, usually
4. When time permits, soak frozen joints in troublesome during disassembly, proceed as
penetrating oil. follows:
5. Use shaped wooden blocks to hold a part a. E a screw is frozen in a hole as a
in a vise. Powdered rosin on the blocks helps result of corrosion, loosen it with penetrating
to hold a part and prevent it from slipping out oil and heat. NOTE: Do this before you try to
of position. remove the screw.
6. If a joint is still frozen after you have b. If the body of a screw protrudes above
soaked it a reasonable time in penetrating oil, the surface of a part, file in a new screwdriver
proceed as follows: slot with a small swiss slotting file and remove
a. Wipe off excess penetrating oil and the screw with a screwdriver of proper size.
apply heat to the exterior part as you turn it You can generally remove some protruding
slowly. screws with parallel motion pliers.
b. E the part breaks free, remove the c. E a screw is deep in a tapped hole,
heat, apply penetrating oil, and carefully sep¬ use a sharp scribe tip and, if possible, make a
arate the parts. new slot in the screw. This process is slow
c. To separate badly frozen parts which and requires patience and care.
can be held solidly, apply penetrating oil and d. E the procedures just described do
heat. Then apply pressure to the part in the not work, use one of the following procedures to
form of an impact, not a steady pressure; for drill the screw out:
example, put a wrench on a nut or part and (1) For very small screws, use a
strike the wrench (just back of the head over drill slightly smaller in diameter than the minor
the part) with a fiber mallet. This impact diameter of the screw and drill through the
loosens the nut or part, as a general rule. screw. The outer shell and threads of the screw
d. If the parts are light and springy still remain, and you can run a tap of correct
(body tubes and retainer rings, for example), size through the hole to finish the job.
use a light fiber mallet to tap lightly around the (2) On screws of larger size, drill a
joint as you apply penetrating oil and heat, to hole of proper size in the screw and remove it
help work the penetrating oil into the joint and with a screw extractor. (Each extractor has a
work the corrosion out. drill of recommended size to use with it.)
CAUTION: Use extreme care and patience Remember that patience and careful, intel¬
when you apply heat and pressure to frozen ligent workmanship are required in order to
joints, lest you cause distortion (twisting and remove frozen parts from an optical instrument;
bending) of metal parts, and breakage of optical but do not spend more time on an instrument
elements you could not remove at the outset. than it is worth. Consult your shop supervisor
7. E frozen parts do not yield to the proce¬ whenever you are in doubt.
dures just outlined, salvage the most expensive After you remove all frozen parts, continue
with the disassembly. Remember to mark all
part or parts by carefully cutting, breaking, or

183
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

optical and mechanical parts. Before you turn thin planoconcave flint element of the eyepiece
off a retainer ring or try to unscrew or slide a to break.
lens mount, remove the setscrews which secure 2. Shearing action caused by uneven pres¬
them. Some of these screws may be hidden sure is the greatest enemy of cement between
under sealing wax, so check for them carefully. optical elements; therefore, to force the com¬
Failure to remove these setscrews may cause pound lens out of its mount, press down squarely
a part to become seized. and evenly over a large part of its area. A de¬
Exercise extreme care when you remove vice similar to that illustrated in figure 8-10
optical elements and geared assemblies through may be used to support the lens. Note the name
openings in the optical chamber. These parts of this device, LENS CHUCK AND CLEANING
can be easily damaged by striking other parts HOLDER, which is a cylindrical brass tube with
and the chamber housing. When you remove a the edges at one end beveled to match the curva¬
part which exposes the interior of the optical ture of the lens. By exerting even pressure on
chamber of an instrument, make sure you tape the lens mount, you can break the seal. Ob¬
or close it off in some manner in order to ex¬ serve that the word PRESS in the illustration
clude foreign matter. indicates the point where you should apply pres¬
As you remove parts and assemblies from sure.
the interior of an instrument, check them for
damage not previously noted and write your
findings on your casualty analysis sheet for
future reference. PRESS PRESS
Thus far, with few exceptions, our discus¬
sion of disassembly of an optical instrument
has covered mostly mechanical parts, because
this is the proper sequence for disassembling
the instrument. As you disassemble an instru¬
ment, remove each lens mount and cell and set
it aside for disassembly after you complete the
disassembly of mechanical components.

Removal of Lenses from Mounts

The techniques discussed at this point for

removing lenses from mounts are primarilyfor
lenses mounted with a sealing compound, but
they are also applicable for the removal of op¬
tics difficult to disassemble. The techniques to
follow (and precautions to use) when you disas¬ FOR DISASSEMBLY
semble optical elements from their mounts
cannot be formulated as step-by-step instruc¬
tions. The information and/or things which you
should keep in mind, however, when doing this
work may be classified as follows:
1. Although optical glass is easily chipped
or cracked, and easily damaged by shock, steady
pressure within limits does not ordinarily crack
a lens if the thickness of the glass is sufficient.
NOTE: Removal of the eyepiece and the ob¬
jective is usually more difficult than removal
of other optics, because these two lenses are
usually sealed in their mounts with a sealing
gasket or compound. Also, these lenses are
doublets, which means that excessive or uneven
pressure on the lenses can cause damage to the 137.189
cement used to put them together, or cause the Figure 8-10.— Lens chuck and cleaning holder.

184
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

3. An application of heat to a lens mount necessitate cleaning in well ventilated spaces

helps to loosen it from the lens in two ways: only. Avoid prolonged contact of the hands with
a. The metal expands more than the lens. the solvent. The best policy (safest) is to use
b. Most sealing compounds are softened solvents only in a space specified for their use.
by moderate temperature. A cleaning machine of the type shown in fig¬
CAUTION: A temperature of 125° Fto 140° F ure 8-11 is excellent for cleaning some me¬
softens Canada balsam used to cement the ele¬ chanical parts of optical instruments. An elec¬
ments of compound lenses together. If a com¬ tric motor in the machine revolves a basket of
pound lens does not therefore yield to pressure parts a sufficient amount of time in an approved
and an application of heat at low temperature, cleaning solvent and thus thoroughly cleans the
the Canada balsam probably melted previously parts. The second step in this process is to
and ran out between the elements of the lens put the clean parts into another basket and
and the mount and hardened a second time. When rinse them in a container of approved rinsing
this happens, a high temperature is required to solution. The final step (usually) in this clean¬
soften the cement. ing process is to wash off the rinsing solution
4. When you remove a lens from its mount, and dry the parts in the machine.
protect its surfaces with a clean cloth or tissue Another type of instrument cleaning machine
paper. DO NOT TOUCH POLISHED GLASS (not illustrated) agitates solvent around the
OPTICAL SURFACES WITH YOUR FINGERS. parts by vibration. The newest types of clean¬
Be sure to mark the path of light through the ing machines employ an ultrasonic oscillator to
lens, to make certain that you reassemble it act on an approved liquid cleaning agent and
correctly. Then wrap the lens in lens tissue thereby clean the parts.
(several thicknesses) and place it where the NOTE: When you use a cleaning machine,
mechanical metal parts cannot damage it. follow the instructions listed in the manufac¬
5. When you cannot push a lens out from the turer's technical manual. If you do not have
back, as is sometimes the case, use a small this manual, consult your shop supervisor.
suction cup or piece of masking tape to grip the If your shop does not have a cleaning ma¬
mount and then ease it out of the mount. chine, use a stiff-bristle brush to clean instru¬
CAUTION: Large thin lenses have a tend¬ ment parts in a tank of cleaning solvent. This
ency to twist diagonally (COCK) as you try to is one of the best and simplest methods for
remove them; so use care in order to prevent cleaning some (if not all) instrument parts.
sticking. To loosen a COCKED lens, tap Some solvents leave an oily residue on clean
LIGHTLY ON THE EDGE OF THE MOUNT, on parts, and you must remove it by rinsing the
the side where the lens is stuck. As you tap the parts in an approved degreasing agent. Traces
mount, so hold it that the lens will eventually of oil on the interior of an optical instrument
drop out into your hand. If you accidentally may later get on the lenses and affect image
touch the lens with your fingers, clean it thor¬ formation, or render the instrument useless.
oughly at once, to remove salts and acids de¬ After you clean instrument parts, inspect
posited by your fingers. them for traces of lubricants, grease, sealing
compound, or dirt. Scrape off dirt and grease
REPAIR PROCEDURE not removed during the cleaning process.
CAUTION: Do NOT scrape bearing surfaces.
When you start to overhaul and repair an As you examine each cleaned part, look for de¬
optical instrument, refer to the notations you fects previously hidden by dirt, wax, or grease;
made on the casualty analysis sheet for it and also check them for corrosion. Replace
prior to and during disassembly; and use this badly corroded parts.
information as you proceed with the repair Place the cleaned parts you intend to use in
a suitable, clean container and cover the con¬
process.
tainer to protect the parts from dust and dirt.
Cleaning and Inspecting Parts
Repair Categories
The first phase of overhaul of the instru¬
ment is cleaning of mechanical parts. Always Now that you have cleaned and inspected the
use approved cleaning solvents, which may be parts of the instrument undergoing repair,
slightly toxic and irritating to your skin and proceed IMMEDIATELY with the repairs. The

185
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Deep coarse
mesh tray
for large
parts

Wedge-shaped Wedge-shaped
Tray Tray

Separating cover

-Large deep tray

3 wedge-
shaped
fine mesh trays,
1 with divider

Deep tray
with cover
and wedge-
shaped trays
inserted

Separating

61. 101
Figure 8-11.— Instrument cleaning machine.

repair process generally consists of three you strike it, lest you inflect further damage
phases or categories: (1) repair and refitting of upon it.
old parts, (2) using a new part (replacement) When a part has stripped or damaged thread
from stock, and (3) manufacturing and refitting (usually in a tapped hole), whenever possible,
a new part. Each of these categories is dis¬ drill the hole out and retap it for a screw of
cussed in some detail in the following pages. larger size; but do not go over one or two screw
REPAIRING OLD PARTS.— Repair reusable sizes larger than the original size stated on the
old parts, as necessary, and refit them into the blueprint. If the screw size must be exactly as
instruments from which you removed them. The stated on the blueprint, proceed as follows:
repairs which you may have to make on a part 1. On steel, bronze, and brass parts, drill
are discussed next. and tap the hole two or three screw sizes larger
If a part must be straightened or reformed to than originally and fill the hole with the same
its original shape, strike it carefully at the material of which the part is made. Use silver
proper place with a soft-faced hammer. CAU¬ solder to secure the plug. NOTE: A screw
TION: Give the part necessary support before which fits the larger size makes a good plug.

186
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Then file the plug flush with the surface of the assembly. If it does not fit, take necessary ac¬
part and drill and retap a hole of correct size. tion, including machining. A manufacturer, for
2. If a larger size screw can be used, re¬ example, does not drill dowel pin and screw
pair aluminum parts with stripped threads in holes; so you must drill them of correct size
the same manner as you repair parts made of wherever required. A manufacturer also makes
other metals. It is difficult to solder aluminum bearing parts slightly oversized, so that you can
parts, however, and it is best to ask the shop fit them properly by hand. Do not forget to make
supervisor to have the soldering accomplished assembly marks on the new parts after you fit
in another facility, if possible. When the sol¬ them, to ensure correct fitting of them into the
dered part is returned to you, dress the sol¬ instrument later.
dered area, and redrill and tap the hole to the MANUFACTURED PARTS. —Occasionally,
size specified on the blueprint. your shop supervisor can have parts made by
If aluminum welding is not feasible, repair submitting an intershop job order; but there will
the part by drilling the hole two or three sizes also be times when you will be compelled to
larger, tap it, and then fill it with an approved manufacture parts. The procedure for doing this
synthetic metal such as EPOXY. Allow the is as follows:
metal time to dry and then drill and tap a new 1. Use information on the old part, or its
hole to specified size. The synthetic aluminum name, to locate the blueprint. Use its dimen¬
metal (when dry) is as tough as most cast sions to make or procure a new part when the
aluminum and gives satisfactory results. blueprint is unavailable.
3. If a part is broken, repair it by soldering, 2. If the foundry can cast the part, give the
brazing, or welding. When pieces of a broken old part and the blueprint which covers it to the
part are missing, replace the part. pattern shop so that it can make an accurate
4. Dress up scratched, burred, and dented pattern of the part for the foundry.
parts, in accordance with prescribed shop pro¬ 3. After you receive the manufactured part,
cedures. machine it as necessary and then fit it by hand
Use much care when you repair parts, to to the instrument.
prevent damage to precision bearing surfaces
machined on them. Use a stone or a bearing
Miscellaneous Repairs
scraper to remove burrs from a bearing sur¬
face, and be careful to remove only as much
metal as is essential to do a good job. Do NOT When you gave the instrument on which you
file a bearing surface, for filing may completely are working a pre-disassembly inspection, you
ruin it. perhaps noted undamaged moving parts in the
When you complete repairs on an instrument instrument which were dry, tight, grinding, or
part, refit the part on the instrument and check rough in action. You also perhaps found in some
its action and/or operation for accuracy. If instances a combination of these malfunctions,
necessary, scrape off a slight amount of a sur¬ and even others not mentioned here.
face in order to make a part fit properly; and When you effect miscellaneous repairs on an
redrill undersized holes and make other neces¬ instrument, look for all types of trouble and
sary changes of your repair job in order to have remedy it, including lack of or dirty lubrication,
the part fit correctly. After you fit a part, DO excessive or insufficient clearances, incorrect
NOT FORGET to make an assembly mark on it alignment, and improper assembly. If the cause
to indicate direction of installation. of malfunctioning is not readily apparent, pro¬
CAUTION: Reassembly of an instrument ceed as follows:
containing improperly fitted parts may neces¬ 1. Clean all parts of the bearing assembly.
sitate unnecessary subsequent disassembly on 2. Make a trial assembly, but do not force
part or all of the instrument. parts.
REPLACEMENT PARTS. -Sometimes apart 3. Check parts for proper clearance in order
is damaged to such an extent that it must be to determine the cause of binding or excessive
replaced with a new part. One source of re¬ lost motion.
When cleaning, lubrication, and proper align¬
plenishment is from stock, for some purposes
ing of parts fail to correct casualties and/or
only.
When you receive a replacement part from malfunctioning, take the action discussed in the
stock, try it for proper fit in the instrument or following paragraphs.

187
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

INSUFFICIENT CLEARANCE. —If there is an CLEANING AND PAINTING PARTS

insufficient amount of clearance on such parts
as eyepiece draw tubes, tapered sleeve bear¬ Having completed all repairs to your instru¬
ings, ball and socket bearings, and multiple- ment, you are now ready to accomplish essen¬
lead thread eyepieces, do this: tial cleaning prior to painting. Reclean all
1. Make a thin solution of pumice and clock parts on which you made repairs, to remove
oil (small amount of pumice at first) and put a traces of moisture, dirt, metal chips, and
little portion of the solution on the parts as you grease from its surfaces. If a part does not
reassemble the bearing. require painting, put it in the container with
2. Work the parts of the bearing back and other cleaned parts of the instrument. Those
forth, or rotate them until their movement is of parts which require painting have the old paint
desired freedom. on them, and you must remove it before you ap¬
3. Disassemble the bearing and wash out all ply a new finish. The procedure for doing this
traces of pumice and oil. follows.
4. Reassemble the bearing, lubricate with
the proper type of lubricant, and check the mo¬ Removing Old Paint
tion.
There are two types of approved paint re¬
Follow the procedure just described until you
mover: (1) BRUSH-ON, and (2) PAINT AND
obtain the desired fit.
CARBON, each of which is discussed in some
When there is insufficient clearance on a detail next.
flat, sliding-surface bearing, do the following: Brush-on paint remover dissolves synthetic-
1. Put a thin coat of Prussian blue machin¬ bristle brushes, so use a natural-bristle brush
ist's dye on a surface plate and rub the over¬ and brush it on the painted surface of an in¬
sized portion of the bearing assembly over the strument part. Leave the paint remover on the
Prussian blue. part as long as necessary for it to dissolve the
2. Carefully scrape away the high spots on paint and then wipe it off. Finish the job by
the bearing indicated by the Prussian blue. rinsing the part in lacquer thinner or benzene
to remove wax used in the remover as one of
CAUTION: Remove only a small amount of
the ingredients.
metal at a time, and make a trial assembly
Because it is difficult to wipe brush-on paint
after you remove each amount. The important
out of holes and corners, you will experience
thing here is prevention of the removal of too
some difficulty in using it.
much metal from the bearing.
Paint and carbon removers are available
Another method for removing excess metal through Navy supply channels and also com¬
from a sliding-surface bearing is to spread a mercially. They are designated as SUPER
small portion of a thin mixture of pumice and cleaners. Besides removing paint, they remove
clock oil over the surface of a flat lap and rub heavy carbon, grease, varnish, and sticky gums.
the high part of the bearing over the surface of You will obtain the best results with a paint
the coated flat lap. Use a sweeping figure-of- and carbon remover by putting at least 10 gal¬
eight motion to ensure uniform removal of the lons in a stainless steel tank and soaking the
metal. Do NOT remove too much metal. parts as long as necessary in it. Then wash
each part with hot water, remove the water
EXCESSIVE CLEARANCE. -If there is no with a compressed air hose, and bake it briefly
way of adjusting a bearing by removing exces¬ in an open. It is then ready for painting.
sive clearance with shims, or the bearing does CAUTION: Paint and carbon removers are
not have some means by which it can be ad¬ •not explosive or flammable, and they contain a
justed, replace it with a new one. If there is chemical seal-top layer which prevents evapora¬
some way to adjust the bearing, however, adjust tion; but use them ONLY in well ventilated
it as necessary in order to get a tight fit and spaces and protect your eyes with goggles.
then remove high spots in the manner described
for obtaining sufficient clearance. Removing Corrosion
NOTE: Always mark bearing parts to en¬
sure proper assembly after you hand fit them Paint removers do not eliminate corrosion
in the manner just described. from instrument parts, so it must be removed

188
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

with an approved corrosion removal compound, wheels, and abrasive cloth, listed in the order
available through naval supply channels and of discussion.
commercially. NOTE: Use only Navy approved 1. REMOVING CORROSION WITH A WIRE
commercial products. BRUSH. There are two types of wire brushes
Always follow the manufacturer’s instruc¬ which you may use to remove corrosion from
tions when you use any product, and protect metal, rotary-power and hand.
yourself by following safety precautions. CAUTION: To prevent damage to your
Corrosion generally eats into a part, and the eyes, wear your goggles to protect them from
best way to remove it is to soak the part for a flying wire. Do not use a wire brush on a
sufficient amount of time in a tank (stainless bearing surface or an engraved part.
steel) of the compound. To use a rotary-power wire brush, hold a
If you do not have an approved corrosion part against the wheel with enough pressure to
removal compound, you may make some (for force the moving wire bristles into the corro¬
different metals) by using the following formu¬ sion and keep the part moving slowly and evenly
las: against the wheel. Run the wheel from the cen¬
1. To make a corrosion removal compound ter of the part toward the edges, to ensure
for CAST IRON AND STEEL, use a 50 percent thorough cleaning of the edges. Use a hand
solution of sulfuric acid and distilled water wire brush, emery paper, or a scraper to re¬
(about 150° F). Then dip the corroded metal move corrosion from the inside corners of the
parts in the warm acid for about 5 seconds and part.
wash them immediately in several changes of 2. REMOVING CORROSION WITH A BUFF¬
hot water. ING WHEEL. A buffing wheel gives a part a
CAUTION: Do not handle chemicals until brighter, polished finish than a wire brush
you understand the safety precautions (end of (wheel), but it will not remove heavy corrosion.
this chapter) which pertain to them. NEVER For this reason, do not use these wheels on
USE ACID ON BEARINGS, or GEAR TEETH. large areas, but use them to polish metal parts
2. You can make a corrosion removal com¬ which must remain bright.
pound for brass by using the following formula: Use a polishing compound with a buffing
wheel, and polish a part until you have the de¬
Water (pure, distilled) . 491 cc sired brightness and polish. Then remove the
Sulfuric acid (concentrated) .... 435 cc remains of the polishing compound with a sol¬
Nitric acid (concentrated) . 72 cc vent, dry the part thoroughly, and apply at least
Hydrochloric acid (concentrated) 2 cc one coat of clear lacquer.
NOTE: To speed up the buffing process,
If a brass surface is bright in spots, there clean the parts first in a corrosion remover.
3. REMOVING CORROSION WITH ABRA¬
is probably some clear lacquer on it. Submerge
SIVE CLOTH. You can remove corrosion from
the part in paint remover and then rinse it with
hot water. Continue by dipping the part in the metal with an abrasive cloth in the following
correct amount of the corrosion removal solu¬ manner:
tion for 4 or 5 seconds, rinsing it in water, dry¬ a. Polish flat pieces by hand on crocus
ing thoroughly with an air hose, and applying at cloth (embedded with an oxide of metal) laid on
least one coat of clear lacquer before the sur¬ a flat surface.
face oxidizes. NOTE: Do not use lacquer if the b. Polish irregular pieces which you
part requires paint. cannot buff on a wheel by hand. Use wood or
CAUTION: Do not use a brass dip on bear¬ metal in the jaws of a vise to protect these
pieces and secure them ONLY as tightly as es¬
ing surfaces.
3. To clean corrosion from aluminum, dip sential. To polish a piece in the vise, use a
it for 5 to 10 seconds in a 10 percent solution strip of fine emery cloth and complete the job
of sodium hydroxide (lye) at a temperature of with a piece of crocus cloth, to remove grains
about 150° F and wash the lye off immediately produced by the emery cloth.
c. Put small, round parts of an instru¬
with hot water.
You can also use some non-chemical methods ment in the collet of a lathe and (with the lathe
for removing corrosion and giving a bright, running at high speed) touch the parts lightly
clean finish to metal parts. These methods in¬ with emery cloth or crocus cloth to the extent
volve types of abrasives, wire brushes, buffing necessary to obtain the polish desired.

189
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

CAUTION: Do not use abrasive cloth on Lacquers and enamels which give a dull-
bearing surfaces. When a bearing surface has flat, black finish are used to cut down surface
deep pits caused by corrosion, it is worthless; reflections, and they are also used to kill in¬
the bearing is ruined. Use a non-abrasive ternal reflections on the inside of optical in¬
cleaner to remove light corrosion from the sur¬ struments. You will generally use a dull-black
face of a bearing. Unless there are provisions finish paint on most optical instruments.
provided in the construction of a bearing for Paints which give a semigloss, black ap¬
refitting it, and you can do this in your shop, pearance and a hard, durable finish are used on
never remove metal from a bearing surface. parts which receive considerable handling, and
When you remove corrosion from a bearing sur¬ on such small articles as eyepiece focusing
face, rub it off carefully with crocus cloth or a rings, knobs, handles, and pointers.
fine paste of clock oil and pumice, or by scrap¬ Always use clear lacquer on parts subject to
ing. corrosion but which are not painted, to protect
their high polish.
Painting Procedure Most paints and their thinners are flammable,
and some are explosive; so use a spray booth
After you remove corrosion from instru¬ with an explosion-proof exhaust fan. To prevent
ment parts, you are then ready to paint those spontaneous combustion, put rags used for wip¬
which require paint. There are three reasons ing up paints, oils, thinners, etc., in a container
for painting metal parts of optical instruments, with a self-closing cover and dispose of them
as follows (in order of importance); completely as soon as practicable. Stow paint
1. To protect the metal from rust and cor¬ materials in a locker which will not tip over,
rosion. This is most important for instruments and at atemperature less than 95° F, preferably—
used aboard ship, where salt spray and damp, never over 95° F.
salty air quickly corrode unprotected metals. CAUTION: Permit no smoking in the spray
2. To kill reflections. The glare of bare room, and have a COg fire extinguisher avail¬
metal in the sunlight is very annoying to the able in the room’s equipment. Do NOT play
user of an optical instrument; and under some with the air hose, or point it toward your own
conditions, a brilliant reflection from a metal person or any one else.
surface may reveal the observer’s presence to When you paint with a spray gun (usually
an enemy. the case), mask bearing surfaces, threads, and
3. To improve appearance. A good-looking, holes to the interior of the instrument, from
pleasing appearance of an optical instrument which you desire to exclude the paint. Tear off
creates a good impression on all who see and strips of the tape and put them over the sur¬
use the instrument. Inspection of painted sur¬ faces of the bearings, with the edges of each
faces of instruments is part of your mandatory successive strip (one side) slightly overlapping
inspection procedure. the last strip applied. Then trim off excess tape
Some paint manufacturers make lacquers with a sharp knife or razor blade. Mask off
and enamels which put a fine finish on instru¬ also all points on the instrument you do not wish
ments. Many optical parts have a very smooth, to paint.
hard finish which appears to be part of the Punch holes in a small box top or piece of
metal itself. This finish is called ANODIZE, cardboard and stick the bodies of screws whose
applied to the metal by an electrochemical heads you desire to paint into the holes, to keep
process. paint off the bodies of the screws. You can also
A baking enamel of high quality gives a place on the cardboard top small parts which you
hard, durable finish, but air -dried enamel is intend to paint on one side only. String parts
good for touching up or painting an instrument which you desire to paint all over on small pieces
which cannot be subjected to heat in a baking of brass wire.
oven. Lacquers have one outstanding charac¬
teristic, quick-drying, but they cannot resist PREPARING THE PAINT. -Prepare both the
chemicals and are therefore not as durable as primer coat and the finish coat in the same man¬
enamels. ner for use in a spray gun, as follows:
CAUTION: Never cover enamel with lac¬ 1. Stir the paint thoroughly in order to mix
quer, because the lacquer loosens the enamel the pigment back into the liquid vehicles used to
from its base and causes it to blister. suspend it. Unless you do this, the paint will

190
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

not cover surfaces with uniform thickness and After you finish a paint job with a spray gun,
will not have luster and the same color all spray lacquer thinner over the gun to remove
over. lacquer and enamel from the small openings. At
2. Thin thick paint before you put it into a the end of the day, if you use the gun last, com¬
spray gun; otherwise, it will clog the gun and not pletely disassemble the gun and wash all parts
go through it. Use your experience and the in lacquer thinner. Then dry, lubricate, and re¬
manufacturer’s instructions when you thin the assemble it so that there will be no delay of
paint to proper consistency. Dip a pencil ver¬ work the next day. The best time to clean a
tically into the lacquer or enamel and then spray gun is while the paint on its surfaces is
withdraw it. If the consistency is correct for still wet.
spraying, the lacquer or enamel will run off the NOTE: Your spray gun should have an air
pencil in a smooth, thin stream. When thinning pressure and reducing valve with awaterandoil
paint, however, do not add much over 20 per¬ trap (and filter) which should work correctly
cent of thinner to the paint, lest you get it so all the time. Drain this trap regularly. If water
thin that it will not cover material properly. and oil get into your spray gun and paint, it will
(Total volume of paint and thinner should be about ruin the appearance of your work; and the lacquer
20% thinner.) After you add thinner, stir the or enamel will not dry.
paint thoroughly. Following is a list of difficulties sometimes
3. When you have the paint at the right con¬ experienced with a spray gun, with the reason for
sistency for spraying, strain it through several each difficulty given.
thicknesses of cheesecloth or medical gauze to 1. FINISH REFUSES TO DRY. Youforgotto
eliminate lumps of undissolved pigment, dirt, an' 1 remove the oil and grease from the metal sur¬
any other particles which could clog the spra; faces of your work, or from your air supply.
gun and give a poor finish on your work. 2. FINISH COVERED WITH TINY ROUGH
SPOTS. There was too much dust or moisture
APPLYING THE PAINT.-Before you use a in the air, or in the paint or spray gun.
spray gun for the first time, seek good infor¬ 3. FINISH HAS SMALL CIRCULAR MARK¬
mation concerning its operation, or closely fol¬ INGS. There was water in the air hose, or water
low the manufacturer’s instructions for its use. dripped or condensed on the work before it was
Check the spray gun for cleanliness. If it is completely dry.
dirty or has old paint on the inside, disassemble 4. FINISH SHOWS HORIZONTAL STREAKS.
it completely and soak the metal parts in a paint Your spray was too fine and the last lap had
remover. Clean the gaskets in lacquer thinner. started to dry before you applied the next one,
CAUTION: Paint remover will ruin the gaskets. or you forgot to cover half of each old lap with
When you reassemble the spray gun, lubricate the following lap.
all moving parts. 5. FINISH IS UNIFORMLY ROUGH. The
Fill the cannister of the spray gun with your spray was too fine, or you held the gun too far
prepared paint and turn on the air pressure, from the work, and the droplets began to dry be¬
about 40 to 60 pounds per square inch, or as fore they hit the work.
recommended in the manufacturer’s technical 6. THE FINISH HAS LUMPS OR BLOBS. The
manual for the gun. Then so adjust the gun that spray gun or hose line was dirty, or you forgot
it delivers a fine spray with enough density to to strain the paint.
cover surfaces rapidly with a uniform, wet ap¬ 7. THE FINISH RUNS. The consistency of
pearance. Then begin your spraying. the paint was too thin.
Hold the spray gun about 10 inches from your 8. THE FINISH SAGS. You moved the gun too
work and keep it moving horizontally, back and slowly or held it too close to the work.
9. ' forth. Be sure to carry each swing of the gun out THE FINISH SHOWS OR ANGE-PEEL EF¬
past the end of the work before you start back, FECT. The consistency of the paint was too
to prevent piling up of the paint near the edges thick, your spray was too fine, or you held the
of the work and subsequent sagging. Start at the gun too far from the work.
top of a surface and work down, back and forth When you intend to paint and bake instru¬
in horizontal motion, and cover the last old lap ment parts, remove all masking tape before you
with about half of your new lap. If you follow put the parts in the oven. If you cannot remove
this procedure, your paint will be uniformly the tape before you bake the parts, remove it
thick over the entire surface. immediately upon taking the parts out of the oven.

191
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

This is also a good time to apply engraver rotate the stick until some fibers catch on it;
filler, commonly called MONOFILL, a soft, then pull the captured fibers loose from the
wax-base compound (generally in crayon form) mother material. Repeat this process as often
used to fill in and accentuate engraved index as necessary until you have the swab Of desired
lines and numbers. While the part is hot, the size. Shape the swab by rotating its tip against
filler flows easily into an engraving. When the a clean cloth or lens tissue.
part cools, wipe off the excess filler with a soft CAUTION: Do NOT touch the tip of the swab
cloth. with your fingers or lay it down on the bench
top where it will pick up dirt.
CLEANING GLASS OPTICS AND Figure 8-12 shows the procedure for making
RECEMENTING LENSES a swab out of lens tissue, step by step. Swabs
made in this manner are useful for picking up
Clean the lenses and prisms of an instrument individual specks of dirt from a lens or reticle,
you repair while paint on the finished work is using acetone as a cleaner. Make a supply of
drying, and also accomplish necessary lens ce¬ lens tissue strips for fabricating swabs by cut¬
menting. ting a packet of 4" x 6" lens tissue down the
The Navy standard for cleaning glass optical center, lengthwise, so that you can remove the
elements is this: OPTICS MUST BE CLEANED strips one at a time.
TO ABSOLUTE PERFECTION. The fourth step for making a swab (4, fig.
Bear in mind that an optical instrument with 8-12) shows how to press the tip of the round
components of the highest quality arranged in swab between the cover and the top tissue in
the best design possible is of little or no value order to obtain a flat, chisel-like cleaning tip,
if vision through it is obscured by dirty optics. as shown in step five (5) of illustration 8-12.
This statement does not mean grime or mud; You can make a large, useful lens cleaning
IT MEANS THE SMALLEST VISIBLE SPECK pad by folding two thicknesses of 8" x 11” lens
OF DUST. EVEN A SPECK on a reticle may cleaning tissue along its length and bringing the
obscure much detail of an image, and a finger¬ two ends together. When you dampen this pad
print or film of oil will most likely blur the with acetone, you can clean a large area of glass
overall image. quickly and effectively.
For the reasons just given, you must learn
the proper technique for cleaning glass optics, Cleaning Glass Optics.
and you must then APPLY THEM WITH
PATIENCE, CARE, AND THOROUGHNESS. The recommended procedure for cleaning
Knowledge of procedure, plus appreciation for glass optics is presented by steps in the following
quality work, will enable you to attain the paragraphs:
absolute-perfection standard required. 1. Blow all coarse and loose dust from the
surface of the lens with a bulb syringe. Then
Cleaning Equipment brush the surface of the lens with a camel’s-
hair brush, using quick, light strokes. Flick the
The equipment you need for cleaning optical brush after each stroke to dislodge the dust it
elements includes a rubber or metal bulb picked up, and blow off newly loosened particles
syringe, several camel’s-hair brushes (small), of dust on the lens (optic) with the bulb syringe.
alcohol, medically pure acetone, lens tissue 2. If the lens is large, use several pads of
(soft, lintless paper), absorbent cotton or silk lens tissue dampened with alcohol to remove
floss, wooden swab sticks, stoppered containers remaining dirt and/or grease. Change cleaning
for alcohol and acetone, and a container to keep pads or swabs frequently enough to prevent dam¬
the cotton or silk floss absolutely clean. To this age to the optic by the dirt or grit. Use a cotton,
list you may also wish to add a special lintless silk, or floss swab, or lens tissue on small
cloth for cleaning optics, the best types of which lenses.
are SELVYT CLOTH and CAMBRIC NAINSOOK. 3. Finish the cleaning of the optic by using
You can make a lens cleaning swab of cotton, a pad or swab dampened with a few drops of
silk floss, or lens tissue. To make a cotton or acetone, to remove traces of film of the alcohol
silk floss swab, use the end of a wooden swab used during precleaning.
stick to pick up the top fibers of the material. CAUTION: If you use a swab or pad moist¬
Thrust the tip of the stick into the material and ened with acetone for more than 20 seconds on

192
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Figure 8-12. —Procedure for making a lens-tissue swab.

an optic, it leaves a film or water marks on the 5.

Under a strong light, examine the lens for
lens. Acetone evaporates quickly and moisture dirt, fingerprints, and film which you may have
in the surrounding air condenses in the swab or missed. If these are difficult to remove, do the
pad. Medically pure acetone (triple-distilled) following:
leaves an optical surface perfectly clean and a. Swab the surface with concentrated
free of film when used as described. ACETONE nitric acid solution and rinse with distilled water.
IS HIGHLY FLAMMABLE; KEEP IT AWAY Then reclean with alcohol and acetone.
FROM FIRE AND HEAT. b. If this procedure does not clean the
4. As you clean an optic, swab lightly with a optic, rub the surface with a damp piece of lens
rotary motion, working from the center to the cloth dipped in precipitated chalk. Then clean
edges. Avoid excessive rubbing to prevent with alcohol and acetone.
damage to the coating of an optic and charging
with static electricity. Study figure 8-13 for the CAUTION: Rub just enough to remove dirt
correct procedure to follow when you clean a and/or stains, some of which may be in the
reflection-reducing magnesium fluoride coating
lens with a swab.

193
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

and cannot be removed by rubbing with chalk, with alcohol, and then clean them thoroughly
for this would ruin the film. with acetone.
6. If you are satisfied with your cleaning
job, wrap the lens in clean lens tissue and put it RECEMENTING OPTICAL ELEMENTS.-
back in a safe place where it will not become Put the clean lenses on the hotplate, with the
damaged. surfaces to be cemented together facing up¬
ward. Inspect them for dust or dirt which may
Lens Cementing have fallen on them since they were cleaned,
cover with the bell jar, and apply just enough
You must recement a lens when the balsam heat to melt balsam.
between the elements deteriorates or breaks When the elements are hot enough, put a little
down. When you do this, proceed as follows: balsam on the surfaces to be joined together,
1. Separate the cemented elements. pick up the positive element with your tweezers,
2. Remove old cement and clean the surfaces and join the two cemented surfaces. Then use
of the lenses. your rubber-tipped tool to work the top element
3. Recement the elements together. over the lower one as much as necessary to
4. If available, use a lens-centering machine squeeze OUT all air bubbles. The black paper
to align the optical axes of the lenses; if you do on the heater makes air bubbles in the elements
not have this machine, use V-BLOCKS. appear bright.
5. Allow the parts adequate time to cool and Use the lens -centering instrument (fig. 8-14)
then clean off excess cement. to center (align their optical axes) the elements.
The equipment you need for cementing lenses This instrument consists of an astronomical
includes: telescope with a crossline and a collimator
1. Electric hotplate with controlled heat telescope mounted on a tripod, with the objective
(LOW, MEDIUM, AND HIGH). lens of one instrument facing the objective lens
2. Canada balsam or other types of approved of the other instrument. The crossline mount of
lens cement. the collimator telescope moves in a drawtube,
3. Sheet asbestos (several pieces) andblack which enables you to bring the image of its cross-
paper (few sheets). line into focus with the image of the astronom¬
4. A rubber -tipped tool and a pair of tongs ical telescope. A lens chuck mounted between the
or brass tweezers for use on the particular two telescopes can be rotated 360°, or more.
optical elements on which you are working. Heat the chuck jaws with a small torch or a
5. Glass bell jar (small). If you do not have hot piece of metal and then transfer the hot lens
this, use a small, cardboard box. to the chuck. NOTE: Cold chuck jaws may crack
6. V-BLOCKS or a lens-centering machine. one or both elements of the lens. Mount the hot,
NOTE: Do all lens cementing in a dust-, freshly cemented lens in the warm chuck, which
dirt-, and draft-free area, very clean, and have grips ONLY the negative elements of the lens.
all the required tools in place for a particular Sight through the eyepiece while you rotate
job. the chuck and observe the eccentric movement
of the lower crossline. Then move the upper
SEPARATING CEMENTED ELEMENTS. - element of the cemented lens over the lower one
Turn your electric stove on LOW and place a as necessary to have the crossline intersections
piece of 3/8" asbestos on top, over which you coincide.
now need a piece of the black paper. Put the Allow the lens to cool for a few minutes in
lens on the paper and cover it with the bell jar the machine and recheck the alignment, remove
or cardboard box. Then watch the black paper the asbestos sheet from the hotplate, and place
for signs of scorching, which shows that the the lens on the asbestos sheet. Then cover the
stove is too hot and more asbestos is required lens with the bell jar (or box) and allow the lens
over the hotplate. adequate time for cooling. Remove the bell jar
When the lens is hot enough (between 275° F and scrape excess balsam from the edge of the
and 300° F), gently pry the elements of the lens lens with a razor blade, after which the lens is
apart with your rubber -tipped tool and allow ready for final cleaning and inspection.
them to cool slowly. When the temperature of the NOTE: If you do not have a lens-centering
separated elements is approximately equal to machine, use V-BLOCKS in the following manner
that of the room, remove old balsam from them to align the optical axes of a compound lens: Heat

194
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

the V- BLOCKS on the hotplate while you are expansion and contraction. Some large lenses
cementing the lens elements; and when you have are also ground with different curvatures on
the elements joined, slide the V-BLOCKS against their mating surfaces which make joining by
the edges of the lens from opposite directions. cement impossible.
The reasons for joining the elements of a
Then turn off the hotplate, cover the lens and
V-BLOCKS, and allow the combination to cool lens by cement are as follows:
simultaneously. NOTE: Lenses whose edges are 1. Cementing keeps the elements optically
not concentric when aligned cannot be cemented aligned.
2. Cementing reduces the number of glass
in this manner. surfaces exposed to the air, which serves the
You will occasionally find a lens doublet
same purpose as a film on optics, to make the
(generally from a gunsight, where it is used
because it withstands the shock of gun fire) that image brighter and clearer. Since the index of
will not separate when heated. If the elements of refraction of Canada balsam is about the same
a compound lens do not separate at a temperature as that of crown glass, there is practically no
of 300° F, they were probably cemented together reflection when two crown glass surfaces are
cemented together, and very little reflection
with a thermo-setting plastic, which a manu¬
when a crown glass surface is cemented to a
facturer sometimes uses for two reasons:
1. It resists temperature changes better than flint glass surface.
3. Because a soft glass (hydroscopic) has
balsam.
special optical properties, a lens designer may
2. It speeds up lens production.
When you have reason to believe that lens sometimes desire to use it. This type of glass,
however, is unstable and quickly deteriorates
elements have been secured together with a
thermo-setting plastic, check the lens with when used alone; but it can be used satis¬
factorily when cemented in place between two
ultraviolet light for FLUORESCENCE. If the
cement between the elements is a thermo¬ stable elements.
4. Groups of cemented lenses reduce the
setting type, there will be little or no fluor¬
number of parts used in an optical instrument.
escence; if the cement is balsam, you will see a
definite, hazy-white fluorescence. When in doubt
about the cement used in lenses, consult your REASSEMBLY
supervisor.
Canada balsam is usually available in pre¬
Now that you have effected essential repairs
pared form in metal tubes, through Navy supply
channels. Use this lens cement on all lenses ex¬ to instrument parts, performed necessary re¬
finishing, accomplished required cementing of
cept very small or very large ones, which can
optical elements, and cleaned everything per¬
be cemented together better with cements made
fectly clean, you are ready to begin the re¬
by specific formulas, as explained next.
1. CEMENT FOR LARGE LENSES. Put assembly process.
If you have accomplished your repair and
three parts of rosin and one part of Canada
overhaul well, reassembly will be smooth and
balsam in a clean cup or bowl in a water bath at
easy. Unless you know the instrument on which
a temperature of 130 F. CAUTION: Keep the
temperature of the water constant, as deter¬ you are working very well, follow a reassembly
sheet. Because reassembly is different for each
mined by a thermometer. Do not get any water
instrument, no set procedure for accomplishing
in the cement. Stir the cement every 10 or 15
minutes, over a 21/2 hour period and then it can be given in this manual. The reassembly
tips presented in the next few pages, however,
strain it through a piece of clean silk, after
which you may use it. will be helpful.
Reassemble lenses in their cells and tape
2.
CEMENT FOR VERY SMALL LENSES.
the ends of the cells to exclude dirt; then pro¬
Mix 4 parts of resin with 1 part of refined
ceed as follows: Hold the call so that one end is
camphor and follow the procedure just described down, and use a light, fiber mallet (2 or 3 oz.)
for large lenses to make the cement. to tap lightly around the exterior of the cell.
Most lenses with a diameter over 2 1/2 inches
This action jars the dirt on the lens (if any) loose
are not cemented together; they are air-spaced. and causes it to drop and stick on the tape over
The elements of the lenses are made of con¬
the end of the cell. Use the same procedure on
stituents with different coefficients of expansion
which causes breakage of the cement during body tubes and castings.

195
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

After you tap a lens cell in order to jar

specks of dirt from it and onto the tape in its
end, partially remove the tape and clean the lens
with a swab dampened with acetone. Repeat this
process until you have the lens perfectly clean,
and then keep the tape over the ends of the cell
until you wish to reassemble the cell in the body
tube or casting.
Use the following steps for reassembling a
lens in its mount:
1. Carefully unwrap the clean optic and use
the correct tool to reassemble it in the instru¬
ment. A lens chuck and cleaning holder (fig.
8-10) is a good tool at this time for cleaning.
After you have the lens thoroughly cleaned, in¬
stall it in its mount.
2. Tighten the retainer ring to seat the
lens properly and clean off fingerprints (if any)
137.192
and dirt. Use a silk floss or lens tissue swab
Figure 8-14. —Lens-centering instrument.
dampened with acetone for cleaning a lens in its
mount or cell. See illustration 8-15. To make
certain the lens is actually clean, use the clean¬
ing and tapping process described previously in
this chapter until you are satisfied that the lens
is thoroughly clean.
Some lenses must be sealed in their mounts,
and the actual seal is provided by a string of

a silk-floss swab.

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 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

wax about 1/16" in diameter in the form of LEAN before you put it into the instrument. In
sealing compound in a space between the lens a prism erecting system, LEAN results when the
and its mount, as illustrated in figure 8-16. prisms are not oriented exactly 90°to each other.
Illustration 8-21 shows how to correct lean with
The procedure for pressing the sealing com¬
pound into position in the mount is shown in a prism -squaring fixture. Note that the repair¬
illustration 8-17. Use a hardwood stick of man is adjusting the prism by loosening the
correct size and shaped like a burnishing tool prism collar and shifting it slightly. He can also
to press the sealing compound into the recesses detect LEAN and remove it by using the grids on
provided for it in the mounts. a sheet of graft paper.
After you seat a lens in wax, remove the To remove lean from a prism cluster with a
prism-squaring fixture, look at the gridthrough
excess wax with a chisel-tipped hardwood stick,
as shown in illustration 8-18. Then clean the the prism cluster with one eye and at the same
lens very carefully (fig- 8-15). time look directly at the grid with the other eye.
If there is lean in the prism cluster, the grids
Thin gaskets are used to seal lenses in some
will not look parallel. This procedure for detect¬
instruments, in which case you must use the same
ing LEAN in the cluster is not as easy as it
procedures and observe the same precautions
sounds and takes practice in order to attain
required for sealing lenses in mounts with a
compound. perfection.
If you assemble a pair of binoculars with
Follow the method illustrated in figure 8-19
LEAN in one or both barrels, the instrument will
to place the lens in its mount and screw the
probably hurt the operators’ eyes and will re¬
retainer ring snugly against it. A small amount
quire disassembly and correction of the clusters
of heat applied carefully to the mount with a
for LEAN. So check for LEAN in prisms WITH¬
torch at this time helps to seat the lens properly.
OUT FAILURE before you assemble them in
After you apply the heat, screw the retainer ring
binoculars; and do not forget to check the prism
a bit tighter. clusters for strain after you assemble them and
CAUTION: If you make the retainer ring too
also prior to installation in the instrument.
tight, you may crack the lens, or cause strain
When you assemble parts in an instrument,
which will distort the image. Insufficient pres¬
sure, on the other hand, will eventually allow the lubricate all moving parts. CAUTION: Use only
the lubricant approved for that particular instru¬
lens to become loose. It is therefore important
that you make certain a lens is actually tight ment.
As you assemble parts in an instrument, be
because the retainer ring is snug against it and
sure to match all assembly marks; otherwise,
not because it appears tight only because the
you will be compelled to disassemble the instru¬
compound is holding it in position. If this is true,
ment, make corrections, and reassemble it.
when the compound dries, the lens will be loose.
Check each part as you reassemble it for
To ensure correct pressure on the lens by the
fragments of foreign matter clinging to it. Each
retainer ring, tighten the ring snugly against part MUST BE IMMACULATELY CLEANbefore
the lens; then turn the retainer ring backward
you assemble it in the instrument. Keep openings
about 1/16 turn to release strain which may be
to the interior of the instrument closed with
present. Check for strain in the mounted lens
masking tape and remove it only when you must
by viewing all portions of it in a polariscope, make additional installations. Follow this pro¬
shown in illustration 8-20. cedure as you reassemble each part, until you
After you assemble all lenses in their cells
make the final closure.
and mounts, assemble the prism clusters, or
As you replace components and parts in an
prism mounts (if any). Secure the prisms in
instrument, try to work from the top down, to
their mounts by straps and/or collars, which
prevent unnecessary work over an optical ele¬
must fit snugly enough to hold the prisms but not
ment, and perhaps damage to it.
so tight that they may cause strain. A collar
Do not force a part into place in an optical
should fit over a prism with a slight press. If
instrument; use a light press with the fingers,
the fit is too tight, strain and breakage usually unless the part must be fitted in position by force
result; if the fit is too loose, the prism may in accordance with specifications. If there is a
shift its position and throw the instrument out of
bind,determine the cause.
adjustment. You can make some adjustment on parts as
When you assemble a prism cluster used as you assemble them in an instrument. Whenever
an erector assembly, check the assembly for

197
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

LENS MOUNT

LENS MUST CONTACT MOUNT

ALONG THIS LINE ALL AROUND

LENS MOUNT

LENS MUST CONTACT MOUNT

ALONG THIS LINE ALL AROUND
compound from a lens mount.

137. 194
Figure 8-16.— Space for sealing compound
LENS MOUNT
in lens mounts.

SEALING COMPOUND

CLEANING HOLDER
(Brass Tube)
Figure 8-17. —Pressing sealing compound 137. 197
into the recess of a lens mount. Figure 8-19. —Placing a lens in its mount.

198
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

137. 198
Figure 8-20.— Checking for strain in a
mounted lens with a polariscope.

possible, these adjustments should be made dur¬ 137.199

ing collimation; but in some instances an ad¬ Figure 8-21. -Prism squaring fixture.
justment is impossible after reassembly because
of inaccessibility of parts. The removal of LEAN
in an erector prism cluster is a good example of
an adjustment which must be made during as¬ and can be cross threaded easily. When you
sembly. therefore insert them, turn in a counterclockwise
Threads on retaining rings, lens mounts, direction until the threads snap into place, and
caps, screws, and setscrews are extremely fine then turn clockwise. NOTE: Always place a

199
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

small amount of grease or anti-seize compound laterally) that the target will remain stationary
on threads before you turn them into place. when you rotate the tube. When this is true, you
Seal the final cover to the interior of an have the optical axes of the lenses aligned with
optical instrument with sealing wax, gaskets, or the mechanical axis of the tube. The process you
packing. The function the instrument must serve just completed, therefore, is collimation.
determines the method for sealing it, and this is Collimation varies for different optical in¬
included in design specifications. struments; that is, the procedure for collimating
Seals used on optical instruments can be one instrument may be exactly opposite that for
placed in one of the following types: collimating another instrument. Some instru¬
1. Moisture seal. ments are also collimated on targets at a dis¬
2. Gas-tight seal. tance less than infinity (2,000 yards, or more);
3. Pressure seal. but most of them are collimated at infinity, be¬
After you finish the reassembly process, seal all cause they are used to observe targets at infinity.
openings except those you must use when you If you must collimate an optical instrument on
collimate the instrument. Upon completion of an infinity target, you must have access to such
the collimation process, final sealing, drying, a target every hour of the day and every day of
and charging of the instrument must be accom¬ the year, regardless of weather conditions. Be¬
plished, as you will learn next. cause it is difficult or impossible to obtain and
maintain an infinity target for long periods of
time under ideal weather conditions, you must be
COLLIMATION able to produce and/or use a suitable artificial
target at infinity. Such an infinity target can be
One of the final steps in overhaul and repair produced by an instrument known as a collimator,
of an optical instrument is collimation, which is which is discussed next.
the ALIGNMENT OF THE OPTICAL AXIS OF
THE INSTRUMENT to its mechanical axis. In COLLIMATORS
simpler terms, orientation of all the axes of
lenses in an optical system in such manner that Collimators are precision instruments (with
they coincide with each other in a straight line both optical and mechanical elements) which pro¬
and parallel to the mechanical axes of the bearing vide an infinity target suitable for use in align¬
surfaces (telescope’s mounting pads, for ex¬ ing and adjusting the optical and mechanical
ample) of the instrument is known as collimation. components of optical instruments, so that they
Suppose you have an instrument constructed will perform accurately.
only of a straight tubular housing mounted in two Although collimators may vary in design
ball bearings like a shaft. It contains no optics: and/or construction, the optical principle em¬
it is only a straight, hollow tube. If you now ployed in them is the same. Hlustration 8-22
peer through this tube and rotate it on its bear¬ shows one type of collimator, but there are
ings like a rotating shaft, you will find that the many different designs. Observe the nomen¬
least amount of rotation is in the center of the clature. This is Mk 4, Mod 0, telescope colli¬
tube. THIS CENTER OF LEAST ROTATION IS mator used to collimate small telescopes,
THE MECHANICAL AXIS OF THE TUBE. gunsights, and navigational instruments. It has
If you point the tube toward an infinity target, a steel base several feet long with a precision,
you can superimpose this mechanical axis on the flat bearing surface machined on its entire top.
object. Regardless of the direction in which you A keyway is cut down the center of the bearing
rotate the tube, its mechanical axis REMAINS surface, as shown, for supporting fixtures.
SUPERIMPOSED on the same spot of the object. This collimator telescope is secured to the
Suppose that you now place in the tube the bearing surface with a V-block support, with a
optical elements required to construct a tele¬ highly precisioned bearing surface which slides
scope which will magnify the infinity target and (rides) on the bearing surface of the base. Other
then rotate the tube (telescope) again. If the target types of V-block supports may be part of the
(now magnified) appears to revolve around in collimator base, and other designs may have
a circle in the same direction, the optical axes keyways cut along the bottoms of their bearing
of the lenses are NOT ALIGNED with the mechan¬ surfaces. A key is then inserted half its thick¬
ical axis of the tube; but you can so position ness into the keyway of the V-block support,
the optical elements of the system (usually with the other half of its thickness in the keyway

200
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

of the collimator base, to keep the V-block sup¬ Checking Telescopes

port and collimator telescope aligned parallel
with the keyway in the collimator base. A checking telescope (fig. 8-25), or adummy
The telescope of the collimator (with its telescope, is a relatively small standard or
bearing rings) can be secured or rotated on the master instrument used to align collimator com¬
bearing surfaces of the V’s of the V-block sup¬ ponents and instrument support fixtures. Design
port for making adjustments. This telescope of the telescope varies in accordance with its
consists of a tube with an achromatic doublet use, but a checking telescope generally con¬
objective lens and a crossline reticle mounted sists of an astronomical telescope with a cross-
internally in the principal focal plane of the lens. line reticle. Study the nomenclature of the tele¬
Located a short distance behind the reticle is scope shown in figure 8-23 carefully, noting
a frosted-glass diffusing plate, and located be¬ particularly the position of the optical elements.
hind the diffusing plate is either a plain re¬ Checking telescopes are generally used to
flecting mirror or a lamp, as illustrated in collimate collimators employed on many dif¬
figure 8-23, which shows the optical principle ferent optical instruments, but one may be
of the collimator telescope. designed to collimate a collimater used only on
When light from the lamp, or reflected light one instrument.
from the mirror, strikes the diffusing plate, the A checking telescope is a master instrument
plate diffuses the light evenly over the entire whose delicate components must receive the best
crossline reticle. The reticle then becomes a care. NOTE: Never attempt to repair a check¬
new light source and emits diverging rays which ing telescope. Only its manufacturer has the
are received and refracted parallel by the ob¬ equipment required to repair it satisfactorily.
jective lens, as illustrated. If you were to look
through the objective lens, the crossline would
Auxiliary Telescopes
appear to be at infinity.

An auxiliary telescope is probably used more

AUXILIARY FIXTURES AND EQUIPMENT than any other auxiliary fixture in instrument
collimation. It is an astronomical telescope with
Auxiliary fixtures and equipment consist of a Kellner eyepiece, and its main purpose is to
special attachments, stands, supports, riggings, compensate for inherent eye errors of a person
fixtures, and other optical instruments you must who is collimating an instrument. Study part A
use with a collimator when you collimate various of figure 8-26. Observe the position of all com¬
optical instruments. ponents and their nomenclature.
An auxiliary fixture may be any piece If individuals who work on collimation of
equipment which can be attached to a collimator optical instruments have normal vision, no near -
or its base, or a piece of mechanical or optical or farsightedness, an auxiliary telescope may not
equipment, and used during the repair andcolli- be required for doing some phases of collimation.
mation of an optical instrument. Auxiliary fix¬ Because most persons have some sort of eye
tures most generally used are: dynameters, defects, however, an auxiliary telescope must be
collimator telescopes, checking telescopes, aux¬ used to determine what dioptric errors they
iliary telescopes, special support fixtures, and have in their eyes before they collimate an
various other fixtures. instrument.
Some auxiliary support fixtures, or mounts,
are illustrated in figure 8-24. These fixtures You can determine what the dioptric settings
securely hold an optical instrument on the base of your eyes are by focusing (from plus to minus
of a collimator during collimation. on the diopter scale) the auxiliary telescope on
Auxiliary support fixtures differ from special an infinity target, or on a collimator telescope
support fixtures in that they are used in the crossline until the image is sharply defined.
collimation of a large number of optical instru¬ For best results, take five readings and use the
ments. Special support fixtures are used during reading which appears most during the readings.
the collimation of a limited number of instru¬ This is the MEAN.
ments. In some instances, a special support After you get this dioptric setting, do NOT
fixture may be used to collimate only one specific change the focus until you decide to check your
instrument. setting again for eye fatigue or strain.

201
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

COLLIMATOR BASE

137.200
Figure 8-22.— Telescope collimator.

202
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

137.202

Figure 8-24.— Auxiliary support fixtures.

You can also use an auxiliary telescope for Collimation of a collimator telescope gen¬
the following collimating operations: erally consists of adjusting:

1. Setting focusing eyepieces to the NORMAL 1. The collimator telescope mechanically,

or ZERO diopter setting. so that its optical axis is parallel to the bearing
2. Setting fixed-type eyepieces to their re¬ surfaces of the collimator’s base and the instru¬
quired diopter setting. ment’s auxiliary support fixture bearings.
3. Checking for and aiding in the removal of 2. The collimator telescope’s crossline, so
parallax in an instrument. that its vertical wire is perpendicular to the
4. Increasing magnification of another in¬ bearing surface of the collimator base. This is
strument, by placing the auxiliary telescope to called squaring the collimator crossline.
the eyepiece of the instrument. Increase in mag¬ Collimation of collimators varies in accord¬
nification of the instrument is equal to the ance with the design of each collimator and for
combination of the powers of the two tele¬ each instrument to be collimated, and no attempt
scopes, obtained by multiplying the power of the is made here to establish specific standards or
auxiliary telescope by the power of the instru¬ procedures for collimating a collimator. The
ment (3X x 10X = 30, for example). most common practice is to use the following
5. Collimating hand-held binoculars by fixtures (fig. 8-27): auxiliary eyepiece, mach¬
means of an auxiliary telescope rhomboid prism inist’s square, checking telescope, auxiliary
attachment, as shown in part B of figure 8-26. objective lens, and the master instrument.

C OLLIM ATION PROCEDURE Auxiliary pieces are most commonly used on

collimators when the collimating telescope is
Before you collimate an optical instrument, not designed for horizontal and vertical adjust¬
you must first collimate the collimator; that is, ment. The collimating telescope is permanently
you must adjust and align the optical and me¬ aligned on the V-block support in such manner
that its optical axis is parallel to the bearing
chanical components of the collimator as nec¬
surface of the collimator’s base. The Mk 4,
essary to have it conform with the specifica¬
Mod 0, telescope illustrated in figure 8-25 is
tions of the optical system of the instrument to
be collimated. this type of collimator.

203
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

DIAL

OBJECTIVE
LENS

FRONT EYELENS

EYEPIECE
PRISM

TRUNNION

REAR EYELENS
CLAMP

CROSSLINE LENS

INDEX RETAINER

MOUNTING HOLE

CLAMPING SCREW MOUNTING SURFACE

Figure 8-25.— Checking telescope.

The procedure for collimating a collimator place the auxiliary objective lens in front of the
with auxiliary pieces is as follows: collimator objective at a reasonable distance,
1. Level the collimator base with its adjust¬ as desired. Place the eyepiece lens behind the
ing screws on the legs. auxiliary objective lens at a distance equal to the
2. Place the auxiliary objective lens and the sum of their focal lengths in order to construct
eyepiece lens in the V-blocks on top of the colli¬ an astronomical telescope. If you now look
mator bearing surface. NOTE: Any two lenses through the astronomical telescope you see a
may be used, but the objective must have a longer magnified image of the collimator’s telescope
focal length than the eyepiece lens. You may crossline.

204
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

OBJECTIVE MOUNT OBJECTIVE LENS

RHOMBOID PRISM ATTACHMENT

AUXILIARY TELESCOPE
B

137.205

Figure 8-26.— Auxiliary telescopes.

3. Place the machinist’s square on the bear¬ of the collimator’s base, rotate the collimating
telescope until the vertical wire is parallel to
ing surface of the collimator base, with its
the straight edge of the machinist’s square. This
straight edge perpendicular and in the focal
step should complete the collimating process
plane of the auxiliary objective lens. If you now
look through the astronomical telescope you see for the collimator.
sharply defined both the crossline and the ma¬
For collimators with adjustable collimating
chinist’s square’s straight edge. telescopes (horizontal and vertical adjustments),
4. To square the collimator in such manner
that the vertical wire of the collimating tele¬ use the procedure just described only for squar¬
scope is perpendicular to the bearing surface
ing the collimating telescope. If the collimator,

205
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

COLLIMATOR TE OBJECTIVE
NS MACHINIST'S
SQUARE AUXILARY
IECE

TELESCOPE SUPPORT FIXTURES

137.206
Figure 8-27.— Squaring collimator and auxiliary pieces.

however, is to be aligned parallel to the colli¬ checking telescope; and if they do, collimation is
mator’s base or the bearing surfaces on an completed.
instrument’s auxiliary support fixture, use a You can also use a master instrument, pre¬
checking telescope. viously collimated, to collimate a collimator for
small navigational instruments. This master
The procedure for collimating a collimator instrument is used only for collimating colli¬
with a checking telescope follows: mators. Adjustment on the collimator must be the
1. Level the collimator’s base by adjusting same as that on the master instrument.
the legs, and place on the collimator’s base the After you collimate a collimator, securely
auxiliary support fixture you desire to use for lock all of its mechanical components in po¬
holding the instrument during collimation. sition. The collimator should be securely aligned
2. Place the checking telescope in the auxili¬ and locked in position while you are collimating
ary support fixture and secure it. NOTE: Both an instrument, but changes in temperature
the support fixture and the checking telescope throughout the day may affect the accuracy of
must be placed flat and square in their positions, collimation of the collimator, because its me¬
to ensure proper alignment of the collimator. chanical parts expand and contract in accord¬
3. Peer through the checking telescope and ance with changes in temperature. For this
focus it on the collimating telescope’s crossline. reason, NEVER assume that a collimator is
If this crossline is not square with the cross- collimated; check its alignment frequently to
line of the checking telescope, rotate the colli¬ make certain that it is collimated.
mating telescope until its crossline vertical wire The procedure for collimating optical instru¬
is parallel to the vertical wire in the checking ments varies with different instruments; and for
telescope. this reason, collimation procedures for a spe¬
4. Superimpose the crossline of the colli¬ cific type of optical instrument are not listed in
mating telescope on the crossline of the checking this manual. The collimation procedures con¬
telescope by adjusting the screws under the ob¬ sidered here are general in nature and applic¬
jective lens of the collimating telescope, to move able to all optical instruments. For information
the collimating telescope horizontally or ver¬ relative to collimating procedures for a specific
tically, as desired. Both crosslines should now instrument, refer to applicable publications
appear as one when you look at them through the and/or blueprints.

206
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

The general steps in collimation of an op¬ crossline in relation to the focal plane (image
tical instrument are: plane) of the objective lens. If the instrument’s
1. Collimate the collimator on the proper crossline comes into focus first before the
telescope support fixture. collimator’s crossline, the instrument’s cross-
2. Put the telescope to be collimated on its line is farther from the objective lens than its
support fixture and adjust the auxiliary tele¬ focal plane (image plane). If the collimator’s
scope to your eye correction. crossline comes into focus before the instru¬
You are now ready to remove parallax, ment’s crossline, the instrument’s crossline is
square and superimpose the instrument's cross- closer to the objective lens than its focal plane.
line, and set the eyepiece diopter setting. The The problem in collimation now is to place
things you generally do to collimate an instru¬ the instrument’s crossline in the focal plane of
ment are explained next. the objective lens, in one of two ways:
NOTE: When you use an auxiliary telescope 1. Move the instrument’s crossline forward
during collimation, do not change the eye cor¬ or aft axially until it is in the focal plane of the
rection after you set it properly. When you focus objective lens.
the eyepiece of an instrument, focus from PLUS 2. Move the objective lens until its focal
to MINUS on the diopter scale. plane is in the same plane as the instrument s
crossline. This method is preferred for placing
Removal of Parallax the crossline of an instrument in the focal plane
of its objective lens. The objective lens is
As defined earlier in previous chapters of mounted in an externally threaded mount which
this manual, parallax is a condition brought can be moved axially along the interior of the
about when the reticle of an instrument does not instrument. When the objective lens mount is
lie in the same plane as one of the image planes, moved any amount, the focal plane and image
usually the image plane of the objective lens. of the collimator’s crossline in the focal plane
To check for parallax in an instrument, place move in the same direction and the same amount
an auxiliary telescope to the eyepiece of the as the objective lens.
instrument, sight through both, and focus the In some instruments, spacers or separators
eyepiece of the instrument until the image of the are placed in front and at the rear of the objective
collimator crossline or the crossline of the lens mount (not threaded externally) to allow for
instrument (whichever comes into view first) is axial positioning of the mounts in order to re¬
sharply defined. If parallax is present, one of move parallax.
the two crosslines will come into focus first; Removal of parallax by axial adjustment of
if there is no parallax, both crosslines will come the instrument’s crossline is not preferred over
into focus at the same time. axial adjustment of the objective lens, however,
The amount of parallax between the two because a position of the telescope’s body must
crosslines can be measured in diopters on the usually be disassembled in order to reach the
diopter scale of the instrument’s eyepiece. You crossline. Instruments which provide for ad¬
can determine the amount of parallax by focusing justment of the crossline have it mounted in an
the eyepiece of the instrument in until the first externally threaded mount which can be adjusted
crossline is sharply defined and by observing by screwing forward or backward. Some optical
the diopter reading to which the index marker instruments also provide for adjusting both the
points. Then continue to focus until the other objective lens and the crossline.
crossline is sharply defined and observe where After you completely remove parallax from
the index mark is pointing on the diopter scale, an instrument, both crosslines must come into
and also note the number of diopters between the focus at the same time on the same diopter
position of clarity of the first crossline and the reading on the diopter scale of the instrument.
point of clarity of the second crossline. If the NOTE: There is NO tolerance for parallax
instrument’s crossline, for example, came into in any optical instrument.
focus at plus two diopters on the diopter scale Squaring and Superimposing the Crossline
and the collimator’s crossline came into focus
at minus 3 diopters on the diopter scale, the You can square and superimpose the cross-
total amount of parallax is 5 diopters. line in the following manner:
By knowing which crossline came into focus 1. Square the crosslines of the instruments;
first, we know the location of the instrument’s that is, have the vertical line of one parallel

207
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

with the vertical line of the other. You can do each of which is set to different optical
this by rotating the crossline of the instrument values.
in its mount with a cotton swab or a soft, rubber- A focusing-type eyepiece is set to a value
tipped eraser —NOT THE FINGERS. You must called O DIOPTERS, which can be accomplished
do this carefully in order to prevent scratches when an infinity target (collimator crossline)
on the glass surface of the crossline, for these image is defined sharply, with parallel rays of
defects appear greatly magnified when super¬ light emerging from the rear eyelens, and with
imposed on the target. the index mark pointing to 0 diopters on the
2. When you have the crossline positioned diopter scale of the instrument's eyepiece.
correctly, tighten its retainer ring. If you find NOTE: Parallel rays of light have 0 dioptric
that the crossline rotates with the retainer ring value.
when you tighten it, so position the crossline that You will recall that when you removed paral¬
it will rotate into correct position (squared) lax from an instrument the images of the cross -
when you tighten its retainer ring. lines of the instrument and the collimator came
3. Superimpose the instrument’s crossline into focus with the same reading on the diopter
with the crossline of the collimator, so that both scale, regardless of the reading (plus or minus).
crosslines appear as one when you look at them If one image, for example, comes into focus at
through the instrument. You can do this in -4 diopters on the diopter scale, the other image
several ways, but the method generally used is must do likewise. This means that the eyepiece
to rotate the objective lens’ eccentric mount focusing mechanism must be focused in from
and ring (if provided). When you rotate the its mid-throw (mechanical 0 diopters) position
mount and ring, or each singly, the optical axis to allow the images to coincide with the prin¬
of the objective lens moves laterally and causes cipal focal plane of the eyepiece. (When images
the image of the collimator’s crossline to move in or objects are in the principal focal plane of
the same direction and in a circle. So manipu¬ any lens, the rays which leave the images
late the eccentric mount and ring that you super¬ diverge, enter the lens, are refracted, and
impose the collimator’s crossline image on the emerge parallel.) The problem, then, is to
crossline of the instrument. move the images OUT toward the observer to the
In some objective lenses, the optical centers mid-throw position, so that you do not need to
are slightly different from the geometrical cen¬ focus the draw tube of the eyepiece IN past its
ters, which means that you can rotate the ob¬ mid-throw position.
jective lens in its mount and give the same ef¬ A condition exactly opposite to that just de¬
fect you get by using an eccentric mount and ring. scribed may also exist; that is, if both images
Another method for superimposing the cross- come into focus on the plus side of 0 diopters,
line is to adjust the crossline and its mount your problem is to move the images IN to the
laterally with a screw adjustment mount (de¬ mid-throw position so that you need not move
scribed in chapter 7). Adjust the screws as the draw tube OUT in order to have the principal
necessary to push the crossline of the instrument focal plane coincide with the images.
horizontally and vertically and superimpose it
The procedure for moving these images to¬
over the image of the collimator’s crossline.
gether simultaneously depends upon the type of
You can superimpose the crossline of instru¬
erecting system in the instrument; that is, a
ments containing a prism erecting system by single erector or a two erector (lens) system.
adjusting the erecting prism. An excellent ex¬
The rule to follow for moving a single erector
ample of this is an Amici prism in a gunsight lens is as follows: If the images come into focus
telescope. The prism is positioned at a definite
on the MINUS side of the 0 diopter graduation
point between the objective lens and its focal
on the diopter scale, move the erector lens
plane; and movement of the prism causes the
AWAY from the eyepiece; if the images come into
optical axis and focal plane to move in the de¬
focus on the PLUS side of the 0 diopter gradua¬
sired direction until the image of the colli¬
tion, move the erector lens TOWARD the eye¬
mator’s crossline is superimposed with the
piece. Review the discussion on construction of
crossline of the instrument.
telescopes in chapter 7 of this manual.
Optical Adjustment of the Diopter Setting
It may appear that the opposite effect occurs
The diopter setting of eyepieces varies in to the movement of the image when you move the
accordance with type, focusing or fixed-type, erector lens; but if you remember the optical

208
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

4. theory involved here, you know that the images At atmospheric pressure, with or without
move in the opposite direction to the movement gas.
of the single erector lens. Move the erector lens A gas-tight optical instrument is generally
in the desired direction until the images are in mounted on a weather deck and is constantly
focus, with the index mark pointing to 0 diopters subjected to the weather. It contains either a
on the eyepiece diopter scale. NOTE: You need focusing or a fixed-type eyepiece, and it is used
an auxiliary telescope for setting the 0 diopter ONLY on surface ships.
on any telescope eyepiece. A gas-tight optical instrument should be
Give the diopter setting a final check by sealed:
placing the auxiliary telescope to the eyepiece 1. Against the entrance of moisture and
of the instrument and then by focusing from a water.
PLUS to a MINUS position until you have the 2. With gaskets and packing only.
images sharply defined. The index mark must 3. Between the objective lens (or window)
point to 0 diopters on the diopter scale within and the sealing plate or crossline (which acts as
a quarter of a diopter tolerance. a sealing window in some instruments) of an
To set a two-erector lens erecting system to instrument with a focusing-type eyepiece.
0 diopters, move the second lens in the system 4. From the objective lens or window to the
in the direction in which the images must be rear eyelens of an instrument with fixed-type
moved. The theory involved here is this: The eyepiece.
light rays which enter the second erector A pressure-tight optical instrument is
lens are parallel and the images formed by the mounted on sub-surface craft and must be able
lens are in the focal plane of the second erector to withstand the force of external water pressure
lens. The images in the focal plane therefore and it must be sealed:
always move in the same direction as the lens. 1. Against the entrance of high (hydrostatic)
When you have the second erector lens properly water pressure.
positioned, when focused on the images, the 2. With gaskets and packing only.
eyepiece comes into focus with the index mark 3. From the objective window to the rear
pointing to 0 diopters on the diopter scale. eyelens.
The required diopter setting for a fixed-type The primary purpose of sealing, drying, and
eyepiece must be explained only for collimation charging an optical instrument with gas is to pre¬
of a fixed-prism gunsight (Mk 77 & Mk 79, vent moisture from getting into the instrument
for example), because the mechanical construc¬ and condensing on parts, thereby inflicting dam¬
tion of this telescope must be known before you age to them.
set the diopter setting. A gas-tight instrument may be charged with
dry nitrogen or dry helium. A pressure-tight
SEALING, DRYING, AND CHARGING instrument should be charged with dry nitrogen
ONLY. Dry nitrogen and dry helium are used to
After you collimate an optical instrument, charge instruments because they contain no
the last step in the repair process involves moisture or oxygen; whereas, dry air contains
sealing, drying, and charging, which is dis¬ about 20% oxygen and must NEVER be used as
cussed next. a final charging agent for an optical instrument.
Methods used for sealing, drying, and charg¬ Gas used to charge optical instruments is
ing differ for the various types, designated for normally not completely free of moisture and
this purpose as: (1) moisture-tight, (2) gas-tight, foreign matter and must therefore be cleaned
before you use it. This you can do by forcing the
and (3) pressure-tight.
Optical instruments which are held by hand, gas through an optical instrument dryer, which is
or not permanently mounted on a ship’s weather actually a gas dryer containing a quantity of silica
decks, must be moisture-tight. These instru¬ gel to absorb moisture from the gas as it passes
ments always have focusing-type eyepieces and through. See illustration 8-28. The silical gel
used on instruments must be impregnated with
are sealed:
1. Against the entrance of moisture, and cobalt chloride, which serves as a moisture indi¬
cator. When the silica gel is completely dry,
humidity.
2. With black or green wax, or gaskets.
it is deep blue in color. When the silica gel is
saturated with 30% of water, its color is laven¬
3. From the objective lens to the sealing
der; and when it contains 50% of moisture, its
windows (if provided), or to the rear eyelenses.

209
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

tightness. Use dry air to check for leaks in an

instrument, in order to conserve valuable nitro¬
gen or helium. Proceed as follows:
1. Connect a hose to your air supply (oil,
moisture, and grease free) outlet valve and
connect the other end of the hose to the inlet valve
of the instrument dryer.
2. Connect another hose to the outlet valve
of the instrument dryer. (This is the hose which
you later will connect to the instrument to be
gassed.) The free end is brass and male-
threaded.
3. Turn on the air to blow dust, moisture,
or foreign matter from the hoses.
4. Connect the hose from the outlet valve of
the dryer to the inlet valve screw fitting (the
small screw by the male-threaded end) on the
optical instrument.
5. Open the gas inlet screw (large screw)
on the inlet valve.
6. Tighten the gas outlet valve screw on the
opposite end of the optical instrument.
7. Turn on the air supply until the pressure
gage on the instrument dryer reads approxi¬
mately five (5) pounds per square inch.
8. While you maintain this pressure, use a
liquid soap solution to test for leaks around all
fittings, gaskets, screws, the objective window,
and the rear eyelens.
9. If you find leaks, mark them with a soft
137.207 lead pencil, white crayon, or chalk, turn off the
Figure 8-28.— Optical instrument dryer. air supply, disconnect the hose from the instru¬
ment, and then repair the leak(s).
10. After you repair leaks, connect the hose
to the instrument and apply the same pressure
color is pale pink. At a saturation of almost test and check again for leaks with soap suds.
100% with moisture, silica gel is decidedly pink 11. After the instrument passes the soap
in color. suds test, maintain the 5 pounds of pressure
A window on the side of the cylinder enables and close the gas valve screw on the inlet valve.
you to observe the color of the silica gel; and If the instrument you are working on has a
when it changes to pink, remove it from the fixed-type or an internal-focusing eyepiece, con¬
cylinder, place it in a container, and bake it tinue with the following tank test: (NOTE: You
in an oven at a temperature of 300° F to 350° F can also submerge an instrument with an
for a minimum of 4 hours, after which its color external-focusing eyepiece, but ONLY up to the
should be a deep blue. eyepiece.)
All optical instruments except moisture - 1. Submerge the instrument in a tank of
tight types are equipped with gas inlet and outlet water.
valves, also called plugs; and on most instru¬ 2. Check for slow rising bubbles which may
ments they are located on opposite ends of the appear anywhere on the instrument. A few hours
instruments. As the gas enters through the inlet may elapse before any bubbles are visible:
valve and circulates throughout the instrument, 3. Mark the leak(s) as soon as you remove
it becomes saturated with moisture in the instru¬ the instrument from the tank, and then repair
ment and carrier it out through the outlet valve. them. Follow up by submerging the instrument
After you overhaul a gas-tight instrument, in the tank again and make a double check for
check its gaskets, fittings, and so forth, for air leaks.

210
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

When you are certain there are no leaks in Charge all gas- and pressure-tight instru¬
the instrument, remove it from the tank and dry ments with gases and pressures specified for
its exterior with a clean, soft cloth. Then re¬ them, at the times stated next:
charge it to exactly 5 pounds. Twenty-four hours 1. Prior to the conclusion of each ship’s
later, attach a pressure gage to the gas inlet overhaul by a tender.
valve of the instrument and check its pressure. 2. When inspection indicates condensation
If it has dropped, repeat either the soapsuds test on internal optical surfaces.
or the tank test as often as necessary until 3. Immediately after completion of an over¬
you find the leak(s). Then make necessary re¬ haul of an optical instrument.
pairs and dry the instrument. 4. At the completion of twelve months of
service.
You now have the instrument ready for charg¬ Some general rules to follow when you re¬
ing with nitrogen, which you can do in the follow¬ charge an optical instrument are:
ing manner: 1. NEVER recharge an optical instrument
1. Connect one end of a hose to the outlet when the temperature is below 32° F.
valve of a nitrogen bottle and the other end of the 2. NEVER charge an instrument with nitro¬
hose to the inlet valve of the dryer. gen, or helium after the pressure in the bottle
2. Repeat at this time the steps (2 through or tank falls below 400 pounds per square inch.
5) you used to test for leaks. NOTE: If there is a trace of moisture, oil
3. Remove the screw from the gas outlet or grease in the bottle, it starts to come out
valve of the optical instrument. when the pressure falls below 400 pounds.
4. Turn on the nitrogen gas and let it cycle 3. Recharge each instrument with only the
through the entire instrument. type of gas and pressure specified for that par¬
5. Purge the instrument by holding a finger ticular instrument. If in doubt this, use nitrogen,
over its outlet valve. When the gage on the dryer and pressurize the instrument to two (2) pounds.
shows a pressure up to but not exceeding five 4. When the inlet valve or the area near it
pounds, remove your finger from the outlet valve is painted ORANGE or YELLOW, always charge
and allow the gas to escape from the instrument. the instrument with HELIUM. CAUTION: NEVER
At about five minute intervals during a period of use nitrogen. Follow recommended and/or Navy
approximately one half hour, repeat the purging approved instructions for charging an instru¬
operation. ment with helium.
6. When you have the instrument purged
(completely free of moisture), replace the outlet
valve screw and let the pressure on the dryer BLUEPRINTS
build up to approximately two pounds, or as
indicated in the overhaul manual for the instru¬ Mechanical drawings of all optical instru¬
ment. ments manufactured in accordance with Navy
7. When the pressure reaches the specific specifications will be available in the repair
amount, close and secure the gas valve screw department of your ship in the form of blue¬
(large one) on the gas inlet valve and dis¬ prints or photoprints. They are assembled in
connect the hose from the optical instrument. sets, and each set covers one item. Photo¬
Then turn off the nitrogen bottle and replace prints are usually bound in books.
the small, inlet valve screw. Blueprints of all optical instruments on which
you will perform work show the dimensions of
Some moisture-tight instruments have inlet each part of the instrument and the material
and outlet screws (not valves) which can be used which composes it. They also show the tools to
for drying the instrument only. When you seal a use for disassembling and assembling an instru¬
moisture -tight instrument, test it for leaks and ment, give the assembly procedure, and provide
dry it; then replace the inlet and outlet screws. lubrication charts.
NOTE: In the lower, right-hand corner of
Pressure -tight instruments must withstand each blueprint is a number, known as THE
a special testing procedure, so check with your DRAWING NUMBER. On each detail pictured
instructor or shop supervisor for the instruc¬ in the drawing is a separate, smaller number,
tions and specifications applicable to a particular known as THE PIECE NUMBER. Occasionally,
pressure -tight instrument. a letter follows the piece number, and it shows

211
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

the number of times the original design of that 4. ACID AND CYANIDE. -The chemical re¬
piece has been changed or modified. The first action of acid and cyanide generates a deadly
number is the DRAWING NUMBER; the second poison.
number is the PIECE NUMBER. The number 5. CLEANLINESS.— Keep chemicals and
240962-2, for example, should be read: Drawing their containers clean, as well as all equipment,
Number 240962, Piece Number 2. Use these supplies, and spaces you use when handling
numbers when you need new parts, and when you chemicals. Even a small amount of dirt or
make a report on a particular piece. grease, for example, may ruin your work.
6. CHEMICAL POISONING. -Most chem¬
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS icals are poisonous, and many of them can burn
your clothes and hands. CAUTION: WEAR
You have perhaps learned a great deal about
RUBBER GLOVES, A RUBBER APRON, AND
safety precautions in basic naval training
GOGGLES WHEN YOU MIX CHEMICALS OR
courses you studied previously; and they need
WORK WITH THEM.
little or no repetition here UNLESS THEY ARE
ESPECIALLY APPLICABLE TO OPTIC ALMEN. Learn by heart the antidotes for poisoning
The safety precautions listed and discussed in and burning by chemicals. This knowledge may
the next section belong in the category of those save your life.
important in a particular way to Opticalmen. Treat acid burns AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE.
Wash the acid off with an abundance of water
HANDLING CHEMICALS and then wash your hands under a spigot, if they
were involved. Continue by neutralizing all
Study the following rules applicable when you acid which remains with lime water, a mixture
work with all kinds of chemicals. If you know of equal parts of lime water and raw linseed
them well, you may on occasions be able to oil, or a paste of baking soda and water.
prevent extensive harm and/or damage to your REMEMBER THIS: Baking soda is a base and it
body as a result of their contact with it; you neutralizes acids. If acid gets in your eyes, wash
may, in fact, even be able to save your life it out with cold water and then WASH YOUR EYES
by the knowledge you have about chemicals. WITH WEAK LIME WATER.
1. DIRECTIONS FOR USE.— Study the di¬ WASH ALKALI BURNS WITH PLENTY OF
rections on the container for using a specific COLD WATER; then neutralize remaining por¬
chemical. If you mix chemicals improperly, or tions of the alkali WITH VINEGAR OR LEMON
in incorrect proportions, they WILL NOT WORK JUICE. REMEMBER THIS: Acids such as
and they MAY BE DANGEROUS. Such mixtures VINEGAR OR LEMON JUICE neutralize bases
sometimes explode and cause much harm and (alkalies) such as lye.
damage.
CAUTION: NEVER MIX CHEMICALS AT ANTIDOTES FOR POISON
RANDOM, OR PLAYFULLY, JUST TO FIND OUT
WHAT HAPPENS. IF YOU DO THIS, YOU MAY
Some good antidotes for poisons are listed
NEVER LIVE LONG ENOUGH TO FIND THE next. Study them carefully; better still, memor¬
ANSWER TO YOUR CURIOSITY.
ize as many as possible.
2. LABELS.— Keep labels on containers and ACETIC ACID. —Use an emetic to cause
bottles of chemical intact. If you notice that a vomiting. Magnesia, chalk, whiting in water,
label is coming loose, glue it back in place. Then soap, oil, mustard, and salt are emetics. A quick
coat the label WITH PARAFFIN WAX TO PRO¬ method for making a GOOD EMETIC is to stir
TECT IT. a TABLESPOONFUL OF SALT OR MUSTARD
CAUTION: NEVER USE A CHEMICAL FROM into a glass of warm water.
AN UNLABELED CONTAINER — GET RID OF IT HYDROCHLORIC, NITRIC, AND PHOS¬
IN THE PROPER MANNER.
PHORIC ACID. --Use milk of magnesia, raw egg
3. WATER AND ACID. — If you must mix
white, cracked ice, or a MIXTURE OF BAKING
water and acid, POUR THE ACID VERY SODA AND WATER as an antidote for poisoning
SLOWLY INTO THE WATER. by these acids.
CAUTION: If you pour water into acid, the CARBOLIC ACID.— Some good antidotes for
MIXTURE WILL BOIL OVER QUICKLY AND carbolic acid are: egg white, lime water, olive
BURN YOUR HANDS AND EVERYTHING IT or castor oil with magnesia suspended in it,
TOUCHES. zinc sulfate in water, cracked ice, pure alcohol,

212
 Chapter 8-MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

or about 4 ounces of camphorated oil. Remember chloride poisoning are: emetics; egg white, milk,
particularly: Egg white, lime water, and cracked table salt, castor oil, and zinc sulfate.
ice, for they will most likely be readily avail¬
SILVER NITRATE.— For poisoning by silver
able.
nitrate, give a solution of table salt and water.
ALKALIES (sodium or potassium hy¬
The first thing to do for all types of gas
droxide).— Good antidotes for poisoning by so¬
poisoning is this: GET THE VICTIM IN FRESH
dium or potassium hydroxides are: vinegar,
AIR IMMEDIATELY. IF HE STOPS BREATH¬
lemon juice, orange juice, oil, or milk. You
ING, GIVE HIM ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION.
can easily remember these antidotes.
Breathe ammonia or amyl nitrite for pois¬
ARSENIC (including rat poison and Paris
oning by carbon monoxide, illuminating gas,
green).— Use milk, raw eggs, sweet oil, lime
ethylene, or acetylene.
water, or flour and water as an ANTIDOTE
The antidote for poisoning by chloroform and
FOR ARSENIC POISONING.
ether is COLD WATER ON THE HEAD AND
CYANIDE.— Cyanide poisoning works so
CHEST.
rapidly that you can do little to prevent death,
The treatment given for poisoning by carbon
which this poison causes in less than a minute.
monoxide is also applicable for poisoning by
If possible, GIVE HYDROGEN PEROXIDE TO A
trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene.
VICTIM. If breathing stops, apply artificial
respiration and let the patient breathe ammonia NOTE: You may use one of these gases in a
or chlorine produced by chlorinated water. If gas degreaser, provided you are careful and keep
the victim is conscious, give him ferrous sulfate vapors from rising over the edge of the con¬
in water; then give him emetics and keep him tainer. If the vapor spills over the edge and the
warm. air in the room is quiet, it sinks to the floor.
DENATURED ALCOHOL. -Antidotes for When this happens, an exhaust fan AT FLOOR
poisoning by denatured alcohol are: emetics, LEVEL must be used to remove the vapor. A
milk, egg white, and flour and water. If breath¬ fan in any other position in the room, or natural
ing stops, give artificial respiration. ventilation, causes the vapor to rise high enough
IODINE.— Give emetics, or plenty of starch for a person to enhale it.
or flour in water (stirred) as an antidote for Both of these gases have strong odors; and
iodine poisoning. if you detect a questionable odor, GET OUT OF
LEAD ACETATE (sugar of lead).— Use THE ROOM IMMEDIATELY. Both gases are
emetics; sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, or also skin irritants; so if you must work with
magnesium sulfate in water; milk; or eggwhites them, wear rubber gloves.
as antidotes for lead acetate poisoning. CAUTION: As soon as practicable, have a
MERCURIC CHLORIDE (corrosive sub¬ doctor or Hospital Corpsman treat all persons
limate). —Some good antidotes for mercuric poisoned by chemicals and/ or gases (poisonous).

213
 CHAPTER 9

MACHINING OPERATIONS

In order for you to qualify for advancement a vertical turret lathe, the workpiece is rotated
to Opticalman 3, you must be able to perform about a vertical axis.
basic operations on lathes, milling machines, The type of lathe you will most likely use
bench grinders, and drill presses; and you must is the engine lathe; so this chapter deals only
know the safety precautions pertaining to them. with lathes of this type, and the machining oper¬
In addition to the above, before you can ations you may be required to perform with them.
qualify for advancement in rating to Opticalman
2, you must know how to make mathematical ENGINE LATHE
calculations for determining taper per foot on
a piece of work, and what cutting and surface An engine lathe such as the one shown in
speeds to use in manufacturing mechanical parts figure 9-1, or one similar to it, is found in
for optical instruments. In order to make these every machine shop, however small. It is used
parts, you must be able to operate skillfully principally for turning, boring, facing, and screw
and safely the machines mentioned in paragraph cutting; but it may also be used for drilling,
one; and you must also know what cutting lubri¬ reaming, knurling, grinding, spinning, and spring
cants to use when operating them. winding. The work held in the engine lathe can
Information in this chapter pertains only to be revolved at a number of different speeds, and
lathes and milling machines. Refer to Basic the cutting tool can be accurately controlled by
Handtools, NavPers 10085-A, for a discussion hand or power for longitudinal and cross feed.
of bench grinders and drill presses. As you (Longitudinal feed is movement of the cutting
study this chapter, bear in mind one thing: In¬ tool parallel to the axis of the lathe; cross feed
formation presented will enable you to pass the is movement of the cutting tool perpendicular
examination for advancement in rating; skill in to the axis of the lathe.)
operating the machines will come only through Lathe size is determined by two measure¬
experience. ments: (1) diameter of work it will swing over
the bed, and (2) length of the bed. For example,
a 14-inch x 6-foot lathe will swing work up to
LATHES 14 inches in diameter, and has abed 6 feet long.
Engine lathes are built in various sizes,
Although machine shop work is generally per¬ ranging from small bench lathes with a swing of
formed by men in other ratings, there may be 9 inches to very large lathes for turning work
times when you will find a lathe essential for of large diameter, such as low pressure turbine
completing a repair job. Different types of rotors. The 16-inch lathe is the average size
lathes are installed in machine shops on various for general purposes, and it is the size usually
Navy ships, including the engine lathe, horizontal installed on ships which have only one lathe.
turret lathe, vertical turret lathe, and several
variations of the basic engine lathe (bench, Principal Parts
toolroom, and gap lathes).
All lathes, except the vertical turret type, In order to learn the operation of a lathe,
have one thing in common— for all usual ma¬ you must first become familiar with the names
chining operations, the workpiece is held and and functions of its principal parts. Lathes of
rotated about a horizontal axis while being different manufacture differ somewhat with
formed to size and shape by a cutting tool. In respect to details of construction; but all of them

214
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

FACE TOOL SADDLE TAIISTOCK

BACK GEAR
CONE
PULLEYHEADSTOCK
LEVERn COVER / PLATE POST /
L- / /^ / /COMPOUND /
/
REVERSE

LEAD
SCREW
/
/ |
CLUTCH
FEED
CHANGE
HALF
NUT

APRON KNOB LEVER LEVER.

28.69X(75)
Figure 9-1.— An engine lathe.

are built to perform the same general functions. the belt-driven type, shown in figure 9-2, the
As you read the description of each part, refer driving mechanism consists merely of a cone
to figure 9-1 and others (as applicable) to find pulley which drives the spindle directly, or by
its location on the lathe. (For specific details means of back gears. When driven directly,
of construction features and operating tech¬ the spindle revolves with the cone pulley; when
niques, refer to the manufacturer’s technical driven by back gear, the spindle revolves more
manual for the machine you are using.) slowly than the cone pulley, which, in this case,
The lathe BED is the base or foundation of turns freely on the spindle. Thus, two speeds
the working parts of a lathe. The main features are obtainable with each position of the belt on
of its construction are the ways formed on its the cone; if the cone pulley has four steps as
upper surface, and which run the full length of illustrated, eight spindle speeds can be obtained.
the bed. They provide the means for maintaining The geared headstock shown in figure 9-3 is
the tailstock and carriage (which slide on them) more complicated but more convenient to oper¬
in alignment with the headstock, permanently ate, because speed changes are accomplished by
secured by bolts at one end (at operator’s left). merely shifting the gears. It is similar to an
The lathe HEADSTOCKcarries the headstock automobile transmission except that it has more
spindle and the mechanism for driving it. In gear-shift combinations and therefore a greater

215
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

which in turn carries the cutting tool in the tool

post. Figure 9-4 shows how the carriage travels
along the bed over which it slides on the out¬
board ways.
The carriage is provided with T-slots or
tapped holes for clamping work for boring or
milling. When used in this manner the carriage
movement feeds the work to the cutting tool,
which is revolved by the headstock spindle.
You can lock the carriage in any position on
the bed by tightening up on the carriage clamp
screw. This is done only when doing such work
as facing or cutting-off, for which longitudinal
feed is not required. Normally, the carriage
clamp should be kept in the released position.
Always move the carriage by hand to be sure it
is free before applying the automatic feed.
The APRON is attached to the front of the
saddle and contains the mechanism for con¬
trolling the movement of the carriage for
longitudinal feed and thread cutting, and the
lateral movement of the cross-slide.
The FEED ROD transmits power to the apron
to drive the longitudinal and cross-feed mech¬
anisms. The feed rod is driven by the spindle
through a train of gears, and the ratio of its
speed to that of the spindle can be varied by
changing the gear combination to produce various
28.71X
rates of feed. The rotating feed rod drives gears
Figure 9-2.— Belt-driven headstock. in the apron, and these gears in turn drive the
longitudinal and cross-feed mechanisms through
friction clutches.
The LEAD SCREW is used for thread cutting.
number of speed changes. A speed index plate Along its length are accurately-cut Acme threads
attached to the headstock indicates the lever which engage the threads of the half-nuts in the
positions for obtaining the different spindle apron when the half-nuts are clamped over it.
speeds. When the lead screw turns in the closed half¬
The primary purpose of the lathe TAILSTOC K nuts, the carriage moves along the ways a dis¬
is to hold the DEAD center to support one end tance equal to the lead of the thread in each
of work being machined on centers. However, revolution of the lead screw. Since the lead
it can also be used to hold tapered shank drills, screw is driven by the spindle through a gear
reamers, and drill chucks. It is movable on the train which connects them (fig. 9-5), the rotation
ways along the length of the bed to accommodate of the lead screw bears a direct relation to the
work of varying lengths and can be clamped in the rotation of the spindle. Therefore, when the
desired position by means of the tailstock clamp¬ half-nuts are engaged, the longitudinal movement
ing nut. of the carriage is directly controlled by the
Before inserting a dead center, drill, or spindle rotation, and the cutting tool is con¬
reamer, carefully clean the tapered shank and sequently moved a definite distance along the
wipe out the tapered hole of the spindle. When work for each revolution it makes.
holding drills or reamers in the tapered hole The COMPOUND REST provides a rigid ad¬
of a spindle, be sure they are tight enough so that justable mounting for the cutting tool. The com¬
they will not slip. If allowed to slip, they will pound rest assembly has the following principal
score the tapered hole and destroy its accuracy. parts:
The function of the CARRIAGE (composed of 1. Compound rest SWIVEL, which can be
saddle and apron) is to carry the compound rest, swung around to any desired angle and clamped

216
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

28.72X
Figure 9-3. -Sliding-gear headstock.

28.76X
Figure 9-4. -Side view of a carriage mounted on the bed.

217
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Some of the common accessories and attach¬

REVERSE LEVER
ments used on lathes are described in the follow¬
ing paragraphs.
The sole purpose of the TOOL POST is to
provide a rigid support for the cutting tool. The
tool post is mounted in the T-slot of the com¬
pound rest top, and a forged cutting tool or a
toolholder is inserted in the slot in the tool post.
By tightening a setscrew, the whole unit can
firmly clamp in place with the tool in the desired
position.
Commonly used lathe toolholders are illus¬
trated in figure 9-6. Notice the angles of the
tool bit in the holder. These angles must be
considered with respect to the angles ground in
the tools and the angle at which the toolholder
is set with respect to the axis of the work.
Figure 9-7 shows the most popular shapes of
ground lathe tool cutter bits and their application.
The LATHE CHUCK is a device for holding
lathe work, and it is mounted on the nose of the
spindle. The work is held by jaws which can be
moved in radial slots toward the center to clamp
down on the sides of the work. These jaws are
28.80X moved in and out by screws turned by a chuck
Figure 9-5. —Lead screw gear train.
wrench applied to the sockets located at the
outer ends of the slots.
The 4-jaw independent lathe chuck, part A
in figure 9-8, is the most practical for general
in position. It is graduated over an arc of 90° on work. The four jaws are adjusted one at a time,
each side of its center position to facilitate making it possible to hold work of various shapes
setting to the angle selected. This feature is and to adjust the center of the work to coincide
used when machining short, steep tapers such as with the center of the lathe. The jaws may be
the angle on bevel gears, valve disks, and lathe
centers.
2. Compound rest TOP or TOP SLIDE,
which is mounted on the swivel section of a
dovetailed slide and moved by means of the
compound rest feed screw.
This arrangement permits feeding at any
angle (determined by the angular setting of the STRAIGHT SHANK TURNING TOOL

swivel section), while the cross-slide feed pro¬

vides only for feeding at right angles to the axis
of the lathe. The collars on the cross feed and
compound rest feed screws are graduated in
thousandths of an inch for fine adjustment in
regulating the depth of cut. BORING TOOL

Attachments and Accessories

Accessories are the tools and equipment used

LEFT HAND RIGHT HAND
in routine lathe machining operations. Attach¬ TURNING TOOL TURNING TOOL
ments are special fixtures which may be secured STRAIGHT CUT-OFF TOOL
to the lathe to extend the versatility of the lathe 28.67
to include taper cutting, milling, and grinding. Figure 9-6.— Common types of tool holders.

218
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

Cutter Bit — Not Ground Cutter Bit — Ground to Form

A B C D E F G
Left Hand Round Nose Right Hand Left Hand Threading Right Hand Cut-Off
T urning-T ool T urning-Tool T urning-Tool Facing-Tool Tool Facing-Tool Tool

28.66
Figure 9-7. -Lathe tools and their application.

219
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

The DRAW-IN COLLET CHUCK is used to

hold small work in the lathe for machining. It
is one of the most accurate types of chucks
made and is intended for precision work. Figure
9-9 shows the parts assembled in place in the
lathe spindle.
The collet chuck which holds the work is a
split-cylinder with an outside taper that fits
into the tapered closing sleeve and screws into
the threaded end of the hollow drawbar. Screw¬
ing up on the drawbar by turning the handwheel
pulls the collet back into the tapered sleeve,
thereby closing it firmly over the work and
centering it accurately and quickly. The size
of the hole in the collet determines the diameter
of the work it can accommodate.
You will use the FACEPLATE for holding
work of such shape and dimensions which pre¬
vent its being swung on centers or in a chuck.
The T-slots and other openings on its surface
provide convenient anchors for bolts and clamps
used in securing the work to it. The faceplate
is mounted on the nose of the spindle.
The driving plate is similar to a small face¬
plate and is used principally for driving work
held between centers. The radial slot receives
the bent tail of a lathe dog clamped to the work
and thereby transmits rotary motion to the work.
The function of the 60° LATHE CENTERS
shown in figure 9-10 is to provide a means for
holding the work between points so it can be
turned accurately on its axis. The head spindle
center is called the LIVE center because it
revolves with the work. The tailstock center
is called the DEAD center because it does not
turn. Both live and dead centers have shanks
turned to a Morse taper to fit the tapered holes
28.90X in the spindles; both have points finished to an
Figure 9-8.— A, four-jaw chuck; angle of 60 degrees. They differ only in that
B, three-jaw chuck. the dead center is hardened and tempered to
resist the wearing effect of the work revolving
on it. The live center revolves with the work,
and it is usually left soft. The dead center and
turned end-for-end to clamp either inside or live center must never be interchanged.
outside surfaces. NOTE: There is a groove around the hardened
The 3-law universal or scroll chuck, part B tail center to distinguish it from the live center.
in figure 9-8, can be used only for holding The centers fit snugly in the tapered holes
round or hexagonal work. All three jaws are of the headstock and tailstock spindles. If chips,
moved in and out together in one operation, and dirt, or burrs prevent a perfect fit in the spindles,
they move universally to bring the work on center the centers will not run true.
automatically. This chuck is easier to operate To remove the headstock center, insert a
the the four -jaw type; but when its parts become brass rod through the spindle hole and tap the
worn its accuracy in centering cannot be relied center to jar it loose; it can then be picked out
upon. Proper lubrication and constant care are by hand. To remove the tailstock center, run
necessary to ensure reliability of operation. the spindle back as far as it will go by turning

220
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

28. 9 IX
Figure 9-9. -Draw-in collet chuck.

60’ POINTS
TAPERED SHANK (MORSE TAPER) TAPERED SHANK (MORSE TAPER)

A.

LIVECENTER DEAD CENTER

28.93X
Figure 9-10. -Sixty-degree lathe centers.

the handwheel counterclockwise. When the end

of the tailstock screw bumps the back of the
center, it will force the center out of the tapered
hole.
LATHE DOGS are used in conjunction with
a driving plate or faceplate to drive work being
machined on centers, the frictional contact alone
between the live center and the work not being
sufficient to drive it.
The common lathe dog shown at the left in
figure 9-11 is used for round work or work having
a regular section (square, hexagon, octagon).
The piece to be turned is held firmly in hole A
by setscrew B. The bent tail (C) projects through
a slot or hole in the driving plate or faceplate,
so that when the latter revolves with the spindle
28. 95X
it turns the work with it. The clamp dog illus¬
trated at the right in figure 9-11 may be used Figure 9-11. -Lathe dogs.

221
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

for rectangular or irregular shaped work. Such The FOLLOWER REST is used to back up
work is clamped between the jaws. Figure 9-35 work of small diameter to keep it from spring¬
illustrates the use of a driving plate and clamp ing under the stress of cutting. It gets its name
dog. from the fact that it follows the cutting tool
The CENTER REST (also called the steady along the work. As shown in figure 9-13, it is
rest) is used for the following purposes: attached directly to the saddle by bolts (B).
1. To provide an intermediate support or The adjustable jaws bear directly on the finished
rest for long, slender bars or shafts being ma¬ diameter of the work opposite the cutting tool.
chined between centers. It prevents them from The TAPER ATTACHMENT, illustrated in
springing under cut, or sagging as a result of figure 9-14, is used for turning and boring tapers.
their otherwise unsupported weight. It is bolted to the back of the carriage. In oper¬
2. To support and provide a center bearing ation, it is so connected to the cross-slide that
for one end of work, such as a spindle, being it moves the cross-slide laterally as the carriage
bored or drilled from the end when it is too long moves longitudinally, thereby causing the cutting
to be supported by a chuck alone. The center tool to move at an angle to the axis of the work
rest is clamped in the desired position on the bed to produce a taper.
on which it is properly aligned by the ways, as The angle of the taper it is desired to cut is
illustrated in figure 9-12. It is important that set on the guide bar of the attachment. The guide
the jaws (A) be carefully adjusted to allow the bar support is clamped to the lathe bed. Since
work (B) to turn freely and at the same time keep the cross-slide is connected to a shoe that slides
it accurately centered on the axis of the lathe. on this guide bar, the tool follows along a line
The top half of the frame is hinged at C to parallel to the guide bar and hence at an angle
facilitate placing it in position without removing to the work axis corresponding to the desired
the work from the centers or changing the posi¬ taper.
tion of the jaws. Operation and application of the taper at¬
tachment will be further explained under the
subject of taper work.
The THREAD DIAL indicator, shown in fig¬
ure 9-15, eliminates the necessity of reversing

222
Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

28.98X
Figure 9-14.— A taper attachment.

the lathe to return the carriage to the starting

point to catch the thread at the beginning of each
successive cut taken. The dial, geared to the
lead screw, indicates when to clamp the half¬
nuts on the lead screw for the next cut.
The threading dial consists of a worm wheel
attached to the lower end of a shaft and meshed
with the lead screw. On the upper end of the
shaft is the dial. As the lead screw revolves,
the dial is turned and the graduations on the dial
indicate points at which the half-nuts may be
engaged.
You can attach the CARRIAGE STOP to the
bed at any point where you wish to stop the
carriage. It is used principally when turning,
facing, or boring duplicate parts, as it eliminates
the necessity of repeated measurements of the
same dimension. In operation, the stop is set
at the point where it is desired to stop the feed.
Just before reaching this point, you shut off the
automatic feed and carefully run the carriage
up against the stop. Carriage stops are provided
with or without micrometer adjustment. Figure
9-16 shows a micrometer carriage stop. It is
clamped on the ways in the approximate position

223
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

the carriage too near the limits of its travel.

Learn how to reverse the direction of feeds and
how to disengage them quickly. Before engaging
either of the power feeds, operate the hand con¬
trols to be sure parts involved are free for
running.
3. Try out the operation of engaging the lead
screw for thread cutting. Remember that the
power feed mechanism must be disengaged be¬
fore you can close the half-nuts on the lead
screw.
4. Practice making changes with the QUICK-
CHANGE GEAR MECHANISM by referring to the
thread and feed index plate on the lathe you in¬
tend to operate. Remember that changes in the
28.100X
gear box are made with the lathe STOPPED; but
Figure 9-16.— Micrometer carriage stop. disengage the clutch and stop the lathe before you
shift gears. If a gear does not engage, do NOT
force the operating lever— rotate the spindle by
hand as you try to engage the gear.

required and then adjusted to the exact setting

Maintenance
by means of the micrometer adjustment.
NOTE: Some carriages are equipped with
a stop which automatically stops the carriage Maintenance is an important part of opera¬
by disengaging the feed or stopping the lathe. tional procedure for lathes, and one requisite is
This type of stop is called AUTOMATIC CAR¬ PROPER LUBRICATION. Make it a point to oil
RIAGE STOP, and it is usually a built-in feature your lathe daily. Oil the ways daily— not only
of the lathe design. for lubrication but to protect their scraped
bearing surfaces. Oil the lead screw often while
FACTORS RELATED TO THE
it is in use. This is necessary to preserve its
USE OF A LATHE
accuracy, for a worn lead screw lacks precision
in thread cutting. Make sure the headstock is
Knowledge of many factors is necessary filled up to the oil level; drain it out and replace
before you can become proficient in performing the oil when it becomes heavy or gummy. If
machine work with a lathe. Some of these factors your lathe is equipped with an automatic oiling
are considered in the following paragraphs. system for some parts, make sure all parts are
getting oil. Check frequently the lubrication of
Phases of the Operation all moving parts. CAUTION: Do NOT oil a
lathe when it is running. Always use a high-
Before attempting to operate any lathe, make grade oil of proper viscosity.
sure you know how to run it. Read all operating Don't treat your machine roughly. When you
instructions supplied with the machine. Ascer¬ shift gears for changing speed or feed, re¬
tain the location of various controls and learn member that you are putting solid gear teeth
how to operate them. When you are satisfied into mesh with each other; feel the gears into
that you know how they work, start the motor; engagement.
but first check to see that the spindle clutch and Before engaging the longitudinal feed, be
the power feeds are disengaged. Then become certain that the carriage CLAMP SCREW is
familiar with all phases of operation, as follows: loose and that the CARRIAGE can be moved
1. Shift the speed change levers into the by hand. Avoid running the carriage against
various combinations; start and stop the spindle the headstock or tailstock while under power
after each change. Get the feel of this operation. feed; this puts an unnecessary strain on the
2. With the spindle running at its slowest lathe and may jam the gears.
speed, try out the operation of the power feeds Do not neglect the motor just because it
and observe their action. Take care not to run may be out of sight; check its LUBRICATION.

224
 Chapter 9 -MACHINING OPERATIONS

If it does not run properly, notify the Elec¬ conditions vary, it is good practice to find out
trician's Mate, who is responsible for its care. what the tool and work will stand, and then select
He will cooperate with you to keep it in good the most practicable and efficient speed and
condition. If the lathe is belt-driven, avoid feed consistent with the finish desired.
getting oil or grease on the belt when oiling If the cutting speed is too slow, the job takes
the lathe or motor. longer than necessary and often the work pro¬
Keep your lathe CLEAN. A clean machine duced is unsatisfactory. On the other hand, if
is usually an indication of a good mechanic. the speed is too great, the tool edge dulls
Dirt and chips on the ways, on the lead screw, quickly, and frequent grinding is necessary.
and on the cross-feed screws will cause serious Cutting speeds possible are greatly affected by
wear and impair accuracy of the machine. the use of a suitable cutting lubricant. For
Never put wrenches, files, or other tools example, steel which can be rough turned dry
on the ways. If you must keep tools on the at 60 rpm can be turned at about 80 rpm when
bed, use a board to protect the finished sur¬ flooded with a good cutting lubricant.
faces of the ways. When you change chucks, The accompanying chart gives the approxi¬
protect the ways with a board laid across the mate, recommended cutting speeds for different
ways under the chuck. If a chuck is dropped metals, using high-speed steel tool bits. Fig¬
on the unprotected ways it will do great damage. ures indicate feet per minute (fpm).
Never use the bed or carriage as an anvil;
Roughing Finishing Thread¬
remember that the lathe is a precision machine Type of metal cut cut cutting
whose accuracy must not be destroyed.

Cast iron . 60 80 25
Cutting Speeds and Feeds
Machine steel . . 90 125 35
CUTTING SPEED is the rate at which the Tool steel .... 50 75 20
surface of the work passes the point of the Brass . 150 200 50
cutting tool, and it is expressed in feet per Bronze . 90 100 25
minute. To find the cutting speed, multiply Aluminum .... 200 300 50
the circumference of the work (in inches) by
the number of revolutions it makes per minute When ROUGHING parts down to size, use
(rpm) and divide by 12 (Circumference = diam¬ the greatest depth of cut and feed per revoltuion
eter x 3.1416). The result is the peripheral or that the work, the machine, and the tool will
cutting speed in feet per minute (fpm). For stand at the highest practicable speed. On many
example, a 2-inch diameter piece turning at pieces where tool failure is the limiting factor
100 rpm will produce a cutting speed of in the size of a roughing cut, it is usually pos¬
sible to reduce the speed slightly and increase
(2 x 3.1416) x 102. = 52.36 fpm the feed to a point where the metal removed is
much greater. This will prolong tool life.
Consider an example where the depth of cut is
Conversely, the rpm required to obtain a given
1/4 inch, the feed 20 thousandths of an inch per
cutting speed is found by dividing the product
revolution, and the speed 80 fpm. If the tool will
of the given cutting speed and 12 by the circum¬
not permit additional feed at this speed, it is
ference of the work (in inches).
usually possible to drop the speed to 60 fpm and
FEED is the amount the tool advances each
revolution. It is usually expressed in thou¬ increase the feed to about 40 thousandths of an
inch per revolution without having tool trouble.
sandths of an inch per revolution of the spindle.
The speed is therefore reduced 25 percent, but
The index plate on the quick-change gear box
indicates the setup for obtaining the feed desired. the feed increased 100 percent; so the actual
time required to complete the work is less with
The amount of feed to use is best determined
from experience. the second setup.
On the FINISH-TURNING OPERATION, a
Cutting speeds and tool feeds are determined
very light cut must be taken, since most of the
by various considerations: hardness and tough¬
stock was removed on the roughing cut. A fine
ness of metal being cut; quality, shape, and
feed can usually be used, thereby making it pos¬
sharpness of the cutting tool; depth of the cut;
sible to run at a high surface speed. A 50-
tendency of the work to spring away from the
tool; and strength and power of the lathe. Since percent increase in speed over the roughing

225
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

speed is commonly used. In particular cases, Other coolants which may be used separately
the finishing speed may be twice the roughing or in mixtures are: kerosene, turpentine, and
speed. In any event, run the work as fast as the white lead. You will find that all the coolants
tool will withstand to obtain maximum speed in herein listed, with the exception of soda water
this operation. Use a sharp tool to finish the mixture, are available through the general supply
turning. system.
Lubricants generally used for turning the
Coolants
listed metals are:

A cutting coolant serves two main purposes: Metal Lubricant

(1) it cools the tool by absorbing, carrying away,
and dissipating a portion of the heat; and (2) it Cast iron . Usually worked dry.
reduces the amount of heat produced in the
cutting process by reducing the friction between Mild steel . Oil or soapy water.
the tool and the metal being cut. A secondary
purpose of a coolant is to keep the cutting edge Hard steel .... Mineral lard oil.
of the tool flushed clean.
Coolants have some qualities which make Monel metal . . . Dry (or mineral lard oil).
them especially desirable for certain applica¬
tions. The following coolants are the ones most Bronze . Dry (or mineral lard oil).
commonly used:
1. LARD OIL. Lard oil is one of the oldest Brass . Dry (kerosene or turpentine
and best coolants, but it is the most expensive.
sometimes used on the
It is especially good for cutting screw threads,
hard compositions).
drilling deep holes, and reaming. This coolant,
however, provides excellent lubrication, in¬
Copper . Dry (or mixture of lard oil
creases tool life, prevents rust, and produces
and turpentine).
a smooth finish on the work.
2. MINERAL LARD OIL MIXTURES. Var¬
Babbitt . Dry (or mixture of lard oil
ious types of mixtures of lard oil and mineral
and kerosene).
oils with a petroleum base are generally used
instead of lard oil because they are more fluid,
Aluminum . Dry (or kerosene or mixture
less expensive, and are almost as effective as
of lard oil and kerosene).
lard oil.
3. SOLUBLE OILS. Some specially pro¬ For threading, a lubricant is more important
cessed mineral oils mix with water to form an than for straight turning. Mineral lard oil is
emulsion which provides an excellent low cost recommended for threading in all steels and cast
coolant. Although such emulsions carry away iron, kerosene mixed with oil for aluminum,
heat better than lard oil or mineral oil, their white lead mixed with oil (to the consistency of
lubricating qualities are comparatively poor and glue) for monel metal, and kerosene or turpentine
their use is usually limited to rough turning. for brass compositions.
Even though these emulsions contain water, they
leave a protective film on metal and prevent Chatter
rust.
4. SODA WATER MIXTURES. Soda water
If you are unaware of the meaning of the
mixtures are the cheapest of all coolants and word CHATTER, you will soon learn when you
are very effective coolants, but they have prac¬ work with machine tools. Briefly, chatter is
tically no lubricating qualities and they cause vibration in either the tool or the work. The
steel or iron to rust. finished work surface appears to have a grooved
You can make this coolant by mixing one or lined finish instead of a smooth surface.
pound of carbonate of soda, one quart of lard The vibration is set up by a weakness in the
oil, one quart of soft soap, and eight to ten work, work support, tool, or tool support; and
gallons of water and by boiling the mixture for it is about the most elusive thing to find in the
one half hour. When it cools, the mixture is entire field of machine work. As a general
ready for use. rule, strengthening the various parts of the tool

226
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

support train will help. It is also advisable there are no burrs in the spindle hole. If burrs
to support the work by a center rest or fol¬ are found, remove them by careful scraping or
lower rest. reaming with a Morse taper reamer. Burrs
Possibly the fault may be in the machine’s produce the same inaccuracies as chips or
adjustments. The gibs may be too loose, the dirt.
bearings may be worn; the tool may be sharp¬ Center points must be accurately finished to
ened improperly, and so on. If the machine an angle of 60°. Figure 9-17 shows the method
is in perfect condition, the fault may be in the of checking this angle with a center gage. The
tool or tool setup. Grind the tool with a point large notch of the center gage is intended for
or as near a point as the finish specified per¬ this particular purpose. If this test shows
mits; avoid a wide, round, leading edge on the the point is not perfect, true it in the lathe by
tool. Reduce the overhang of the tool as much taking a cut over the point with the compound
as possible, and be sure that all the gib and rest set at 30 degrees. The hardened tail-
bearing adjustments are properly made. See center must be annealed before it can be ma¬
that the work receives proper support for the chined in this manner, or it can be ground
cut; and above all, do not try to turn at a sur¬ without annealing if a grinding attachment is
face speed too high. Excessive speed is probably available.
the greatest cause of chatter, and the first thing
you should do when chatter occurs is to reduce Checking Alignment
speed.
To turn a shaft straight and true between
Direction of Feed centers, the centers must be in a plane paral¬
lel to the ways of the lathe. Move the tailstock
Regardless of how the work is held in the laterally with the adjusting screws to accom¬
lathe, the tool should feed toward the head- plish this alignment after you release it from
stock, so that most of the pressure of the the ways. At the rear of the tailstock are two
cut is exerted on the work-holding device and zero lines, and the centers are approximately
spindle thrust bearings. When it is necessary aligned when these lines coincide. You can
to feed the cutting tool toward the tailstock, check this approximate alignment by moving the
take lighter cuts at reduced feeds. In facing, tailstock up until the centers almost touch, and
feed the tool from the center of the work- observing their relative positions, as shown in
piece out toward the periphery. figure 9-18. For very accurate work, especially
if it is long, make the following test to correct
PRELIMINARY PROCEDURES small errors in alignment not otherwise de¬
tected.
Before starting a lathe machining opera¬ Mount the work to be turned, or a piece of
tion, always be sure that the machine is set up stock of similar length, on the centers. With
for the job you are doing. If the work is a turning tool in the tool post, take a small cut
mounted between centers, check the alignment to a depth of a few thousandths of an inch at
of the dead center with the line center and the headstock end of the work. Then remove
make any changes required. Ensure that the
tool holder and cutting tool are set at proper
height and angle. Check the work-holding ac¬
cessory to ensure that the workpiece is held
securely. Use the center rest or follower for
support of long workpieces.

Preparing the Centers

The first step in preparing the centers is
to mount them accurately in the headstock and
tailstock spindles. The centers and the tapered
holes in which they are fitted must be perfectly
clean. Chips and dirt left on the contact sur¬
Figure 9-17. -Checking center point
faces will impair accuracy by preventing a per¬
fect fit of the bearing surfaces. Make sure that with center gage.

227
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

HEADSTOCK TAILSTOCK

28.106
Figure 9-18.— Aligning lathe centers.

the work from the centers to allow the carriage 28.110X

to be run back to the tailstock without withdraw¬ Figure 9-19.— Tool overhang.
ing the tool. Do not touch the tool setting. Re¬
place the work in the centers; and with the tool
set at the previous depth, take another cut com¬
ing in from the tailstock end. Compare the
diameters over these cuts with a micrometer. by A and B in figure 9-19 show the correct
If the diameters are exactly the same, the cen¬ overhang for the tool bit and the tool holder.
ters are in perfect alignment; if they are dif¬ The point of the tool must be correctly
ferent, adjust the tailstock in the direction re¬ positioned on the work. Place the cutting edge
quired by means of the set-over adjusting slightly above the center for straight turning of
screws. Repeat the above test and adjustment steel and cast iron, and exactly on the center
until a cut at each end has the same diameter. for all other work. To set the tool at the height
You can also check positive alignment of the desired, raise or lower the point of the tool
centers by placing a test bar between the cen¬ by moving the wedge in or out of the tool post
ters and bringing both ends of the bar to a ring. By placing the point opposite the tail
zero reading, as indicated by a dial indicator center point, you can adjust the setting ac¬
clamped in the tool post. Clamp the tailstock curately.
to the ways and properly adjust the test bar
between the centers when you take the indi¬ Holding the Work
cator readings.
Another method which you may use for You cannot perform accurate work if you
positive alignment of lathe centers is to take a mount it improperly. Requirements for proper
light cut over the work held between centers. mounting are:
Then measure the work at each end with a micro¬ 1. The work center line must be accurately
meter; and if the readings differ, adjust the centered with the axis of the lathe spindle.
tailstock accordingly. Repeat the procedure 2. The work must be rigidly held while being
until the alignment is satisfactory. turned.
3. The work must not be sprung out of shape
Setting the Toolholder and Cutting Tool by the holding device.
4. The work must be adequately supported
The first requirement for setting the tool is against any sagging caused by its own
rigidity. Make sure the tool holder sits squarely weight and against springing caused by
in the tool post and that the setscrew is tight. action of the cutting tool.
Reduce overhang as much as possible to pre¬ There are four general methods of holding
vent springing when cutting. If the tool has too work in the lathe: (1) between centers, (2) on
much spring, the point of the tool will catch a mandrel, (3) in a chuck, and (4) on a face¬
in the work, cause chatter, and damage both plate. Work may also be clamped to the car¬
the tool and the work. The distances represented riage for boring and milling, in which case the

228
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

boring bar or milling cutter is held and driven For center-drilling a workpiece, the com¬
by the headstock spindle. bined drill and countersink is the most prac¬
Other methods of holding work to suit spe¬ tical tool. These combined drills and counter¬
cial conditions are: (1) one end on the live sinks vary in size and the drill points also
center or in a chuck and the other end sup¬ vary. Sometimes a drill point on one end will
ported in a center rest, and (2) one end in a be 1/8 inch in diameter, and the drill point on
chuck and the other end on the dead center. the opposite end 3/16 inch in diameter. The
HOLDING WORK BETWEEN CENTERS.-To angle of the center drill is always 60°, so that
machine a workpiece between centers, drill cen¬ the countersunk hole will fit the angle of the
ter holes in each end to receive the lathe cen¬ lathe center point.
ters. A lathe dog is then secured to the work- If a centerdrill is not available, the work
piece and the work is mounted between the live may be centered with a small twist drill. Let
and dead centers of the lathe. the drill enter the work a sufficient length on
To center finished round stock such as each end; then follow with a special counter¬
drill rod or cold-rolled steel, where the ends sink, the point of which is 60 degrees.
are to be turned and must be concentric with In center -drilling, use a drop or two of oil
the unturned body, the work can be held on the on the drill. Feed the drill slowly and care¬
head spindle in a universal chuck or a draw-in fully to prevent breakage of the tip. Extreme
collet chuck. If the work is long and too large care is needed when the work is heavy be¬
cause it is then more difficult to FEEL the
to be passed through the spindle, a center rest
must be used to support one end. The center¬ proper feed of work on the centerdrill.
ing tool is held in a drill chuck in the tail If the centerdrill breaks while you are coun¬
spindle and is fed to the work by the tailstock tersinking and part of the broken drill remains
in the work, remove the broken part. Some¬
handwheel (fig. 9-20).
times you can drive it out with a chisel or jar
it loose; but it may stick so hard that you cannot
remove it. In this case anneal and drill out the
broken part of the drill.
The importance of proper center holes in the
work and a correct angle on the point of the lathe
centers cannot be overemphasized. To do an ac¬
curate job between centers on the lathe, counter¬
sunk holes must be of proper size and depth,
and the points of the lathe centers must be true
and accurate.
Figure 9-22 shows correct and incorrect
methods of mounting work between centers. In
the correct example, the driving dog is attached
Figure 9-20.— Drilling center hole.
to the work and rigidly held by the setscrew.
The tail of the dog rests in the slot of the face¬
plate and extends beyond the base of the slot so
If a piece must be centered very accurately,
the tapered center hole should be bored after that the work rests firmly on both the headstock
center drilling to correct any run-out of the center and tailstock center.
drill. This is done by grinding a tool bit to In the incorrect example (fig. 9-22), note that
the tail of the dog rests on the bottom of the
a center gage at a 60° angle. Then with the
slot on the faceplate at A, thereby pulling the
tool holder held in the tool post, set the com¬
work away from the center points, as shown at
pound rest at 30° with the line of center as
shown in figure 9-21. Set the tool exactly on B and C, and causing the work to revolve ec¬
the center for height and adjust to the proper centrically.
When mounting work between centers for
angle with the center gage as shown at A. By
machining, there should be no end play between
feeding the tool as shown at B, any run-out of
the work and the dead center. However, if held
the center is corrected. The tool bit should be
too tightly by the tail center when revolving, the
relieved under the cutting edge as shown at C
work will heat the center point and destroy
to prevent the tool from dragging or rubbing in
both the center and the work. For the same
the hole.

229
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

28.112
Figure 9-21.— Boring center hole.

be true with the inside diameter or bore. The

general practice is to finish the hole to a stand¬
ard size, within the limit of the accuracy de¬
sired. Thus, a 3/4-inch standard hole would
ordinarily be held from 0.7505 inch or a toler¬
ance of one -half thousandths of an inch above
or below the true standard size of exactly 0.750
inch. First, drill or bore the hole to within a
few thousandths of an inch of the finished size;
then remove the remainder of the material with
a machine reamer, following with a hand reamer
if the limits are extremely close.
Then press the piece on a mandrel tight enough
so the work will not slip while being machined and
clamp a dog on the mandrel being mounted be¬
tween centers. Since the mandrel surface runs
true with respect to the lathe axis, the turned sur¬
28.115X faces of the work on the mandrel will be true with
Figure 9-22.— Examples of work mounted be¬ respect to the hole in the piece.
tween centers. A mandrel is simply a round piece of steel
(of convenient length) which has been centered
and turned true with the centers. Commercial
mandrels are made of tool steel, hardened
and ground with a slight taper (usually 0.0005
reason, the tail center must be lubricated with inch per inch). On sizes up to 1 inch the small
a heavy mixture of white lead and oil.
end is usually one-half thousandth of an inch
HOLDING WORK ON A MANDREL. -Many under the standard size of the mandrel; on
parts, such as bushings, gears, collars, and larger sizes this dimension is usually one
pulleys, require all the finished external sur¬ thousandth of an inch under standard. This taper
faces to run true with the hole which extends allows the standard hole in the work to vary
through them; that is, the outside diameter must according to the usual shop practice, and still

230
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

provides a drive to the work when the mandrel the ring marks indicated on the face of the
is pressed into the hole. The taper is not great chuck. If there are no ring marks, be guided
enough to distort the hole in the work. The by the circumference of the body of the chuck.
countersunk centers of the mandrel are lapped 2. Fasten the work in the chuck by turning
for accuracy, and the ends are turned smaller the adjusting screw on jaw No. 1 and jaw No. 3,
than the body of the mandrel and provided with a pair of jaws opposite each other. Next tighten
flats which give a driving surface for the lathe jaws No. 2 and No. 4. (Brass shim stock may
dog. be used to protect the work when it is mounted
HOLDING WORK IN CHUCKS.-The indepen¬ in the chuck.)
dent chuck and universal chuck are more often 3. At this stage, the work should be held
used than other workholding devices in perform¬ in the jaws just tight enough so it will not fall
ing lathe operations. The universal chuck is out of the chuck during truing.
used for holding relatively true cylindrical work 4. Revolve the spindle slowly and, with a
when accurate concentricity of the machined piece of chalk, mark the high spot (A, fig. 9-23)
surface and holding power of the chuck is second¬ on the work while it is revolving. Steady your
ary to time required to do the job. When the hand on the tool post while you hold the chalk.
work is irregular in shape, must be accurately 5. Stop the spindle. Locate the high spot
centered, and must be held securely for heavy on the work and adjust the jaws in the proper
feeds and depth of cuts, the independent chuck direction to true the work by releasing the jaw
should be used. opposite the chalk mark and tightening the one
Figure 9-23 shows a rough casting mounted nearest the mark.
in a four-jaw independent lathe chuck on the 6. Sometimes the high spot on the work will
spindle of the lathe. Before truing the work, be located between adjacent jaws. In this case,
determine which part you wish to have turn loosen the two opposite jaws and tighten the jaws
true. To mount this casting in the chuck, pro¬ adjacent to the high spot.
ceed as follows: 7. To mount the work in a four -jaw chuck
1. Adjust the chuck jaws to receive the so that previously machined surfaces may be
casting. Each jaw should be concentric with centered accurately, use a dial test indicator.
The three-jaw universal or scroll chuck is
so made that all jaws move together or apart
in unison. A universal chuck will center almost
exactly at the first clamping; but after a period
of use it is not uncommon to find inaccuracies
of from 2 to 10 thousandths of an inch in cen¬
tering the work, and consequently the run-out
of the work must be corrected. Sometimes this
may be accomplished by inserting a piece of
paper or thin shim stock between the jaw and
the work on the high side.
After you position a piece in a chuck, be
sure to tighten all the screws to have each jaw
tight against the piece to prevent it from slip¬
ping.
When chucking thin sections, be careful not
to clamp the work too tightly; as the diameter
of the piece is machined when it is in a dis¬
torted position, and when pressure of the jaws
is released, there will be as many high spots
as there are jaws, and the turned surface will
not be true.
To preserve a chuck's accuracy, handle it
carefully and keep it clean and free from grit.
Never force a chuck jaw by using a pipe as an
Figure 9-23.— Work mounted in a 4-jaw chuck. extension on the chuck wrench.

231
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Before mounting a chuck, remove the live

center and fill the hole with a rag to prevent
chips and dirt from getting into the taper hole
of the spindle. Removal of the center is neces¬
sary to prevent the possibility of its being
ruined when drilling work held in the chuck.
(The operator may inadvertently drill right
through the center.)
Clean and oil the threads of the chuck and
the spindle nose— dirt or chips on the threads
will not allow the chuck to run true when it is
screwed up to the shoulder. Screw the chuck on
carefully, and avoid bringing it up against the
shoulder so fast that the chuck comes up with a
shock, which strains the spindle and the threads
and makes removal difficult. Never use mechan¬
ical power in screwing on the chuck. Rotate
the spindle with the left hand while holding the
chuck in the hollow of the right arm.
To remove a small chuck, place an adjusta¬
ble jaw wrench on one of the jaws and start it
by a smart blow with the hand on the handle of
28.124X
the wrench. To remove a heavy chuck, rotate
it against a block of wood held between a jaw Figure 9-24.— Work clamped to an angle plate.
and the lathe bed. When mounting or removing a
heavy chuck, lay a board across the bed ways to
protect them; the board will serve as a support
for the chuck as it is put on or taken off.
The above comments on mounting and re¬ point to be machined is centered accurately over
moving chucks also apply to faceplates. the axis of the lathe. Suppose you wish to bore
HOLDING WORK ON A FACEPLATE.-A a hole whose center has been laid out and marked
faceplate is used for mounting work which can¬ with a prick punch. Proceed as follows: Clamp
not be chucked or turned between centers. This the work to the approximate position on the face¬
may be necessary because of the peculiar shape plate. Then prepare a rod with a countersunk
of the work. A faceplate may be used when holes center hole to fit the tailstock center at one
are to be accurately machined in flat work, or end, and with an accurate center point on the
when large and irregularly shaped work is to be other end. Slide the tailstock up and place the
faced on the lathe. rod with the point in the prick punch mark on
Work is secured to the faceplate by bolts, the work and the other end on the tail center.
clamps, or any suitable clamping means. The Then revolve the work slowly. If the punch
holes and slots in the faceplate are used for mark is off center, the point of the rod will
anchoring the holding bolts. Angle plates may describe a small circle (appear to wobble);
be used to present the work at the desired angle, it it is right on center, the rod will remain
as shown in figure 9-24. Note the counterweight stationary. For very accurate centering, a
added for balance. dial indicator held in the tool post and applied
In order for work to be mounted accurately to the rod will indicate a very small movement
on a faceplate, the sin-face of the work in contact of the rod (to a thousandth of an inch).
with the faceplate must be accurately faced.
For very accurate work, the faceplate itself USING THE CENTER REST AND FOLLOWER
should be refaced by a light cut over its surface. REST.— Although supported at the ends by the
It is good practice to place a piece of paper be¬ lathe centers, long slender work often requires
tween the work and the faceplate to prevent slip¬ support between ends during turning; otherwise,
ping. the work would spring away from the tool and
Before securely clamping the work, move it chatter. The center rest is used to support
about on the surface of the faceplate until the such work so it can be accurately turned with a

232
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

faster feed and cutting speed than would be pos¬ HOLDING WORK IN A DRAW-IN COLLET
sible without it. CHUCK. —The draw-in collet chuck is used for
The center rest should be placed where it very fine accurate work of small diameter.
will give the greatest support to the piece to be Long work can be passed through the hollow
turned. This is usually at about the middle of drawbar, and short work can be placed directly
its length. Ensure that the center point between into the collet from the front. The collet is
the jaws of the center rest coincides exactly with tightened on the work by rotating the drawbar to
the axis of the lathe spindle. To do this, place the right. This draws the collet into the tapered
a short piece of stock in a chuck and machine it closing sleeve; the opposite operation releases
to the diameter of the workpiece to be supported. the collet.
Without removing the stock from the chuck, Accurate results are obtained when the dia¬
clamp the center rest on the ways of the lathe meter of the work is exactly the same size as
and adjust the jaws to the machined surface. the dimension stamped on the collet. In some
Without changing the jaw settings, slide the cen¬ cases, the diameter may vary as much as 0.002
ter rest into position for supporting the work- inch; that is, the work maybe 0.001 inch smaller
piece. Remove the stock used for setting the or larger than the collet size. If the work
center rest and set the workpiece in place. Use diameter varies more than this, it will im¬
a dial indicator to true the workpiece at the pair the accuracy and efficiency of the collet.
chuck. Figure 9-25 shows how a chuck and This is why a separate collet should be used for
center rest are used when machining the end of each small variation of work diameter, es¬
a workpiece. pecially if precision is desired.

LATHE MACHINING OPERATIONS

Up to this point you have studied the pre¬

liminary steps leading up to the performance
of machine work in the lathe. You have learned
how to mount the work and the tool, and which
tools to use for various purposes. Now, you
need to learn how to use proper tools in combi¬
nation with the lathe in order to perform various
machining operations.
Facing
Figure 9-25.— Work mounted in a chuck and Facing is the machining of the end surfaces
center rest. and shoulders of a workpiece. In addition to
squaring the ends of the work, facing pro¬
vides a means of accurately cutting the work to
The follower rest differs from the center length. Generally, in facing the workpiece, only
rest in that it moves with the carriage and pro¬ light cuts are required as the work will have
vides support against the forces of the cut only. been cut to approximate length or rough machined
The tool should be set to the diameter selected to the shoulder.
and a SPOT turned about 5/8 to 3/4 inch wide. Figure 9-26 shows the method of facing a
Then the follower rest jaws should be adjusted cylindrical piece. The work is placed on centers
to the finished diameter to follow the tool along
the entire length to be turned.

Use a thick mixture of white lead and oil

on the jaws of the center rest and follower rest
to prevent SEIZING and scoring the workpiece.
Check the jaws frequently to see that they do
not become hot. The jaws may expand slightly
if they get hot, thus pushing the work out of
alignment (when using the follower rest) or bind¬ 28.129X

ing (when using the center rest). Figure 9-26. —Facing a cylindrical piece.

233
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

and driven by a dog. A right-hand side tool is Turning

used as shown, and a light cut is taken on the
end of the work, feeding the tool (by hand cross - Turning is the machining of excess stock from
feed) from the center toward the outside. One the periphery of work in order to reduce its
or two cuts are taken to remove sufficient stock diameter. If a considerable amount of the
to true the work. Then place the dog on the other stock must be removed from the periphery,
end of the work and face it to the proper length. make a series of rough cuts first to remove
A steel rule is used to measure off the length. most of the excess and then use a finishing
Another rule or straightedge held on the end cut to finish the job.
that has just been faced provides an accurate Select the proper tool for taking a heavy
base from which to measure. Be sure there is chip. The speed of the work, and the amount of
no burr on the edge to keep the straightedge from feed of the tool should be as great as the tool
bearing accurately on the finished end. Use a and machine will stand.
sharp scriber to mark off the dimension desired. When taking a roughing cut on steel, cast
Figure 9-27 shows the application of a turning iron, or any other metal with scale on its
tool in finishing a shouldered job with a fillet surface, be sure to set the tool deep enough to
corner. A finish cut is taken on the small dia¬ get under the scale during the first cut. Unless
meter. The fillet is machined with a light cut; you do this, the scale on the metal will dull the
then the tool is used to face from the fillet to point of the tool. Figure 9-28 shows the position
the outside diameter of the work. of the tool for taking a heavy chip on large work.
Set the tool so that it will not dig into the work,
but will move in the direction of the arrow— away
from the work. Setting the tool in the position
shown in the illustration sometimes prevents
chatter.
After you turn the work to within about 1/32
inch of the finished size, take a finishing cut. A
fine feed, proper lubricant, and a keen-edged
tool are necessary to produce a smooth finish.
With a micrometer, measure the work carefully
to be sure you are maching the work to proper
dimensions.
When very close limits must be held, make
certain the work is not hot when you take the
finishing cut. If you cut it to the exact size while
hot, it will be undersized when it cools.
On work to be finished with a cylindrical
Figure 9-27. —Facing a shoulder. grinder, leave a limited amount of stock (from

In facing large surfaces, the carriage should

be locked in position, since only cross-feed is
required to traverse the tool across the work.
With the compound rest set at 90° (parallel to
the axis of the lathe), the micrometer collar
can be used to feed the tool to the proper depth
of cut in the face. For greater accuracy in ob¬
taining a given size in finishing a face, the
compound rest may be set at 30°. In this posi¬
tion, one -thousandth of an inch movement of the
compound rest will move the tool exactly a half
of a thousandth of an inch in a direction parallel
to the axis of the lathe. (In a 30°-60° right
triangle, the length of the side opposite the 30°
angle is equal to one-half the length of the
hypotenuse.) Figure 9-28. —Position of tool for heavy cut.

234
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

1/64 to 1/32 inch) for grinding to finished dimen¬ and two or more holes of the same or different
sions. diameters may be bored at one setting, thus en¬
Perhaps the most difficult operation for a suring absolute alignment of the axes of the
beginner in machine work is making accurate holes.
measurements. So much depends on the ac¬ The usual practice is to bore a hole to within
curacy of the work that you should make every a few thousandths of an inch of the desired size
effort to become proficient in the use of measur¬ and finish with a reamer to the exact size.
ing instruments. A certain FEEL in the appli¬ Work to be bored may be held in a chuck,
cation of a micrometer is developed through bolted to the faceplate, or bolted to the carriage.
experience; so do not be discouraged if your first Long pieces must be supported at the free end
efforts do not produce perfect results. Practice in a center rest.
taking micrometer measurements on pieces of When the boring tool is fed into the hole in
known dimensions. work being rotated on a chuck or faceplate, the
Machining to a shoulder is often accomplished process is called single-point boring. It is the
by locating the shoulder with a parting tool. In¬ same as turning except that the cutting chip is
sert the parting tool about 1/ 32 inch back of the taken from the inside. The cutting edge of the
shoulder line, so that it enters the work within boring tool resembles that of a turning tool.
1/32 inch back of the shoulder line, of the smaller Boring tools may be of the solid-forged type
diameter of the work. Then machine the stock by or the inserted cutter-bit type.
taking heavy chips up to the shoulder thus made. When the work to be bored is clamped to the
Shouldering eliminates detailed measuring and top of the carriage, a boring bar is held be¬
speeds up production. tween centers and driven by a dog. The work is
Figure 9-29 illustrates the method of shoul¬ fed to the tool by the automatic longitudinal feed
dering. A parting tool has been used at P and of the carriage. Three types of boring bars are
the turning tool is taking a chip. It will be un¬ shown in figure 9-30.
necessary to waste time taking measurements. Note the countersunk center holes at the ends
Devote your time to rough machining until the to fit the lathe centers.
necessary amount of stock is removed. Then Part A of illustration 9-30 shows a boring bar
finish to accurate measurements. fitted with a fly cutter held by a headless set¬
screw. The other setscrew, bearing on the end
Boring of the cutter, is for adjusting the cutter to the
Boring is the machining of holes or any in¬ work.
terior cylindrical surface. The piece to be bored
must have a drilled or cored hole, and the hole
must be large enough to insert the tool. The
boring process merely enlarges the hole to the
desired size or shape. The advantage of boring
is that a perfectly true round hole is obtained,

28.134

Figure 9-29.— Machining to a shoulder. Figure 9-30.— Boring bars.

235
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Part B of figure 9-30 shows a boring bar

fitted with a two-edge cutter held by a taper
key. This is more of a finishing or sizing cut¬
ter, as it cuts on both sides and is used for
production work.
The boring bar shown in part C of figure
9-30 is fitted with a cast-iron head to adapt
it for boring work of large diameter. The head
is fitted with a fly cutter similar to the one
shown in part A of figure 9-30. The setscrew
with the tapered point adjusts the cutter to the
work.

Tapers

Taper may be defined as gradual lessening of

the diameter or thickness of a piece of work
toward one end. The amount of taper in any given
length of work is found by subtracting the size
of the small end from the size of the large end.
Taper is usually expressed as the amount of
taper per foot of length, or as an angle. Use the
following formula and work two examples:

12 the axis or center line. In straight turning, the

Taper per foot = T x -j- diameter of a piece is reduced by twice the depth
of the cut taken from its surface. For the same
T = amount of taper reason, the included angle of the taper is twice
L = length the angle the path of the cutting tool makes with
the axis or center line of the piece being turned.
EXAMPLE 1. —Find the taper per foot of a Tables or charts in machinists' handbooks give
piece of work 2 inches long, with a diameter at the angles for different amounts of taper per foot.
the small end of 1 inch and a diameter at the In ordinary straight turning, the cutting tool
large end of 2 inches. The amount of the taper is moves along a line parallel to the axis of the
2 inches minus 1 inch, which equals 1 inch. The work, causing the finished job to be the same
length of the taper is given as 2 inches. There¬ diameter throughout. If in cutting the tool moves
fore, the taper is 1 inch in 2 inches of length. In at an angle to the axis of the work, a taper is
12 inches of length it would be 6 inches. See produced. When you therefore turn a taper, so
figure 9-31. mount the work in the lathe that the axis upon
EXAMPLE 2. —Find the taper per foot of a which it turns is at an angle to the axis of the
piece 6 inches long, with a diameter at the small lathe, or causes the cutting tool to move at an
end of 1 inch and a diameter at the large end of angle to the axis of the lathe.
2 inches. The amount of taper is the same as in There are three methods in common use for
problem 1; that is, 1 inch. The length of this turning tapers:
taper, however, is 6 inches; hence the taper per 1. SETTING OVER THE TAILSTOCK. This
foot is 1 inch x 12/6 = 2 inches per foot (fig. method moves the dead center away from

9-31). the axis of the lathe and causes work sup¬

From the foregoing discussion, you can see ported between centers to be at an angle
that the length of a tapered piece is very im¬ with the axis of the lathe.
portant in computing the taper. If you bear this 2. COMPOUND REST. When set at an angle
in mind when machining tapers, you will have no this rest causes the cutting tool to feed at
the desired angle to the axis of the lathe.
difficulties.
Now let us consider the angle of the taper. In 3. TAPER ATTACHMENT which also causes
a round piece of work the included angle of the the cutting tool to move at an angle to the
taper is twice the angle the surface makes with axis of the lathe.

236
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

In the first method, the cutting tool is fed by

the longitudinal feed parallel to the lathe axis,
but a taper is produced because the work axis is
at an angle. In the second and third methods, the
work axis coincides with the lathe axis; but a
taper is produced because the cutting tool moves
at an angle.
The tailstock top may be moved laterally on
its base by means of adjusting screws. In straight
turning, you will recall that these adjusting
screws were used to align the dead center with 28.140X
the tail center by moving the tailstock to bring Figure 9-33.— Measuring set-over of
it on the centerline. For taper turning, we de¬ dead center.
liberately move the tailstock off center, and the
amount we move it determines the taper pro¬
duced. The amount of setover can be approxi¬
mately set by means of the zero lines inscribed
on the base and top of the tailstock, as shown in
figure 9-32. For final adjustment, measure the
setover with a scale between center points, as
illustrated in figure 9-33.
In turning a taper by this method, the dis¬
tance between centers is of the utmost impor¬ 28.141X
tance. To illustrate, figure 9-34 shows two very Figure 9-34.— Set-over of tailstock showing
different tapers produced by the same amount of importance of considering length of work.
setover of the tailstock, because in one case the
length of the work between centers is greater
than in the other. THE CLOSER THE DEAD inch in this case. At one end the cutting tool will
CENTER IS TO THE LIVE CENTER, THE therefore be 1/2 inch closer to the center of the
STEEPER THE TAPER PRODUCED. work than at the other end; so the diameter of
Suppose you desire to turn a taper on the full the finished job will be 2 x 1/2 or 1 inch less at
length of a piece 12 inches long with a diameter the small end. Since the piece is 12 inches long,
of 3 inches at one end and a diameter of 2 we have produced a taper of 1 inch per foot. If
inches at the other end. The small end is to be you wish to produce a taper of 1 inch per foot on
1 inch smaller than the large end; so we set the a piece only 6 inches long, the small end is only
tailstock over one-half this amount, or 1/2 1/2 inch less in diameter than the large end; so
the tailstock must be set over l/4 inch or one-
half of the distance used for the 12-inch length.
From the foregoing discussion, you can see
that the setover is proportional to the length be¬
tween centers and may be computed by the fol¬
lowing formula:
0 _ T L_
S 2 X12
S = setover in inches.
T = taper per foot.

= length in feet

Remember that L is the length (in inches) of

28.139X the work from live center to dead center. If the
Figure 9-32.— Tailstock set-over for work is on a mandrel, L is the length of the
taper turning. mandrel between centers.

237
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

The setover tailstock method cannot be used The guide bar is set at an angle to the lathe
for steep tapers, because the setover necessary axis corresponding to the taper desired. By
would be too great and the work would not be means of a shoe which slides on the guide bar
properly supported by the lathe centers. It is as the carriage moves longitudinally, the tool
obvious that with setover there is not a true cross slide is moved laterally. The resultant
bearing between the work centers and the lathe movement of the cutting tool is along a line
center points, and that the bearing surface be¬ parallel to the guide bar, and therefore a taper
comes less and less satisfactory as the setover whose angular measurement is the same as that
is increased. set on the guide bar is produced. The guide bar
After you turn a taper by the tailstock setover is graduated in degrees at one end, and in inches
method, do not forget to realign the centers for per foot of taper at the other end to facilitate
straight turning of your next job. rapid setting.
When preparing to use the taper attachment,
The compound rest is generally used for
run the carriage up to the approximate position
short steep tapers. It is set at the angle the
of the work to be tuned. Set the tool on line with
taper, is to make with the centerline (half the
the centers of the lathe. Then bolt or clamp the
included angle of the taper). The tool is then fed
holding bracket to the ways of the bed (the at¬
to the work at this angle by means of the com¬
tachment itself is bolted to the back of the car¬
pound rest feed screw. The length of taper which
riage saddle) and tighten clamp C, figure 9-35.
can be machined is necessarily short because of
The taper guide bar now controls the lateral
limited travel of the compound rest top.
movement of the cross slide. Set the guide bar
Truing a lathe center is one example of usage
for the taper desired and the attachment is ready
of the compound rest for taper work. Other ex¬
for operation. Make the final adjustment of the
amples are: refacing of an angle type valve disk,
tool for size by means of the compound rest
machining the face of a bevel gear, and similar
feed screen, since the cross feed screw is in¬
work. Such jobs are often referred to as WORK¬
operative.
ING TO AN ANGLE rather than as taper work.
The graduations marked on the compound rest
provide a quick means for setting to the angle MILLING MACHINES
desired. When set at zero, the compound rest is
perpendicular to the lathe axis. When set at 90° A milling machine removes metal by means
on either side, the compound rest is parallel to of a revolving cutting tool called a milling cutter.
the lathe axis.
On the other hand, when the angle to be cut
is measured from the centerline, the setting of
the compound rest corresponds to the comple¬
ment of that angle. (The complement of an angle
is that angle which added to it makes a right
angle; that is, angle plus complement = 90°. ) For
example, to machine a 50° included angle (25°
angle with centerline), the compound rest must be
set at 90°-25°, or 65°.

When a very accurate setting of the compound

rest is to be made to a fraction of a degree, run
the carriage up to the faceplate and set the com¬
pound rest with a vernier bevel protractor set to
the required angle. Hold the blade of the pro¬
tractor on the flat surface of the faceplate, and
the stock of the protractor against the finished
side of the compound rest.
For turning and boring long tapers with ac¬
curacy the taper attachment is indispensable. It
is especially useful in duplicating work; identical 28.143X
tapers can be turned and bored with one setting Figure 9-35. —Turning a taper with a
of the taper guide bar. taper attachment.

238
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

With various attachments, a milling machine may

be used for: (1) boring, broaching, circular mill¬
ing, dividing, and drilling; (2) cutting of keyways,
racks, and gears; and (3) fluting of taps and
reamers.
BED TYPE and KNEE AND COLUMN TYPE
milling machines are generally found in most
Navy machine shops. A bed type milling machine
has a vertically adjustable spindle. The hori¬
zontal boring mill discussed in this chapter is
representative of the bed type. The knee-and-
column milling machine has a fixed spindle and
a vertically adjustable table. These milling
machines have various classes, but only those
classes with which you will be concerned are
discussed in this chapter.

KNEE-AND-COLUMN MILLING MACHINES

The type of milling machine most commonly

used in the Navy is KNEE-AND-COLUMN. Be¬
cause of its ease of setup and versatility, this
machine is more efficient than other types. The
28.197X
main casting consists of an upright column, to
which is fastened a bracket, or KNEE, which sup¬ Figure 9-36. —Universal milling machine.
ports the table. The knee is adjustable on the
column, so that the table can be raised or lowered
to accommodate work of various size.
Vertical cuts may be taken by feeding the supports are used to provide accurate alignment
table up or down. The table maybe moved in the and to support arbors. The overarm may be re¬
horizontal plane in two directions at right angles tracted into the column or extended out of the
to the axis of the spindle or parallel to the axis column by the amount necessary to support any
of the spindle. Because of this feature, work can length arbor. The overarm supports are ex.-
be mounted at practically any location on the tremely beneficial for supporting the cutter when
table. Knee-and-column milling machines are taking heavy cuts and are used in conjunction
made in three designs: plain, universal, and with the yokes and overarms.
vertical spindle.
Although knee and column milling machines Standard Equipment
vary slightly in design, the components labeled
in figure 9-36 are common to most milling ma¬ Standard Equipment provided with milling
chines. The column has an accurately machined machines on Navy ships includes workholding
and scraped vertical dovetail bearing surface. devices, spindle attachments, cutters, arbors,
The knee is firmly gibbed to the column dovetail, and any special tools needed for setting-up the
thus providing a means of vertical movement of machine for milling. This equipment permits
the knee on a sliding bearing. The saddle slides holding and cutting of many milling jobs en¬
on a horizontal dovetail sliding bearing (parallel countered in Navy repair work.
to the axis of the spindle) on the knee. The VISES commonly used on milling machines
swivel table (on universal machines only) is at¬ are the flanged plain view, the swivel vise, and
tached to the saddle and can be swiveled approxi¬ the toolmakers universal vise (fig. 9-37). The
mately 45 degrees (forward to back). The spindle flanged vise provides a rigid workholding setup
nose has a standard internal taper. Driving keys when the surface to be machined must be parallel
or lugs are provided on the face of the spindle to the surface seated in the vise. The swivel
nose for driving the cutter directly, or for driving vise is used similarly to the flanged vise, but
an arbor or adapter on which the cutter is the setup is less rigid and permits the work-
mounted. The overarms, yokes, and overarm piece to be swiveled in a horizontal plane to

239
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

INDEXING EQUIPMENT provided with mill¬

ing machines is illustrated in figure 9-38. In¬
dexing equipment is used to hold the workpiece
and to provide a means of turning the workpiece
so that a number of accurately spaced cuts may
be made (gear teethfor example). The workpiece
is held in a chuck, attached to the index head
spindle, or between a live center in the index
head and a dead center in the footstock. The
center rest may be used to provide support for
long slender work. The center of the footstock
may be raised or lowered as required for setting
up tapered workpieces.
The basic components of an index head are
shown in figure 9-39. The ratio between the worm
and gear is 40 to 1; thus by turning the worm one
turn, the spindle is rotated 1/40 of a revolution.
The index plate, which has a series of holes in
concentric circles, permits accurate gaging of
partial turns of the worm shaft and allows the
spindle to be turned accurately in amounts
smaller than 1/40 of a revolution. The index
plate may be secured to the index head housing
or the the worm shaft. The crank pin can be
adjusted radially for use in any circle of holes.
The sector arms can be set to span any number
of holes in the index plate to provide a guide for
rotating the index crank for partial turns.
The index head spindle can be turned directly
by hand, by the index crank through the worm and
worm gear, or by the table feed mechansim
through a gear train. The first two methods are
used for indexing; the third method is used for
rotating the workpiece (while it is being cut) to
provide a means of making helical cuts. The
spindle of the index head is set in a swivel block
so that the spindle can be set at any angle from
slightly below horizontal to slightly past vertical.
An index plate, usually with a 24-hole circle, is
provided for placement back of the chuck or
center so that the spindle can be indexed rapidly
by hand for commonly required divisions.
The CIRCULAR MILLING ATTACHMENT or
28.199X rotary table shown in figure 9-40 provides a
Figure 9-37.— Milling machine vises. means of setting-up work which must be rotated
in a horizontal plane. The worktable is graduated
(1/2° to 360°) around its circumference. The
any required angle. The toolmakers universal table may be turned by hand or by its feed
vise is used when the workpiece must be set up mechanism through a gear train. An 80 to 1 worm
at a complex angle in relation to the axis of the and gear drive in the rotary table and index plate
spindle and to the table surface. These vises arrangement makes this device useful for ac¬
have locating keys or tongues on the underside to curate indexing of horizontal surfaces.
ensure that they are positioned correctly in re¬ The UNIVERSAL MILLING ATTACHMENT
lation to the T-slots on the milling machine shown in figure 9-40 is clamped to the column of
table. the milling machine. The cutter can be secured

240
 Chapter 9— MACHINING OPERATIONS

llNDEXHEAD
BRACKETS FOR
MOUNTING CHANGE FOOTS TOC K
GEARS
CENTER REST

INDEX
HEAD
CENTER
CHUCK
iwima noft

INDEX PLATES

28.200X
Figure 9-38.— Index head with footstock.

in the spindle of the attachment and then— by are attached to either a stub arbor or directly
means of the two rotary swivels— can be set so to the milling machine spindle. Figure 9-41
that the cutter will cut at any angle to the hori¬ illustrates various arbors, sleeves, and adapters
zontal or the vertical plane. The spindle of the for mounting cutters.
Some milling cutters are illustrated in figure
universal milling attachment is driven by gear¬
9-42. These cutters are made from carbon steel,
ing connected to the milling machine spindle.
Milling machine cutters are generally clas¬ high-speed steel, Stellite, or tool steel with
sified according to methods of mounting.- Arbor cemented carbide teeth. Some of the more com¬
mon cutters and the operations to which they are
cutters are cutters with straight, tapered, or
threaded holes for mounting on an arbor. The best suited are described in the following para¬
most common type has a straight hole with a graphs.
PLAIN-MILLING CUTTERS (numbers 27 and
keyway through it or across one end. By means
of a key inserted in this keyway, the cutter is 30, fig. 9-42) are the most widely used of all
prevented from turning on the arbor. Shank cutters. They are used for milling flat surfaces
parallel to the cutter's axis. The cutter is cylin¬
cutters have straight or tapered shanks and are
drical and has teeth cut on the periphery only.
mounted in collets or adapters. Facing cutters

241
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Figure 9-39.— Index head mechanism.

28.204X
Figure 9-41.— Arbors, sleeves, and
special adapters.

produce a free cutting action, cutters are often

made with helical teeth. A spirally gashed cutter,
particularly when used on wide surfaces, gives
a much smoother result than a straight gashed
cutter. Spirally gashed cutters also require less
power to operate and, since the stress on the
cutter is relieved, the tendency to chatter is
reduced. When the plain milling cutter is made
with relatively few teeth and a fairly steep angle
of spiral, the cutter is commonly called a coarse
tooth cutter. Such cutters are used because of
their ability to remove considerable quantities
of metal with minimum power. Plain mills with
very few teeth and helical milling cutters have a
very steep angle of spiral. They are particularly
efficient on heavy slabbing cuts. Because of the
shearing action of the teeth, they can be used to
28.202X advantage in removing an uneven amount of stock
Figure 9-40.— Circular milling attachment and without gouging. They are made in both HOLE
universal head. AND ARBOR types for milling forms from solid
metal.
Plain milling cutters are made in a variety of
diameters and widths. The teeth may be either SIDE-MILLING CUTTERS (numbers 14, 28,
straight or spiral in shape, but the latter type and 29, fig. 9-42) are comparatively narrow
is generally used when the cutter is more than milling cutters with teeth on each side as well
3/4 inch wide. A cutter tooth straight or parallel as on the outer surface. When used in pairs,
to its axis receives a distinct shock as the tooth with an appropriate spacer between them, these
starts to cut. To eliminate this shock and thereby cutters can mill parallel sides.

242
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

28.205X
1. Metal slitting saw. 17. Metal slitting saw.
2. Involute spur gear cutter (undercut teeth). 18. Concave cutter.
3. Spiral end mill, taper shank. 19. Ball end mills.
4. Two-lipped spiral mill, taper shank. 20. Long single-end end mill.
5. Metal stagger ed-tooth slitting saw. 21. Double-end end mills.
6. Long two-lipped end mill, single end. 22. Two-lipped long single-end end mill.
7. Long spiral end mills, double end. 23. Screw slotting cutter.
8. Two-lipped spiral end mill, double end. 24. Two-lipped spiral end mill, straight
9. Corner rounding cutter. shank.
10. Involute form cutter. 25. Angular cutter.
11. Spiral end mill, cam-locking. 26. Spiral end mill, straight shank.
12. Long two-lipped spiral end mill, double 27. Plain heavy duty milling cutter.
end. 28. Staggered tooth side milling cutter.
13. Long spiral end mill, single end. 29. Side milling cutter.
14. Half side milling cutter. 30. Helical plain milling cutter .
15. Convex cutter. 31. Shell end miss for use with shell end mill
16. Woodruff keyseat cutter. arbor.

Figure 9-42. -Milling machine cutters.

243
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

METAL SLITTING SAWS (numbers 1, 5, and T-slots extend the length of the table and are
17, fig. 9-42) used on milling machines are es¬ parallel to its longitudinal axis. Most milling
sentially thin, plain milling cutters. The thick¬ machine attachments (vises and index heads, for
ness of a metal slitting saw tends to decrease example) have keys or tongues on the underside
toward the center. This is to provide clearance of their bases to enable the operator to locate
between cutter and work when you are milling the attachments correctly in relation to the
deep slots or cutting off thick sections of metal. T-slots.
Slitting saws are usually less than 3/16 inch There are various methods of holding work,
thick. Generally, slitting saws have more teeth in accordance with type of work and the operation
for a given diameter than plain milling cutters. to be performed. Some of these methods are dis¬
For heavy sawing in steel, staggered tooth cussed next.
slitting saws, from 3/16 to 3/8 inch thick, are When work is clamped to the milling machine
generally used. table, both table and work should be free from
WOODRUFF KEYSEAT CUTTERS are used dirt and burrs. Work having smoothly machined
for cutting semicylindrical keyways in shafts. surfaces may be clamped directly to the table,
Cutters under 1 l/2 inches in diameter are pro¬ provided the cutter does not come in contact
vided with a shank and have teeth on the circum¬ with the table surface during the machining op¬
ferential surface. Their sides are ground slightly eration. When work with unfinished surfaces is
concave for clearance. Cutters larger than 1 1/2 clamped in this way, the table face should be
inches in diameter are usually of the arbor type. protected with pieces of soft metal. Clamps
The larger cutters have staggered teeth on the should be placed squarely across the work to give
circumferential surface and on the sides. The a full bearing surface. These clamps are held by
side teeth are ground for clearance but not for bolts inserted in the table's T-slots. Clamping
cutting. bolts should be placed as near the work as pos¬
sible so that full advantage of the fulcrum princi¬
Setting Up the Milling Machine ple may be obtained. When it is necessary to
place a clamp on an overhanging part, a support
Before starting a milling operation, ensure should be provided between the overhang and the
that the workpiece and the milling machine are table to prevent springing or breakage. When
arranged properly; and make certain that the heavy cuts are to be taken, fasten a sturdy stop
workpiece is firmly secured to the holding de¬ piece to the table at the tail end of the workpiece
vice. If indexing is required, select the correct to help prevent sliding of the workpiece.
method and calculate the number of turns re¬ Index centers are used to support work cen¬
quired in the indexing operation. Ensure that the tered on both ends. When the work has been
center is correctly secured to the spindle, posi¬ previously reamed or bored, it may be pressed
tioned properly over the workpiece, and set to on a mandrel and then mounted between centers.
rotate in the proper direction. Select the correct
cutting speeds and feeds. Consider each job INDEXING THE WORK. -Indexing may be ac¬
individually, as speeds and feeds for milling complished by the PLAIN, DIRECT, COMPOUND,
often vary considerably even on similar jobs. or DIFFERENTIAL METHOD. The plain and di¬
rect methods are most commonly used; com¬
HOLDING THE WORK. -An efficient and pound and differential methods are used only
positive method of holding work on the milling when the job cannot be done by plain or direct
machine is most important if the machine tool is indexing. Only the plain and direct methods are
to be used to its best advantage. Regardless of described in this course.
the method used in holding the work, there are Direct indexing, sometimes called rapid in¬
certain factors that should be observed in every dexing, makes use of the direct index plate
case. The work must not be sprung in clamping; mounted just back of the work end of the index
but it must be secured to prevent its springing head spindle (fig. 9-43). The direct index plate
or moving away from the cutter, and so aligned is equipped with 24 evenly spaced holes around
that it may be correctly machined. its outer edge, which means that only division
Milling machine tables are provided with which divide evenly into 24 can be cut; that is,
several T-slots used either for clamping and numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24. To obtain
locating the work itself or for mounting the rapid indexing, disengage the worm and worm
various holding devices and attachments. These wheel from the spindle (with the index pin out of

244
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

required to make 40 divisions on apiece of work,

divide 40 by 40, which indicates that one com¬
DIRECT INDEX plete turn of the index crank is required for each
PLATE division. If 10 divisions were required, you would
divide 40 by 10, and 4 complete turns of the index
crank would be required for each division. Index
plates are used to assist in making the division
when the quotient of the ratio of the index head
and the division desired results in a fraction,
thus making it necessary to turn the crank a
part of a revolution in indexing. The numerator
of the fraction, determined by dividing 40 by the
number of divisions required, represents the
number of holes in a circle of holes the index
crank should be moved for each desired division.
The denominator of this fraction represents the
number of holes in the correct circle of holes
which should be selected on the index plate. For
example, the calculation for determining 800
divisions when an index plate with 20 holes is
available is as follows:
28.209X
Figure 9-43.— Direct index plate. 40 1
qqq = ^ = 1 hole on the 20-hole circle.

When the fraction is such that none of the

contact with the direct index plate) and turn the available index plates contains the number of
spindle by hand. holes represented by the denominator, multiply
Manufacturers supply index heads with var¬ both the numerator and denominator by a com¬
ious means of disengaging the index head. To mon multiplier. For example, the calculation for
divide work into two equal parts, disengage the determining 9 divisions when an index plate hav¬
index pin and revolve the plate and spindle until ing a 27 -hole circle is available is as follows:
11 holes in a 24-hole circle pass the index pin.
Then insert the index pin into the 12th hole in
the plate to hold the spindle in the proper posi¬ ~ x4 = = 4 = 4 complete turns plus
y A 12 holes on the 27-
tion. In any indexing operation, always start
counting from the hole adjacent to the crankpin. hole circle
During heavy cutting operations, clamp the spin¬
dle by the clamp screw to relieve strain on the If the denominator of the fraction is larger
index pin. than the number of holes available in an index
Plain indexing, accomplished by using the plate, divide both the numerator and denominator
universal index head, is governed by the number by a common divisor which will give a fraction
of times the index crank must be turned to cause whose denominator represents the number of
the work to make one revolution. Charts specify¬ holes for which the index plate is available. For
ing the required number of turns or fractions of example, the calculation for determining 76
a turn and giving the proper index plate for var¬ divisions when an index plate with a 19-hole
ious divisions are furnished by index head manu¬ circle is available is as follows:
facturers. If these charts are unavailable, calcu¬
late the required number of turns and parts of = = 10 holes in the 19-hole circle.
turns.
The number of turns of the index crank re¬ If when reducing the fraction the denominator
quired to index a fractional part of a revolution becomes so small that no available index plate
is determined by dividing 40 by the number of contains the number of holes represented by the
divisions required. For example, if you are denominator, raise the fraction to an available

245
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

number. For example, the calculation for de¬ that the cutter must be far enough away from the
termining 52 divisions when an index plate with spindle nose to permit the workpiece to clear the
a 39-hole circle is available, is as follows: column during the milling cut. NOTE: Watch for
left-hand threads on the arbor and arbor nut.
40 j4 3. Place the cutter on the arbdr and align the
7^ X_T = or 3° holes in a 39-
52 4 U J J hole circle. cutter and arbor keyways and insert a key.
4. Replace the required number of spacers
so that tightening the arbor nut will clamp the
To use the index head sector arms, turn the cutter between the spacers.
left-hand arm to the left of the index pin, and 5. Screw the arbor nut by hand. NOTE: Do
insert the pin into the first hole in the circle of NOT tighten the arbor nut with a wrench at this
holes to be used. Then loosen the set screw and time.
so adjust the right-hand arm of the sector that 6. Place the arbor in the milling machine
the correct number of holes is contained between spindle and insert the draw-in bolt through the
the two arms (fig. 9-39). After you make this spindle, and screw the bolt into the arbor by hand
adjustment, lock the set screw to hold the arms as far as possible. Then back the draw-in bolt
in position. When setting the arms, count the out of the arbor about one turn.
required number of holes from the one in which 7. Tighten the draw-in bolt locking nut with
the pin is inserted, considering this hole as zero. a wrench until the arbor is tightly secured in the
By subsequent use of the index sector arms, spindle.
counting the holes for each division is eliminated. 8. Position the overarm and yoke to provide
When you use the index crank to revolve the adequate support for the cutter. Then, using a
spindle, unlock the spindle clamp screw. How¬ wrench, take up on the arbor nut to clamp the
ever, before you cut work held in or on the index cutter securely.
head, lock the spindle again to relieve the strain. The procedure for installing an adapter for
tapered shank cutters is similar to the procedure
MOUNTING THE CUTTER. -To mount a for installing the arbor in the mill spindle. Then
cutter on an arbor (fig. 9-44): insert the taper shank cutter in the tapered hole
1. Select an arbor having the same diameter of the adapter. Tap the cutter end lightly with a
as the hole in the cutter. rawhide mallet to ensure secure seating.
2. Remove the arbor nut and as many spacers Face mills are usually mounted directly on
as necessary so that the cutter can be positioned the spindle nose of the mill. The back of the face
as near the spindle nose as practical. Remember mill is counterbored to fit the spindle nose and

SPINDLE NOSE CUTTER ARBOR

246
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATORS

has radial slots which fit the driving lugs of the Figure 9-45 shows common methods of posi¬
spindle. The cutter is secured to the spindle nose tioning a cutter. Methods A, B, and C in the
by bolts inserted through the face of the cutter illustration can be used on cylindrical or non-
and screwed into the spindle nose. cylindrical workpieces. Methods D and E are
Before mounting a cutter, always ensure that used when centering the cutter on the axis of
the cutter, adapter, arbor, and mill spindle are cylindrical workpieces; method E is used when
clean and free of burrs and upset edges. the workpiece is mounted between centers.

28.212

Figure 9-45.— Methods of positioning cutter.

 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

The methods illustrated in A and B of figure

9-45 are the most accurate methods and should
be used when possible. To position a cutter by
these methods, do the following:
1 . Move the workpiece into position as shown
by the auxiliary views in A and B of figure 9-45,
with the cutter about 0.010 inch away from the
workpiece.
2. Insert a strip of paper (0.003 inch thick)
CONVENTIONAL MILLING
between the cutter and the side of the workpiece
28.213X
and hold it in place.
3. Start the motor and turn the cutter slowly, Figure 9-46. —Conventional and climb milling.
and feed the workpiece toward the cutter until
the cutter tears the paper strip; then feed the
table toward the cutter another 0.003 inch (thick¬
ness of the paper) to bring the cutter in to very the conventional milling practice, sometimes
light contact with the workpiece. called the UP METHOD. In milling deep slots,
4. Lower the workpiece enough for the cutter or in cutting off thin stock with a metal slitting
to clear the top of the workpiece. cutter, another system known as the CLIMB
5. Set the micrometer collar on the trans¬ MILLING process is used. When using this
verse feed handwheel to zero. process, feed the work with the rotation of the
6. Move the worktable transversely by an cutter to make the cutter cut down into the work.
amount equal to one -half the thickness of the The system diminishes the probability of crooked
cutter plus one -half the diameter of the work- slots produced when the cutter is drawn to one
piece (part A, fig. 9-45). The cutter is now cen¬ side.
tered on the axis of the shaft, and can be set to
When the work moves with the cutter, set the
the proper depth of cut by moving the table up¬
ward to the prescribed depth. table gibs snugly in order to eliminate looseness
The method just described works equally and/ or lost motion in the table. If you fail to
well on cylindrical and noncylindrical workpieces eliminate looseness, the cutter teeth may draw
and with end mills as well as arbor type cutters. the work in and perhaps cause a sprung arbor,
a badly damaged cutter, a ruined piece of work,
If the cutter is so small that the arbor or spindle
nose touches the workpiece, the cutter can be or serious personal injury.
aligned with some degree of accuracy by using a
SELECTING FEEDS, SPEEDS, AND COOL¬
straightedge placed on the side of arbor type
ANTS. —Milling machines usually have a spindle
cutters or periphery of end mills for aligning the
cutter to a zero point. In moving the workpiece speed range from 25 to 2000 rpm and a feed range
from 1/4 inch to 30 inches per minute (ipm). The
transversely, remember that the thickness (of an
arbor cutter) or the diameter (of an end mill) feed is independent of the spindle speed, which
will affect the final transverse position of the means that a workpiece can be fed at any rate
cutter. CAUTION: Keep your hands clear of the available in the feed range, regardless of the
cutter when using the paper strip. spindle speed being used. Some of the factors
Part E of figure 9-45 illustrates a method concerning the selection of appropriate feeds
of centering a cutter on the axis of a workpiece and speeds for milling are discussed in the
used when the tooth profile of the cutter is con¬ following paragraphs.
vex. The work is so adjusted that the cutter is Heat generated by friction between the cutter
approximately centered over the work. Then the and the work may be regulated by using proper
work is moved up until the rotating cutter takes speed, feed, and cutting coolant. Regulation of
a light depth of cut. If a regular oval-shaped cut this heat is very important, because the cutter
appears, the cutter is entered; if the profile of is dulled or made useless by overheating. It is
one side of the oval differs from the other side, almost impossible to set down any fixed rules
the workpiece must be adjusted transversely. concerning cutting speeds, because conditions
When you select the direction of cutter rota¬ vary from job to job. Generally speaking, how¬
tion and table travel, make the cutter revolve ever, select a cutting speed which gives the best
against the advancing table (fig. 9-46). This is compromise between maximum production and

248
 Chapter 9 -MACHINING OPERATIONS

longest life of the cutter. In any particular oper¬ Table 9-1. —Surface Cutting Speeds
ation, consider the following factors when de¬
ermining proper cutting speed: Carbon steel High Speed
1. HARDNESS OF THE MATERIAL BEING cutters (ft. steel cutters
CUT. The harder and tougher the metal being per min. ) (ft. per min. )
cut, the slower should be the cutting speed.
Rough Finish Rough Finish
2. DEPTH OF CUT AND DESIRED FINISH.
The amount of friction heat produced is directly
Cast iron:
proportional to the amount of material being re¬
Malleable 60 75 90 100
moved. Finishing cuts may therefore often be
Hard
made at a speed 40 to 80 percent higher than the
castings 10 12 15 20
speed used for rough work.
Annealed tool
3. CUTTER MATERIAL. High-speed steel
steel 25 35 40 50
cutters may be operated from 50 to 100 percent
Low carbon
faster than carbon steel cutters, because they
steel 40 50 60 70
have better heat resistant properties than carbon
Brass 75 95 110 150
steel cutters.
Aluminum 460 550 700 900
4. TYPE OF CUTTER TEETH. Cutters which
have undercut teeth cut more freely than cutters
which have a radial face; therefore, cutters with The rate of feed is the rate of speed at which
undercut teeth may be run at higher speeds. the workpiece travels past the cutter. When se¬
5. SHARPNESS OF THE CUTTER. A sharp lecting the feed, consider the following factors:
cutter may be run at a much higher speed than 1. Forces are exerted against the work and
a dull cutter. the cutter, and their holding devices, during the
6. USE OF COOLANT. In most cases, a suf¬ cutting process. The force exerted varies di¬
ficient amount of coolant will prevent overheating rectly with the amount of metal removed and can
of the cutter, even at relatively high speeds. be regulated by the feed and depth of the cut. The
Approximate values listed in table 9-1 may feed and depth of cut are therefore interrelated
be used as a guide when you are selecting cutting and (in turn) are dependent upon the rigidity and
speed. If you find that the machine, the cutter, power of the machine. Machines are limited by
or the work cannot be suitably operated at the the power they can develop to turn the cutter, and
suggested speed, make necessary readjustments. also by the amount of vibration they can with¬
Refer to table 9-2 to determine the cutter stand when coarse feeds and deep cuts are used.
revolutions per minute for cutters varying in 2. Feed and depth of cut also depend upon the
diameter from 1/2 inch to 8 inches. When you type of cutter used. Deep cuts or coarse feeds,
are cutting with a 7.16-inch cutter and a surface for example, should not be attempted with a small
speed of 160 feet per minute is required, for diameter end mill, for this action springs or
example, the cutter revolutions per minute should breaks the cutter. Coarse cutters with strong
be 1,398. cutting teeth can be fed at a relatively high rate,
If you don't have a table to determine cutter because the chips are washed out easily by the
revolutions per minute (RPM), use the one given cutting lubricant.
for the lathe, as follows: 3.Do not use coarse feeds and deep cuts on a
frail piece of work or on work so mounted that
PPM =CFPMZ12 the holding device springs or bends.
4. The desired degree of finish affects the
n XD
amount of feed. When a fast feed is used, metal
CFPM = Required surface feed in feet
is removed rapidly and the finish is not very
per minute. smooth. A slow feedrate and a high cutter speed,
D = Diameter of cutter in inches. however, produce a finer finish. For roughing,
Circumference of cutter equals 3.1416 use a comparatively low speed and a coarse
( n) x D. feed. More mistakes are made by overspeeding
the cutter than by overfeeding the work. Over-
NOTE: Because the cutter revolves and the speeding may be detected by a squeaking, scrap¬
worm is stationary, the DIAMETER in the for¬ ing sound. If chatter occurs in the milling ma¬
mula is for the cutter, NOT the piece of work. chine during the cutting process, reduce the

249
 OPTIC A LM AN 3 & 2

CD CD 00 CO TT CD CD CM 00 CD CM CD 00 rH
in Tf< CO Tf« CM CM rH P- CD rH o 00 O in
o O p~ m CM o co CD in rr CO CM CM rH
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05 CD CO CM 05 00 p- CD CO CO CM CM rH rH rH

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05 H in o r> rH CO in 00 CD in p- 00 P^
CO rH CM CM t> in rH rH CM in o CD
co rH t> o
r— < P- TP CM o 00 l> CD in co co CM CM rH rH rH rH

CM rH rH rH rH

P-
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T“H 00 CM O 05 p- CD in CO co CM CM rH rH rH rH

rH rH H rH

CD
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CM CM rH P~ CD rH O CO 00 O in rH 05 in CM o
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9-2.
Table
Speeds
-Cutter
Revolutions
in
Minute
Per 05

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CD
P-
CO

rH rH
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CD

05
rH
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CD

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a> 0)
Oi a. CO 00 t> CO

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a, O
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ct rH
(1)
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rH CO rH CM in CD O CD CM 00 in CO rH 05 !> CD in TT
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CM 05 CD

rH CM O rH o p- 05 rH O 00 o o in 05 O CM
P*» CD CO CM CO p- TT rH CD CM o 00 CD CD in
00 CD in TJ< tP CO CM CM CM rH rH rH rH

in CO P^ in 00 CM
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CD rH o CO 00 O in rH 05 m CM O 05 p- CD in TT
t> CD m CO CO CM CM rH rH rH rH

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rH 05 co 05 CD in CO in CO CO CM p^ CD rH rH tT 00 O
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CD TT CO CO CM CM rH rH rH rH

CM 05 in CD CM TT
m 00 p- CD 00 CO CO Tt« 05 CD CD CO
co CD
CO CM in O CD rH p- in CO o 00 t> CD in
tT CO CO CM CM rH rH rH rH

00 CO in CO 00 CM t> P^ 05

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CD O CD CM 00 m CO rH 05 p^ CD in CO
CO CO CM CM rH rH rH rH

in CO p- in 00 CM CO CO 05 rH

CM CD in oo rH CO P- 05 in CD CO P-* CO rH p^
00 O in rH 05 in CM O 05 P~ CD in CO CO CM CM rH
CO CO CM CM rH rH rH rH

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0) tT rH 00 rH CM 00 Tf CO CM CM CM
p \ \ \ N \ \ \ \ \
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CO
Q o

250
 Chapter 9-MACHINING OPERATIONS

speed and increase the feed. Excessive cutter Face Milling

clearance, poorly supported work, or a badly
worn machine gear are also common causes of Use end and side milling cutters for face
chatter. milling operations, in accordance with size and
nature of the work and the type and size of cutter
The purpose of a cutting coolant is to reduce required. In face milling (fig. 9-47), the teeth on
frictional heat and extend the life of the cutter's the periphery of the cutter do practically all of
edge. A coolant also lubricates the cutter's face
the cutting. The face teeth actually remove a
and flushes the chips away, thereby reducing the small amount of stock left from the spring of
possibility of damage to the finish. Direct the the work or cutter, thereby producing a finer
coolant to the point where the cutter strikes the finish. Be sure all end play of the spindle is
work, and allow it to flow freely on the work and eliminated and that the cutter is properly placed.
the cutter. When face milling, you may clamp the work
To determine the proper coolant to use for a to the table or an angle plate or hold it in a vise,
particular type of metal, refer to the table on fixture, or jig. Feed the work against the cutter
coolants given previously in this chapter for use in such a way that the pressure of the cut is
on a lathe. These coolants are also used for downward, thereby holding the work against the
milling operations. table.
Use kerosene as a cutting coolant when you When setting the depth of cut on a flat surface
machine aluminum. Machine cast iron dry. the work should be brought up to the cutter so
that a .002-inch feeler gage, held between the
work and the cutter, can just be inserted (or a
MILLING OPERATIONS thin piece of paper will just tear when held be¬
tween the cutter and the work). At this point, the
Milling operations may require shifting of the graduated dial on the transverse feed should be
workpiece, changing the cutter and readjusting locked and used as a guide in determining the
feeds and speeds before the job is finished. Each depth of cut. When starting the cut, move the
change in setup can usually be considered as a
separate job and the methods of cutting and
typical examples of milling jobs described here
provide information that can be applied to almost
any milling operation.
Methods of cutting may be classified under
four general headings:
FACE MILLING— machining flat surfaces at
right angles to the axis of the cutter.
PLAIN OR SLAB MILLING— machining flat
surfaces parallel to the axis of the cutter.
ANGULAR MILLING-machining flat sur¬
faces on an inclination to the axis of the cutter .
FORM MILLING-machining surfaces with
irregular outlines.
Explanatory names such as sawing, slotting,
gear cutting, etc., have been given to special
operations. Routing is the term applied to the
milling of an irregular outline while you are
controlling the work movement by hand. The
grooves in reamers and taps are called flutes.
Gang milling is the term applied to an operation
in which two or more cutters are used together
on one arbor. Straddle milling is the term given
to an operation in which two or more milling
28.214X
cutters are used to mill two or more sides of
a piece of work at the same time. Figure 9-47. —Face milling.

251
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

work so that the cutter is nearly in contact with coarse teeth (to withstand heavy cutting pres¬
the edge of the work; now the automatic feed may sures) and large helix angles, up to 45 degrees
be engaged. If a cut is started by hand, avoid (to maintain continuous tooth contact and an even
pushing the corner of the work between the cutter cutting pressure) are generally used in slab
teeth too quickly as this may cause the cutter milling. Note in figure 9-48 that the cutter is
tooth to break. The feed trips (if automatic feed mounted on an arbor of large diameter and that
is used) should be adjusted to stop the table the distance between the yoke and column is just
travel just as the cutter clears the work. This enough to permit the workpiece to clear as it
will avoid idle time during the milling operation. passes. Notice also that an overarm-support
Automatic feed trips protrude from the front bracket provides additional support for the cutter
side of the table and can be adjusted so that the setup.
table will advance the work to the milling cutter
at a fast rate. Then, as the cut is taken, the feed Angular Milling
is at a slower (predetermined) rate. At the end
of the cut, the feed lever is again automatically Angular milling is the milling of surfaces at
tripped and the table returns to the start at a an angle (other than horizontal or vertical) to the
fast rate and trips to stop TABLE FEED at the reference or base surface. Angular milling may
END of the cut only. be performed with formed angular cutters (such
as dovetail cutters) by mounting the workpiece
Plain and Slab Milling at an angle to the cutting surface of the cutter,
or by setting the cutter at an angle to the base
Plain or slab milling is the term generally surface of the workpiece, as when using the
used to describe the removal of stock from an universal milling attachment.
uninterrupted horizontal surface as shown in
figure 9-48. As slabbing or plain milling usually MANUFACTURING INSTRUMENT GEARS
removes a great amount of stock in a short time,
it is essential that maximum rigidity of the You will generally be able to get necessary
workpiece and cutter be provided. Cutters with replacement parts for optical instruments
through normal supply channels. On occasions,
however, this may not be true and you will be
compelled to manufacture spur gears and/or
other parts. You learned gear nomenclature in
chapter 7 of the manual, and the following dis¬
cussion of gear manufacture, utilization of spur
gear formulas, plus some good experience, will
enable you to make a spur gear which will per¬
form satisfactorily in an optical instrument.
The two most important things pertaining
to the manufacture of a gear are: (1) calculating
gear dimensions, and (2) selecting the proper
cutter for machining the gear teeth. Review
the discussion of gear nomenclature in chapter
7 and then study the following procedure for
making a gear.
Gear calculations and measurements were
greatly simplified by perfection of the diametral
pitch system, which is based on the diameter of
the pitch circle— not the circumference. The
circumference of a circle is 3.1416 times its
diameter, and you must always consider this
constant when you calculate measurements based
on the pitch circumference; and in order to
simplify computations, this constant (3.1416 x
28.215X diameter) has been BUILT IN, or made a part
Figure 9-48.— Slab milling. of, the diametral pitch system.

252
23
45
67
8 When you use the diametral
you need not calculate
pitch— indexing
accurately space
cutter associated
devices
circular
based
the teeth,
Chapter

pitch system,
pitch or chordal
on the system
and the formed
with the indexing device forms
the teeth within required accuracy. Calculations
9-MACHINING

1
... 55
.
to
13
35
54
26
to
34
21
25
17
to
2
14
1
12
to
OPERATIONS

Number of Cutter Range of teeth

135 to a rack

of teeth depth, center distances, and all other

calculations, have been simplified by the diam¬
etral pitch system.
Usually the outside diameter (D0) of a gear
and the number of teeth (N) are listed on the Since the gear in this example must have 24
blueprint for a gear. By using these factors, teeth, you need a number 5 cutter, which cuts
and appropriate gear formulas, you can calculate gears which have from 21 to 25 teeth. Most
the data you need for making a gear. cutters are stamped by number, diametral pitch,
range, and depth.
Suppose, for example, that you must make a After you cut the teeth on your gear, check
gear with 24 teeth and a diameter of 3. 250 inches. your dimensional accuracy with a vernier cali¬
The procedure for doing this is: per. Find first the arc tooth thickness and the
1. Find the pitch diameter with this formula: addendum by using the following formulas, re¬
spectively:

t = = 0.1964 inch, in your example

When you make proper substitutions in this a = = 0.125 inch

formula and solve for D, you get:

Then adjust the vertical scale of the caliper to

^ 24 x 3.250 78 the chordal addendum, the formula for calculat¬
U ~ 24 + 2 = 3.000 inches
26
ing which is:

2. Find the diametral pitch (P) by solving ±L (0.1964)2

or a 0.125
(with proper substitutions) the following formula: a + 4D c 4x3

P = P
24
= 8
0.125
+°i5|86 q.128
inch
= 3
MILLING MACHINE PRECAUTIONS
3. Make proper substitutions in the following
formula and solve for H to get the whole depth of A milling machine operator's first consider¬
the tooth: ation should be for his own safety, and he should
attempt nothing that may endanger his life and
limb. CARELESSNESS and IGNORANCE are the
H = 2^ ^ or H = ^157 = 0>2696inch two great menaces to personal safety. Milling
machines are not playthings and must be ac¬
corded the respect due any machine tool. For
After you compute the diametral pitch for your own safety, observe the following precau¬
your gear, select the proper gear cutter to cut
tions:
24 teeth on it. 1. Never attempt to operate a machine un¬
Formed gear cutters are made with eight (8) less you are sure you thoroughly understand it.
different forms (numbered from 1 to 8) for each 2. Do not throw an operating lever without
diametral pitch, in accordance with the number knowing in advance the outcome.
3. Do not play with control levers, or idly
of teeth for which the cutter is to be used. The
accompanying chart indicates the range of teeth turn the handles of a milling machine, even though

for various cutters. it is not running.

253
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

8. 4. Never lean against or rest your hands Above all, you must keep clear of the
upon a moving table. If it is necessary to touch a cutters. Do not touch a cutter, even when it is
moving part, be certain you know in advance the stationary, unless there is a good reason for
direction in which it is moving. doing so; and if you must touch it, be very care¬
5. Do not take a cut without making sure that ful.
the work is secure in the vise or fixture, and that If you follow certain safety practices, opera¬
the holding member is rigidly fastened to the tion of a milling machine is not dangerous. There
machine table. is always danger, however, of getting caught in
6. Always remove chips with abrush or other the cutter. CAUTION: Never attempt to remove
suitable agent— never with the fingers or hands. chips with the fingers at the point of contact of
7. Before you attempt to operate any milling the cutter with the work. There is some danger
machine, study its controls thoroughly so that if to the eyes from flying chips and you must al¬
an emergency arises during operation you can ways protect your eyes with goggles and keep
stop it immediately. them out of line of the cutting action.

254
 CHAPTER 10

SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

Up to this point in this training manual you other. When you must replace one of the prisms
have studied: theory of light, reflection and (or both), check your 7 x 50 binocular prisms
refraction, lenses, mirrors, prisms, image in stock, some of which are the same as the
formation, basic optical instruments (including Porro prisms used in the Mk 1, Mod O, telescope.
construction), and maintenance procedures for The color filter mount (fig. 10-2) usually
optical instruments. The following chapters contains three disks (light smoke, dark smoke,
therefore deal with details of construction and and clear glass). The smoke filters help to
operation of some optical instruments on which REDUCE GLARE FROM THE WATER. The
you will perform maintenance. This chapter is clear glass disk does not affect image brightness,
concerned with ship telescopes and spyglasses and it is included in the color filter mount to
(quartermaster and OOD). Subsequent chapters obviate refocusing of the eyepiece when you turn
deal with other optical instruments. one of the smoke filters into your line of sight.
You can select the filter desired by turning the
ray filter knob under the eyepiece, and aspring-
SHIP TELESCOPE loaded ball detent beneath the mount (fig. 10-2)
holds the filter in position.
A ship telescope (fig. 10-1) is mounted on or A Mk 1, Mod O, ship telescope is sometimes
near the ship’s bridge— usually the signal referred to as a change-of-power telescope,
bridge— where an observer has the best view because it has four interchangeable eyepieces
(in all directions). This instrument is too which give powers of 13x, 21x, 25x, and 32x.
bulky for a person to hold in his hands, so it is The 21x eyepiece is orthoscopic; the others are
mounted in a yoke which permits 360° of hori¬ Kellner eyepieces. The cells of these eyepieces
zontal rotation. See figure 10-1. The signalman are so constructed that their front focal planes
uses a ship telescope to read flag and light coincide with the real image formed by the
signals, to determine the location of bearing objective when you screw them into the eyepiece
sightings (lighthouses, etc.), and to identify tube. This telescope is a moisture-tight instru¬
ships and other objects at great distances. ment and is like an astronomical telescope,
The optical system of a Mk 1, Mod O, ship except that it has a Porro prism cluster to
telescope consists of an achromatic doublet erect the image produced by the objective.
(uncemented), a pair of Porro prisms (for
PREDISASSEMBLY INSPECTION
erecting images), and an eyepiece. The elements
of the doublet are separated by three small
tinfoil shims (0.1 inch or 0.002 inch in thickness) When you receive an optical instrument in
equally spaced around the edge of the lens. This the shop for repair and/or overhaul, check the
system of spacing the elements in a large objec- job order for difficulties listed; then prepare
ive is called THREE-POINT SUSPENSION, and (initially) a casualty analysis sheet for the in¬
it is used because deterioration of balsam strument and continue with the following pre¬
cement is so great for large lenses that its use disassembly inspection:
1. Inspect the general appearance and
is impractical.
Observe in illustration 10-2 the position of the housing.
objective lens and the Porro prism assembly, 2. Check the cleanliness and physical con¬
whose prisms have their hypotenuse surfaces dition of optical parts and record your findings
parallel and are mounted exactly 90 to each and pertinent information pertaining thereto

255
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

37. 2
A. Sunshade assembly. E. Filter shaft knob.
B. Sighting vane. F. Grip handle.
C. Diopter scale. G. Eyepiece cover.
D. Eyepiece assembly. H. Yoke assembly.
Figure 10-1. -Mark 1 Mod 0, ship telescope.

on your casualty analysis sheet. Test the eye¬ telescope on its yoke assembly and check the
pieces separately. Rotate the filter shaft knob action. It should balance and have freedom of
and check for freedom of movement and action. movement 360° in rotation and 90° above to 25°
The filters should snap into place and not inter¬ below the horizontal, and also vertical rotation.
fere with the field of view, and the clear filter Check the eyepiece case for broken or defective
should be invisible. parts, and the canvas cover for serviceability.
3. Inspect the mechanical components, in¬ 4. Check the action of the eyepiece focusing
cluding the yoke assembly and the carrying case, ring for smoothness of action. It should turn
for appearance and condition of finish. Put the with smooth, even motion over the full diopter

256
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

scale range. Ease of this action indicates the scale setting is incorrect and must be adjusted.
condition of the lubricant in the focusing thread; When the readings are not within 1/2 diopter of
and it may also indicate whether the eyepiece each other, the eyepieces are not parfocalized
tube and/or eyepiece adapter is eccentric, and they and the diopter scale setting must be
causing them to bind during focusing of the adjusted.
eyepiece. When you complete the predisassembly in¬
5. Mount the telescope on a collimator and spection, review all notations you made on the
test the diopter scale reading and parfocalization casualty analysis sheet for the instrument and
of the eyepieces. Assemble one of the eyepieces. then make your recommendations concerning
Then adjust an auxiliary telescope to your eye disposition; that is, whether it is feasibly
and sight through the ship telescope at the economical to overhaul and repair the instrument
collimator target. Adjust the ship telescope or whether it should be salvaged or disposed of
focusing ring to get a sharp image and record otherwise. Submit your findings and recom¬
the diopter reading and power of the eyepiece. mendations to the shop supervisor, who will
Repeat this operation for the other eyepiece make the final decision relative to action to be
assemblies. taken on the instrument.
If all four eyepieces give readings within ±
1/4 of zero diopters, as indicated by the diopter DISASSEMBLY
scale of the ship telescope, the eyepieces are
PARFOCALIZED AND THE DIOPTER SETTING If the shop supervisor decides that the ship
IS CORRECT. If the eyepieces give readings telescope should be overhauled and repaired,
within 1/2 diopter of each other, they are also perform only the amount of disassembly required
parfocalized; but the readings may be about to do the work. Follow your notations made
some common reference other than zero (one during predisassembly, and also the recom¬
diopter, for example), in which case the diopter mendations of your supervisor.

257
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Before you start to disassemble the tele¬ The procedure for disassembling a Mk 1,
scope, make certain your work space is clean Mod O, ship telescope is given by steps for
and all tools are in readiness. Then follow assemblies and subassemblies.
these general instructions:
1. Study the disassembly instructions listed
by the manufacturer of the instrument. Eyepiece Cover Assembly and Objective Cap
2. Do not damage parts by forcing them.
3. Work carefully, and as slowly as neces¬ To disassemble the eyepiece cover assembly
sary. and objective cap, do the following:
4. Put disassembled parts, by assembly, in 1. Put the telescope on a V-block stand, as
parts trays. illustrated in figure 10-3, and remove the chain
5. Mark or tag matched parts with the serial retaining screw from the face of the prism box,
number of the instrument. Many parts are not filter, and eyepiece focusing assembly.
interchangeable. 2. Unscrew the eyepiece cover assembly
6. For information pertaining to disas¬ from the eyepiece cover adapter (fig. 10-4) and
sembly of frozen parts, review the discussion unscrew the objective cap from the end of the
of the subject in chapter 8. sunshade.

EYEPIECE COVER ASSEMBLY

TELESCOPE "V"
BLOCK STAND CHAIN RETAINING SCREW

37.2
Figure 10-3. -First step in the disassembly of a Mk 1, Mod 0, ship telescope.

258
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

% OBJECTIVE CAP 13X EYEPIECE

ASSEMBLY n

25X EYEPIECE
ASSEMBLY

32X EYEPIECE
ASSEMBLY

EYEPIECE COVER ASSEMBLY -

37.2
Figure 10-4. Parts and assemblies a Mk 1, Mod 0, ship telescope.

259
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

Eyepiece Assemblies and Sighting Vanes The steps to follow for removing a mounted
eyepiece assembly and the sighting vane are:
One eyepiece assembly is mounted in the 1. Unscrew the mounted eyepiece assembly
eyepiece tube of the telescope, and the other from the eyepiece tube. See illustration 10-4.
three are kept in the eyepiece case. If the 2. With asighting vane pin wrench (fig. 10-5),
eyepiece case is not available in the repair loosen and unscrew the two sighting vanes from
shop, mark the serial number of the telescope the top of the telescope assembly (fig. 10-4).
on each eyepiece assembly and keep all assem¬ NOTE: The sighting vanes are also set
blies together. They are optically matched to screws. The front one secures the objective
each other and their particular ship telescope. assembly and the rear one secures the prism

RING WRENCH

ADJUSTABLE STRAP ADJUSTABLE FLAT

WRENCH WRENCH RING WRENCH RING WRENCH
(13X AND 2 IX) (25XAND32X)

PRISM CLUSTER EYEPIECE ADAPTER

ADJUSTABLE PIN
FIXTURE WRENCH
WRENCH

137.209
Figure 10-5.— Ship telescope special service tools.

260
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

box, and you cannot remove these assemblies 1. Remove the prism box ring lock screw
until you remove the sighting vanes. from the prism box lock ring (fig. 10-4).
2. With a prism box lock ring wrench (fig.
Prism Box, Filter and Eyepiece Focusing 10-5), loosen the prism box lock ring by turning
Assembly it one-half to one revolution. Study figure 10-6.
3. With your hand (fig. 10-7), unscrew and
The procedure for removing the prism box, remove the prism box and the filter and eye¬
filter and eyepiece focusing assembly follows: piece focusing assembly from the telescope

LENS SUCTION
OBJECTIVE LENS
HOLDER ADAPTER
RADIUS GAGE

TELESCOPE CLAMPING YOKE, FILTER RETAINING

RING WRENCH STAKING BLOCK
WITH SPLIT PLUG AND WEDGE

Figure 10-5. -Ship telescope special service tools -continued.

261
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

PRISM BOX LOCK

RING WRENCH

137.210 137.211
Figure 10-6.— Removing the prism Figure 10-7.— Removing the prism box and the
box lock ring. filter and eyepiece focusing assembly.

tube. NOTE: You may have to heat these as¬ bench vise, or have an assistant hold the instru¬
semblies first to soften the sealing compound. ment with body pipe handles (part B, fig. 10-9)
while you remove the assembly.
If the prism box is frozen or corroded to the
telescope body, do the following: Secure the
telescope in a telescope clamping yoke (fig. 10-8) Objective Assembly
in a bench vise, as illustrated, and use an ad¬
justable strap wrench to remove the prism box. You can remove the objective assembly from
NOTE: Insert the split plug and wedge part of the telescope by loosening the objective mount
the yoke inside the body of the telescope to pre¬ lock ring (up to one revolution) with an obj ective
vent crushing. lock ring wrench, shown in figure 10-10, and
unscrewing the objective assembly from the
Sunshade Assembly telescope tube.
NOTE: If the objective assembly is stuck,
use an objective mount lock ring, bench vise,
To remove the sunshade assembly, remove and body pipe handles to remove it; but put the
the sunshade lock screw and unscrew the sun¬ yoke on the objective assembly (not on the sun¬
shade assembly from the objective mount (part shade) and do not use a split plug (fig. 10-5).
A, fig. 10-9). If the assembly is frozen, use an Always use an assistant to hold the instrument
adjustable strap wrench to remove it; and if with body pipe handles when you do not have a
necessary, use a telescope clamping yoke and telescope clamping yoke.

262
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

ADJUSTABLE
STRAP
WRENCH

BENCH VISE

TELESCOPE
CLAMPING YOKE
137.212
Figure 10-8.— Removing the prism box with an
adjustable strap wrench.

Always remove the sunshade assembly before

you attempt to remove the objective assembly.
Before you disassemble the objective assembly
clean your hands, your tools, and your work¬
bench. Use lens tissue or a clean cloth to pro¬
tect a lens from damage.
CAUTION: Use care to prevent scratches
on lenses. Place the open side of the objective
assembly on your workbench, because the outer
convex objective lens bulges out of the front side
of the mount and would be scratched if you put
this side on the workbench.
Unscrew the objective mount lock ring and
137.213
remove the objective retaining ring lock screw
from the inner rim of the ring (fig. 10-11). A. Procedure for holding body
As you know, the two lenses in an objective pipe handles.
lens assembly are placed in the position neces¬ B. Removing the sunshade with
sary to give the best image fidelity, and their an adjustable strap wrench.
position relative to the objective mount must Figure 10-9. —Removing the sunshade.

263
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

TELESCOPE TUBE assembly on the workbench. Study illustration

10-14.
OBJECTIVE LOCK
RING WRENCH
Next, cover the surface of the objective lens
with lens tissue and press down on the lens as
you lift the objective mount slightly to break the
sealing compound (fig. 10-14), but do not lift the
objective mount off the lens.
OBJECTIVE
ASSEMBLY
Lift the objective mount straight up to show
the edge of the objective lens assembly and mark
the edges of the lenses (fig. 10-12) to correspond
to the sighting vane hole in the objective mount.
Then remove the objective mount and wrap the
objective lens assembly in tissue to protect it
from damage.

-BICONVEX A
OBJECTIVE LENS
-OBJECTIVE LENS
ASSEMBLY
- CONC AVO -CONVEX
OBJECTIVE LENSy
OBJECTIVE SUNSHINE
OBJECTIVE
LOCK RING ASSEMBLY
RETAINER RING
137.214 LOCK SCREW
Figure 10-10.— Removing the objective
lock ring. OBJECTIVE LENS
RETAINER RING

OBJECTIVE
SPRING RING
therefore be maintained. The manufacturer of
lenses generally puts guide marks on lenses for
use during assembly and disassembly; but if
OBJECTIVE LENS
they are not present, use the sighting vane hole
SPACER
in the lens mount as a guide and put a mark on
each lens as you disassemble it. See illustration
10-12. It is a good ideatomake these marks on
the objective lenses as you disassemble them OBJECTIVE
and then look for the manufacturer’s marks. MOUNT
CAUTION: The inner objective lens will be
loose when you remove the lens retaining ring;
so do not turn the objective mount over until
you lift out the objective ring spring.
With an adjustable flat wrench (fig. 10-13),
OBJECTIVE MOUNT
unscrew the objective lens retaining ring and
LOCK RING
lift out the objective spring ring (fig. 10-11).
Now place the top side of an objective lens
holder (fig. 10-5) down against the inner objec¬
tive lens of the assembly (in your hand). Then
turn the objective assembly over, keeping the 137.215
lens supported with the lens holder, and set the Figure 10-11. —The objective assembly.

264
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

137.217
137.216
Figure 10-13.— Unscrewing the objective lens
Figure 10-12. —Placing guide marks on the edges
retaining ring.
of the elements of the objective lens.

Telescope Tube Body CAUTION: Observe the rules given in chapter

8 for handling glass optics when you disassemble
When you disassemble the telescope tube
an eyepiece assembly. After you disassemble
body, do not remove the name plate or the grip
lenses, wrap them in lens tissue and put them
handle, unless instructed to do so. This handle
in a parts tray in a safe location.
is secured with six screws and should be removed
first. Then remove the cradle clamp screws 1. Remove the eyeguard retainer screw
and slide the telescope cradle off the tube (fig. 10-15) and take the eyeguard and its re¬
(fig. 10-4). tainer off the eyeguard ring.
NOTE: Do not remove the cradle from the 2. Hold the eyepiece assembly with the eye-
telescope tube unless there is a stipulated re¬ lens end down and unscrew the eyepiece retaining
quirement for repairs to or replacement of ring. If the ring is stuck, use an eyepiece re¬
cradle parts. taining ring wrench (fig. 10-16). Observe in
illustration 10-15 that the collective lens is
Eyepiece Assemblies loose, so do NOT TURN the eyepiece upside
down and permit it to fall out. Mark an arrow
The disassembly procedure for all four eye¬
on the edge of the collective lens to indicate
piece assemblies (13x, 21x, 25x, and 32x) is
which side faces into the eyepiece lens mount,
essentially the same. The procedure which
to ensure correct mounting.
follows is for the 13x assembly (Kellner eye¬
piece), with an explanation of differences in NOTE: See illustration 10-5 for the tool to
procedure for the other assemblies. use on 25x and 32x eyepiece retainer rings.

265
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

3. Slide the collective leps and the eyelens

spacer on a piece of lens tissue.

NOTE: The collective lens in a 21x assembly

is a cemented triplet, and the eyelens is a
single element; the other three eyepiece as¬
semblies (13x, 14x, and 32x) have single collec¬
tive lenses and cemented doublet eyelenses.

The four eyepiece assemblies on each ship

telescope are parfocalized and are not inter¬
changeable.
4. Put a piece of clean lens tissue under the
eyepiece lens mount on your workbench, and then
use another piece of lens tissue under your
thumb as you press down on the doublet eyelens
to break it loose from its sealing compound.
See illustration 10-17. The bottom piece of lens
tissue will prevent damage to the eyelens when
it falls out.
ASSEMBLY
(Biconvex Lens)
5. Separate the eyeguard ring and the eye¬
piece lens mount by driving two or more wedges
137.218 between the flanges between the eyeguard ring
Figure 10-14.— Breaking the sealing compound and the mount. Then remove the eyeguard snap
from the objective lens and its mount. ring (fig. 10-15) from the eyeguard ring and put
it in the parts tray.

EYEPIECE LENS MOUNT,

EYEGUARD RETAINER
SCREW

137.219
Figure 10-15.— Eyepiece assembly (13X).

266
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

137.220 137.221
Figure 10-16.— Unscrewing the eyepiece Figure 10-17. —Pressing the 13x doublet eyelens
retaining ring. loose from its sealing compound.

Eyepiece, Filter, and Prism from the filter mount assembly. Study illustra¬
Box Subassemblies tion 10-20. NOTE: Do NOT forget the order
in which the filters are placed in the filter
The procedure for disassembling the eye¬ assembly.
piece, filter, and prism box subassemblies is as 4. Remove the filters. They are loose in
follows: the filter mount and should come out when you
1. Put the prism box assembly on a prism push on them with a few fingers (wrapped with
box support (fig. 10-5), remove the two filter lens tissue to prevent acid from getting on the
shaft nuts (5/16-inch, open-end wrench), and filters). If the filters do not come out easily,
lift off the filter mount assembly and the mount check for shellac on the filter retaining rings.
washer. Study illustrations 10-18 and 10-19 If shellac is present, dissolve it with alcohol or
carefully, the last of which gives a top view of acetone.
the assembly. 5. To disassemble the filter diaphragm and
NOTE: The ball detent and detent spring bearing assembly, remove the screws and lift
button will be pushed, and will fly out when you the assembly away from the prism box. Then
lift the filter mount off, so hold a piece of flat remove the filter shaft spacer from the filter
stock over it to prevent loss, as shown in figure shaft.
10-19. 6. Disassemble the filter shaft bearing from
2. Now remove the detent ball and spring the filter diaphragm. See illustrations 10-18
button and the detent spring from the hole in and 10-21.
the prism box (fig. 10-18). 7. Pull on the knob (fig. 10-22) to slide the
3. With a filter retaining ring wrench (fig. filter shaft and knob assembly out. Then remove
10-5), remove the three filter retaining rings the filter shaft packing housing and the filter

267
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

FILTER SHAFT NUTS FILTER RETAINER RINGS

FILTERS

FILTER MOUNT

TAPER PIN

137. 222
Figure 10-18. -Prism box, filter and eyepiece focusing assembly.

268
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

retaining rings.

10. Remove the prism cluster by pulling

straight out (fig. 10-24) and set it on a prism
cluster fixture, with its top prism up. Study
figures 10-24 and 10-25.
137.223 NOTE: The prism cluster fits on the prism
Figure 10-19.— Removing the filter cluster fixture with its prism or side uppermost,
mount assembly. as determined by the position of the movable
pin on the fixture. Observe in the circled
portion of illustration 10-25 that the holes in the
prism cluster fixture are coded T (top) and B
shaft packing from the top of the prism box (bottom). When you assemble the prism cluster
(fig. 10-18). in the telescope, the prism nearest the eyepiece
8. If the filter shaft (or filter shaft knob) is the TOP prism.
requires repairs or replacement, use a drift pin CAUTION: The two prisms are matched in
and mallet to knock out the taper pin which the positions they occupy on the prism plate, so
secures the knob to the shaft. put guide marks on them for use during reas¬
9. To disassemble the prism cluster plate sembly. Study illustration 10-25. Mark the
from the prism box, remove the 3 screws which prisms on the FROSTED SURFACE (T for top
secure the plate. CAUTION: Do NOT scratch and B for bottom) and on the end over the com¬
the prisms. See illustration 10-23. NOTE: mon hole in the prism plate; that is, the one
The prism cluster plate is aligned with dowel over which both prisms are placed. Keep the
pins to the prism box. two prisms with their plate after disassembly.

269
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

11. Remove the two prism clip screws and 12. Lift the prism plate off the prism cluster
lift off the prism clip and prism clip pad (fig. fixture, set the movable pin to the B position, and
10-23). Then cover the Porro prism with tissue, place the prism plate back on the fixture, with
lift it off the plate, wrap it in lens tissue, and the assembled bottom prism on top (fig. 10-25).
place it in the parts tray. 13. Repeat steps 10, 11, and 12 to remove
the bottom prism, and mark it with the letter B
(bottom).

PRISM BOX PRISM PLATE

SCREW

PRISM
CLUSTER
FILTER
SHAFT
PRISM BOX
SUPPORT

FILTER BEARING
SCREWS

FILTER DIAPHRAGM
and BEARING ASSEMBLY -^SCREWDRIVER
137.225
Figure 10-21.— Disassembling the filter shaft
bearing from the filter diaphragm.

PRISM BOX

PACKING HOUSING
SCREWS

FILTER SHAFT
and FILTER SHAFT
KNOB ASSEMBLY PACKING HOUSING

137.226
Figure 10-22. —Filter shaft and knob assembly.

270
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

16. Remove the eyepiece stop ring screw

from the eyepiece tube stop ring (fig. 10-27);
and with an adjustable pin wrench, remove the
eyepiece tube stop ring from the end of the eye¬
piece tube. See illustration 10-29.
17. Turn the eyepiece tube in the eyepiece
adapter to bring the bottoms of both parts even
and scribe a corresponding mark across their
edges, as shown in figure 10-30. Then unscrew
the eyepiece tube from the eyepiece adapter.
18. To disassemble the prism box, remove
the three eyepiece cover adapter screws and
take the cover off the box. See illustration 10-27.
Then unscrew and remove the prism box lock
ring.
NOTE: Do NOT remove the two adapter
dowel pins from the eyepiece cover adapter;
except for replacement of parts, this is unneces¬
sary.

from the prism box.

14. Turn the knurled focusing ring all the

way out (fig. 10-26), and scribe a line across
the neck of the prism box and the eyepiece
adapter as a guide for use during reassembly.
15. Remove the eyepiece adapter setscrew
and unscrew the eyepiece focusing assembly
from the prism box (fig. 10-27). If the assembly
is stuck, remove the three focusing ring screws
from the face of the knurled focusing ring,
mark one of the screw holes in it and its match¬
ing hole in the eyepiece tube (for correct reas¬
sembling), and use an eyepiece adapter wrench,
as shown in illustration 10-28.
NOTE: If the knurled focusing ring is not
replaced in the position it occupied at the time
of disassembly, the diopter scale gives false
readings. The eyepiece tube and the eyepiece
adapter are lapped together and fitted with
137.229
multiple-lead threads, are not interchangeable
with replacement parts, and must not be inter¬ Figure 10-25. -Making a mark (T, for top) on
changed with similar assemblies of other tele¬ the side of a prism in the cluster and on the
plate of the prism cluster fixture.
scopes.

271
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

EYEPIECE KNURLED FOCUSING PARTS INSPECTION AND REPAIR

Review in chapter 8 the procedure for in¬

specting and repairing optical and mechanical
parts of optical instruments.
Inspection of parts after disassembly should
include functional defects listed on the job order
and also TROUBLESHOOTING-looking for mal¬
functioning parts. As you find trouble, record
it on the casualty analysis sheet for the instru¬
ment.

Optical Parts

Review illustration 8-1 and the discussion of

various optical defects shown in the illustration.
When you inspect optical parts, do the fol¬
lowing:
1. Check the antireflection coating on the
eyelenses, prisms, and both surfaces of the two
lenses in the objective lens assembly.
137.230 2. Inspect the condition of cement between
Figure 10-26.— Scribing a line across the neck the lenses in the 13x, 25x, and 32x doublet eye-
of the prism box and the eyepiece adapter. lenses, and also the 2 lx triplet collective lens.
Record your recommendations on the casualty
analysis sheet.
When authorized, have recementing of optics
Yoke Assembly performed in accordance with procedures listed
in chapter 8 of this manual; otherwise, replace
There is generally no necessity for removing defective parts. Some optical instruments are
the yoke assembly from a shop telescope; but procured with uncoated optics which must be
if you are required to do this work, proceed as replaced before the instruments are used.
follows: CAUTION: Lenses in an objective lens sys¬
1. Remove the yoke clamp screws (fig. tem are so expensive that you should replace
10-31). them only when there is an absolute necessity.
2. With an arbor press and a suitable tool, Defective lenses which impair image formation
remove the two yoke clamps by pressing out must be replaced.
the yoke clamp pins. Then press out the yoke 3. Check code marks on prisms for correct
cap pins and remove the caps. matching of deviations and prism heights; make
3. Remove the yoke name plate and unscrew replacements when necessary. If you must form
the yoke end cover from the yoke. prism clusters, refer to the Control Manual
(NavShips 250-624-12) for the correct pro¬
Cover Assemblies (Sunshade and Eyepiece) cedure.

You can unscrew the plate from the sunshade Mechanical Parts
with an adjustable pin wrench, as illustrated in
figure 10-32.
Unless parts must be repaired, refinished, Inspection standards for mechanical parts
or replaced, do not disassemble the eyepiece of optical instruments stipulate the amount of
cover assembly. The procedure for disas¬ time authorized for effecting repairs, and they
sembling this assembly is as follows: Remove also authorize repairs and/or replacements of
the chain screw nut inside the eyepiece cover parts in accordance with their conditions. For
and remove the screw, the chain, and the chain further information concerning inspection of
screw washer. mechanical parts, see chapter 8.

272
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

PRISM BOX EYEPIECE ADAPTER EYEPIECE STOP RING

LOCKRING SET SCREW-. SCREW

EYEPIECE TUBE
STOP RING

EYEPIECE ADAPTER

EYEPIECE TUBE

KNURLED
FOCUSING RING

PRISM BOX

EYEPIECE COVER
ADAPTER

ADAPTER SCREW FOCUSING RING SCREW -

137.231
Figure 10-27.— Eyepiece focusing assembly.

Repair Procedure in the instrument, along with the sealing of all

joints, fittings and screws.
The rule to follow concerning repairs is Follow the disassembly procedures in re¬
:his: Repair used parts ONLY when repair of verse order. Review the information on reas¬
hem is economically feasible. When in doubt sembly and ajustment of optical instruments in
ibout the serviceability of a part, check with the chapter 8, and then study the following additional
leading shop petty officer. Review repair pro¬ information and reminders on reassembly:
cedures outlined in chapter 8.
1. When you reassemble the Porro prisms
REASSEMBLY AND INSPECTION
onto the prism plate, check the prism system
Reassembly of a ship telescope is essentially for LEAN and make necessary adjustments, as
the same as disassembly, but in reverse order described in chapter 8. Make certain your re¬
and with a few adjustments to individual sub- assembly guide marks on the prisms are posi¬
assemblies. Reassembly of the subassemblies tioned properly. After reassembly, check the
comes first, followed by their optical and prisms with a polariscope for strain.
mechanical adjustments and their replacement 2. If a polaroid filter is used in place of a
and sealing in the assemblies. Sealing is ac¬ dark smoke filter, there is only one position
complished as the subassemblies are replaced in which to reassemble it in the filter mount.

273
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

EYEPIECE TUBE % EYEPIECE ADAPTER

EYEPIECE ADAPTER
WRENCH

137.232
Figure 10-28.— Removing the eyepiece focusing
assembly with an eyepiece adapter wrench.
Figure 10-29. —Removing the eyepiece tube
The polaroid filter has two scratch marks on stop ring.
one of the polished surfaces near the edge.
These marks indicate the axis of transmission
and MUST BE IN THE VERTICAL POSITION
during normal use; that is, when the observer
is looking through the completely assembled
instrument the marks must be in the vertical
PRISM POX
plane to reduce the glare a maximum amount
(glare from water reflection, etc.). Check the
filter mount where the polaroid filter is in¬ EYEPIECE TUBE
STOP RING
serted in its mount for two guide marks which
may be on the mount to indicate the filter’s
position. Reassembly
Guide Mark
3. In the objective lens assembly, positive
and negative lenses are replaceable individually;
but they must be positioned correctly in relation ' EYEPIECE TUBE
SCRIBER

to each other in order to have them function

properly. The positive and negative elements
fit together ONLY ONE WAY; that is, only one
side of the positive lens fits properly against EYEPIECE ADAPTER

the concave side of the negative lens, and you 137.234

can determine which side this is with a Geneva Figure 10-30.— Scribing reassembly guide marks
lens measure (chapter 8). on the eyepiece tube and the eyepiece adapter.

274
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

one side of the positive lens against the concave

side of the negative lens and check for fit. If
you have the correct sides together, the matching
surfaces of the two lenses will fit so closely
together that they create a suction which makes
their removal from each other difficult. If the
incorrect side of the positive lens is against
the negative lens, there will be no suction. As
a safety precaution, try both sides of the positive
lens for fit.
You can also tell which side of the positive
lens will match the negative lens correctly by
placing a drop or two of water on the concave
ADJUSTABLE

SUNSHADE
137.236
137.235 Figure 10-32. —Unscrewing the plate from the
Figure 10-31.— Yoke assembly. sunshade with an adjustable pin wrench.

surface of the negative lens. When the correct

Place the Geneva lens measure (fig. 10-33) side of the positive lens is against the negative
against the concave surface of the negative lens lens, the water spreads evenly over the surfaces
and note the minus reading. One side of the of the two lenses, making it almost impossible
positive lens must have that same reading but to remove the positive lens from the negative
of the opposite sign (plus). This side of the lens by lifting straight up. They must be slidden
positive lens must fit against the concave side apart.
of the negative lens. When you are sure of the side of the positive
If you do not have a Geneva lens measure, lens which should fit against the negative lens,
pick off the three tin foil shims (spacers) on place the positive lens on a clean cloth or lens
the concave side of the negative lens and place tissue and then replace the tin foil shims on the

275
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

negative lens by aligning them in the following objective lens assembly must be retested for
manner: image fidelity. To give the objective lens as¬
1. Pick up the negative lens of the objective sembly an image fidelity test, insert the two
lens by its edges and place its convex surface lens elements into the objective lens test fix¬
on the objective spring ring, on the three lugs, ture and sight a resolution chart (chapter 8)
and mark on the frosted edges of the negative 75 feet away. See illustration 10-36. Rotate
lens where the lugs touch the lens (fig. 10-34). one lens against the other; and at the position
2. Now pick up the negative lens and place which gives the clearest and sharpest image
it on the objective lens holder, convex side of the lines on the chart, make a mark across
down (fig. 10-35), and cement with collodion the frosted edges of both lenses. Then remove
three pieces of tin foil or aluminum foil, 1/16 the two lenses from the test fixture and insert
POSITIVE CONCAVO-CONVEX them in the objective lens mount, positive lens
OBJECTIVE LENS OBJ ECTIVE LENS - first, against the sealing compound and mount
(Concave side uppermost) shoulder, with the aid of the lens holder.
Replace the reassembled objective lens
OBJECTIVE
mount and objective mount lock ring in the tele¬
MOUNT
scope body and realign the sighting vane hole
in the objective mount with the sighting vane
hole in the telescope body. A little lubrication
on the objective lens mount and telescope body
threads will help prevent the two from freez¬
ing.
Eyepiece Assemblies
No special procedure is required for re¬
assembling eyepiece assemblies. Reassemble
them in reverse order to disassembly.

OBJECTIVE LENS
SPACER

OBJECTIVE LENS
HOLDER
GENEVA LENS (Covered with tissue)
MEASURE
137.237
Figure 10-33. —Taking a reading of the curvature
of an objective lens with a Geneva lens measure.

inch by 3/16 inch (.001 or .002 inch thick) to the

concave side of the negative lens near the edge
and where the three marks are located. All
three pieces of foil MUST BE of the same
hickness, preferably .001 inch.
3. Place the fitted side of the positive lens
against the concave side of the negative lens
(both lenses immaculately clean).
4. Place a string of sealing compound on the
inside shoulder of the clean objective lens mount
and align the guide markings on the two lens
elements with the sighting vane hole and insert
the objective lens assembly into the objective
lens mount. Make certain that these guide marks
are aligned and do not shift during insertion. 137.238
If, however, a new lens element was re¬ Figure 10-34. — Putting tin foil lens spacer marks
placed during overhaul of the instrument, the on the edge of an objective lens.

276
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

3. Inspect the mechanical action of the eye¬

pieces, the filter shaft, the detent filter plate,
and the yoke assembly for freedom of movement.
COLLIMATION PROCEDURE

The primary purpose of collimating a Mk

1, Mod 0, ship telescope is to ensure the ac¬
curacy of the diopter scale reading and to make
it constant for all four eyepieces. Alignment
of the mechanical sighting vanes with the optical
axis must also be checked.
During collimation, you must test and ad¬
just the eyepieces as necessary to make all
four of them give a focused image for a fixed
diopter setting. Each one must have the same
distance between its mounting shoulder and its
focal plane, which is represented by A in il¬
lustration 10-37. In other words, the diopter
reading for sharpest focus will not change when
the four eyepieces are interchanged. The eye¬
OBJECTIVE LENS HOLDER pieces are said to be PARFOCALIZED when
(Covered with tissue) they are adjusted in this manner. Each eye¬
137.239 piece must indicate a diopter reading of 0
Figure 10-35.— Cementing tin or aluminum foil diopters, plus or minus one quarter, when the
to the concave surface of a convex objective telescope is focused on a distant object.
lens. Test equipment required for collimating a
ship telescope consists of an auxiliary tele¬
scope and a ship telescope collimator. Study
INSPECTION AND COLLIMATION figure 10-38.
After you completely reassemble a ships
telescope, you must then give it a thorough OBJECTIVE LENS OBJECTIVE LENS
pre-collimation inspection, collimate it as nec¬
essary, and make a final shop inspection. Some
collimation procedures were discussed in chap¬
ter 8; but unusual collimation standards require
special consideration of collimation of a ships
telescope in this chapter.

PRE-COLLIMATION INSPECTION

The things you should inspect before you

collimate a ships telescope are as follows:
1. Check the optical elements for clean¬
liness, and recheck them for condition in the
manner outlined in chapter 8.
2. Sight the telescope on a distant object
and observe the clarity of the field of view.
If it is sharply defined in the telescope near
its center but badly distorted near its edges,
the indication is that a lens is in place back¬
ward, usually the positive element of the ob¬
jective lens assembly, or the collective lens Figure 10-36.— Sighting a resolution chart with
of the eyepiece. an objective lens testing fixture.

277
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

MOUNTING SHOULDER Testing Diopter Readings

(Remove material from and Parfocalization

The recommended procedure for testing

diopter readings and parfocalization for a ship
telescope, Mark 1, Mod 0, follows:
1. Sight a distant object to set the auxiliary
telescope to your eye (left or right) require¬
ment. Adjust it carefully, so that you have the
sharpest focus of the image and the crossline;
then, throughout the tests, do not disturb this
setting, and always use the same eye for mak¬
ing the tests.
2. Mount the ship telescope on the support
of the collimator (fig. 10-38).
3. Assemble one of the eyepiece and set the
auxiliary telescope against the eye lens mount.
Sight through the instrument at the crossline
EYEPIECE ASSEMBLY-1 Focal Plane target in the collimator and line up the cross-
137.241
line in the auxiliary telescope, by shifting the
ship telescope. To get the sharpest image of
Figure 10-37.— Correct distance between the
the target, adjust the knurled focusing ring on
mounting shoulder and the focal plane of an eye¬
the ship telescope. Observe and record the
piece assembly, represented by A.
diopter reading and the power of the eyepiece.
4. Repeat step 3 for the other three eye¬
pieces and record the diopter reading for each.

137.242
Figure 10-38.— Test equipment for collimating a ship telescope.

278
 Chapter 10 -SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

If all four eyepieces read 0 within one-quarter turning the knurled focusing ring to align with
diopter, perform ONLY steps 9 and 10, which the holes in a different position. Then re¬
follow, to complete the collimation procedure. place the screws.
If the four eyepieces give readings within NOTE: Perform step 8 ONLY as a last
one-half diopter of each other, they are par- resort. The three methods just described-
focalized. The common reference for these changing the multiple thread, adjusting the eye¬
readings, however, may be some reference other piece adapter, and shifting the knurled focusing
than 0 (one diopter, for example), in which case ring— will provide in almost all cases a diopter
the diopter scale must be set. Proceed with all reading within the allowed tolerance. Try them
steps which follow, except 11 through 13. AGAIN before you go to step 8.
If you find that the four eyepieces give read¬ 8. If the diopter reading is STILL NOT
ings which vary by an amount greater than one- WITHIN one-quarter 0, unscrew the sighting vane
half diopter of each other, they are not par- which goes into the objective mount and turn
focalized; and the eyepieces and the diopter scale the objective assembly IN or OUT in order
setting must be adjusted. Make the diopter to get the sharpest focus of the collimation
scale correction first; then adjust the diopter target, as seen through the auxiliary telescope.
scale. 9. If during repair the objective assembly
was moved, or if a new objective mount was
Setting the Diopter Scale used, use a .136-inch drill to drill and tap
a new hole for the sighting vane. Then clean
If all four eyepieces are parfocalized, use the objective assembly and the telescope tub
the 21x eyepiece (chosen to give average mag¬ of foreign matter or lubricant deposited by
nification) for setting the diopter scale. If all the drilling.
four eyepieces are not parfocalized, use the
eyepiece which gave the HIGHEST diopter read¬ Aligning the Sighting Vanes
ing in a positive direction in steps 3 and 4.
5. With the telescope on the collimator, Alignment of the sighting vanes is STEP
with the aid of the auxiliary telescope, repeat 10 in the collimation procedure. The vanes
step 3. The diopter scale should indicate 0 should line up with the vertical on the col¬
diopters, ± one-quarter diopter. limator target; and if they do not, loosen the
If you learn that the eyepieces are par¬ two cradle clamp screws and rotate the tele¬
focalized but the diopter readings are taken scope as necessary in its cradle without dis¬
from a reference other than 0, the indication turbing its position along the tube to line them
may be that the eyepiece tube was reassembled up with the vertical.
incorrectly.
If new parts were NOT substituted in the
eyepiece focusing assembly, the diopter readings Parfocalizing the Eyepieces
should be about a 0 reference. If the reference
is found to be other than 0, it is possible that The three steps required to parfocalize the
the eyepiece tube was started in the wrong thread eyepieces of a ships telescope are:
of the multiple threads of the eyepiece adapter. 1. With the telescope in the collimator, and
Try a different thread before you proceed with with the auxiliary telescope, remove the eye¬
piece which gave the highest diopter reading
step 6.
6. You can possibly correct a SMALL error and assemble another eyepiece. Sight through
(about one diopter) on the PLUS side in the the telescope and focus for the sharpest image.
diopter scale reading by screwing out the eye¬ 2. Place a Geneva lens gage against the back
piece adapter part of a turn. Loosen first the of the eyepiece and turn the focusing assembly
eyepiece adapter set screw; then use a drill as required to bring it to 0 on the diopter scale.
(.095 inch) to spot a set point for it in the new Note and record the distance the eyepiece moved
out. This is the amount of material you must
position.
You can correct a SMALL error on the remove (face off) from the eyepiece mount. Re¬
view illustration 10-37. Then repeat this op¬
NEGATIVE side by moving the objective as¬
sembly, but proceed with step 7 first. eration for the other two eyepiece assemblies.
7. Try to correct the diopter reading by 3. Set the eyepiece in a lathe and check the
flange face to make certain it is running true.
removing the three focusing ring screws and

279
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Then cut off the mounting shoulder to the depth An OOD spyglass consists of a main tube,
indicated in step 12. an eyepiece assembly, and an objective mount.
The four eyepieces are parfocalized for their Its magnification (all marks) is lOx. A Mk 2,
particular ships telescope and the diopter scale Mod 2, spyglass has the erector mount at¬
should thereafter read 0 diopters, ± one quarter tached to the eyepiece; in some other marks
for each. Review step 3. it is mounted in the main tube. Hexagonal
flanges at the ends of the main tube keep the
FINAL SHOP INSPECTION instrument from rolling when placed on a smooth
surface such as a table.
After you reassemble and seal a ships tele¬ Optically, QM and OOD spyglasses are
scope, it should be in perfect condition and ready identical, except that the objective lens of the
for use aboard ship. Before you release the QM instrument is approximately twice the dia¬
instrument for use, however, give it a final in¬ meter and has about one and a half times the
spection, as follows: focal length as the objective lens of an OOD
1. Look through both ends of the telescope spyglass. All other optical elements of the
and the four eyepieces for dirt, grease, and two spyglasses are identical and interchangea¬
fingerprints on the optics, or fogginess in the ble. A comparison of the optical elements of the
optical system. two instruments is given in the following dia-
2. Check the mechanical parts for finish, gram:
and tightness in assembly, and check all screws
for tightness. OOD QM
3. Inspect the yoke assembly for freedom of
movement of parts. lOx 16x
Magnification .
4. Assemble one eyepiece in the telescope
and put the other three in the eyepiece case.
True Field . 5°30’ 3°30’
5. Place the eyepiece case, the yoke as¬
sembly, the telescope cover, and the telescope 55° 56°
Apparent Field ....
in the carrying case.
Eye Distance . 29.0 mm 28.0 mm
QUARTERMASTER SPYGLASS
Exit Pupil Diameter 3.5 mm 4.0 mm
A Quartermaster’s spyglass (also called long
glass) has 16 power and is generally used by
The optical elements (system) for the OOD
a Signalman or the Quartermaster for reading
and the QM spyglasses are illustrated in figure
flags and observing distant objects beyond the
10-40. Study this illustration carefully.
range of hand-held binoculars. Illustration 10-
The objective lens is a cemented doublet
39 shows two Quartermaster spyglasses on top
which refracts the incident rays to the princi¬
of a case, and an OOD spyglass beside the case.
pal focal plane, on or near the piano surface
Because the construction of a Quartermas¬
of the collective lens. The image formed by
ter’s spyglass is similar to that of the OOD
the objective lens is not affected by the col¬
spyglass, no discussion of its construction and
lective lens and is therefore real and inverted.
operation is given in this chapter. If you un¬
The collective lens, a convexo-plano singlet
derstand thoroughly the following coverage of
receives its name from the fact that it collects
the OOD spyglass, you will have no difficulty
the extreme principal rays of light (fig. 10-40)
with repair of a Quartermaster’s spyglass.
which otherwise would be lost and refracts
them into the erector lens. Thus, without the
OOD SPYGLASS collective lens, the center of the field would
be well illuminated but the edges of the field
The officer-of-the-deck spyglass (OOD) would appear quite dark. Because the collec¬
shown in figure 10-39 is a Mk 2, Mod 2, in¬ tive lens is placed within the focal length of
strument used by the officer of the deck on a the objective lens, it has little or no effect
ship in port to read flags and signals, to pick on the focal length of the objective lens, or
up buoys and other markers, and to observe on the magnifying power of the telescope as a
small boats in the harbor. whole. The only purpose of the collective lens

280
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

is to collect rays and send them into the erec¬ formed by the objective lens; hence, the erec¬
tor lens to produce a well illuminated field and tor is placed two focal lengths from the in¬
IMAGE. verted image in order to produce an erect,
The erector lens is a cemented doublet, with real image two focal lengths behind the erector
its greatest curvature on the exposed surface lens. A plano-plano sealing window is placed
of the negative lens. The primary purpose of between the erector lens and the image created
the erector lens is to erect the inverted image by it, and it is used to seal the telescope near

37.3
Figure 10-39.— AN OOD spyglass and two QM spyglasses.

OBJECTIVE COLLECTIVE ERECTOR SEALING TWO-DOUBLETS

LENS LENS LENS WINDOW EYEPIECE

281
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

the eyepiece end. Because of its position, the the SPIRAL KEYWAY MECHANISM and the eye¬
sealing window has an effect of lengthening the piece drawtube containing the eyepiece lenses.
erector lens’ focal distance— NOT the focal A diopter scale ring is secured to the eye¬
length. piece mount with a single screw, and the scale
The eyepiece of the QM spyglass and the is graduated from -6 diopter to +6 diopters.
OOD spyglass is TWO-DOUBLET (asymmetri¬ In the eyepiece drawtube, just forward of
cal). The only difference is that the eyelens the field lens, is mounted a single metal dia¬
in the QM spyglass is smaller in diameter, phragm which serves to control chromatic
with a longer focal length, as compared with aberrations. A single lock ring secures the
the field lens. A bevel is ground on the rear eyepiece lenses and their spacer. The lock
edge of the eyelens to aid in sealing the eye¬ ring is threaded into the drawtube just aft
piece assembly. the diaphragm to lock against the field lens.
An eyelens spacing ring between the field lens
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS and the eyelens serves to separate the two
lenses the distance required for them to func¬
tion according to their design.
The QM and the OOD spyglasses are essen¬ The eyepiece mount, eyepiece mount support
tially the same mechanically, with the following tube, and the collective-erector mount support
exceptions: The telescope body tube of the QM tube may be threaded into and removed from
spyglass is longer than that of the OOD spy¬ the after end of the body tube as a single unit.
glass, because its objective lens has a longer This is possible because all of the above parts
focal length, an hexagonal flange on the eye¬ are attached and secured to the eyepiece
piece mount support tube, and another hexagonal mount support tube which screw into the rear
shaped part at the objective end of the OOD of the body tube. This is an advantage in col¬
spyglass. The hexagonal flange and the hexa¬ limating the telescope.
gonal shaped objective end keep the telescope The QM and the OOD spyglasses are pro¬
from rolling when it is placed on a smooth vided with gassing and drying screws which
surface such as a table top. Other mechanical permit drying of the instruments from their
differences are few, and most all other mechani¬ sealing windows, to and including their objec¬
cal parts may therefore be interchanged. tive lenses. On the OOD spyglass, the inlet
The objective lens mount, with the objective gassing screw is located just forward of the
lens spacing rings forward and aft of the lens hexagonal flange on the eyepiece mount sup¬
mount, are slid into the forward end of the port tube, and the gas outlet screw is located
body tube against a machined shoulder. The on the hexagonal objective end of the body tube.
spacing rings and the lens mount are securely The inlet and outlet gassing screws are lo¬
held in place by a lock ring threaded into the cated similarly on the QM spyglass.
foremost end of the body tube. Permanently
fixed and spaced at intervals along the interior PREDISASSEMBLY INSPECTION
of the body tube are metal diaphragms which
aid in controlling aberrations and preventing Predisassembly inspection procedures for
internal reflections. the QM and the OOD spyglasses are checked
The collective and erector lenses are and inspected in the same manner as for any
mounted in their respective mounts in a short other optical instrument; therefore, review
support tube, one on either end. The support chapter 8 for inspection procedures of these
tube slides with a bearing fit into the forward instruments. Write your findings on an in¬
end of the eyepiece mount support tube and is spection sheet and proceed with the disas¬
secured with a single screw. The eyepiece sembly, or consult your shop supervisor for
mount support tube is in turn threaded into the advice concerning overhaul of the instruments.
after end of the telescope body tube and secured
DISASSEMBLY
with a single set screw. In the opposite end
(one which protrudes from the body tube) of The procedure for disassembling a Mk 2,
the eyepiece mount support tube is threaded the Mod 2, OOD spyglass is given by steps in
sealing window mount and its lock ring. the next pages. Proceed as follows:
Threaded onto that end of the eyepiece mount 1. Remove the setscrew which secures the
support tube is the eyepiece mount which houses eyepiece mount support tube in the body tube

282
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

7. (fig. 10-41). Then unscrew the eyepiece mount With an adjustable retainer ring wrench,
support tube and pull it from the body tube loosen the diaphragm lock ring just enough so
(fig. 10-42). that it turns freely. Do not use the retainer
2. Remove the setscrew which secures the wrench to remove the lock ring completely
eyepiece mount to the eyepiece mount support from the drawtube, as the wrench may damage
tube (fig. 10-43) and unscrew and separate the the fine threads on the inner wall of the draw-
eyepiece mount from the eyepiece mount sup¬ tube. Use a tool such as the one shown in
port tube (fig. 10-44). figure 10-49 to remove the lock ring (pref¬
erably a pegwood stick). Measure and record
3. Remove the setscrew which secures the
the distance the diaphragm is in the drawtube.
actuating ring (commonly called FOCUSING
NOTE: The position of the diaphragm is very
RING) retainer ring lock ring (fig. 10-45) and
unscrew the lock ring. Then unscrew the ac¬
tuating ring retainer ring (fig. 10-46). NOTE:
These two rings are NOT identical. The lock
ring has a bevel on each side and a lock ring;
the actuating ring retainer ring has only one
bevel.
4. Remove the eyepiece cap from the rear
of the eyepiece drawtube and slip off the actuat¬
ing retainer ring and its lock ring.
5. Remove the knurled actuating ring first
by rotating it counterclockwise to disengage it
from the focusing key and then slide it from
the eyepiece mount.
6.Remove the focusing key. It is aligned
with two dowel pins and secured with two screws.
When the screws have been removed (fig. 10-47)
with a jeweler’s screwdriver, lift the focusing
key from the longitudinal slot with a pair of
tweezers. The dowel pins should come out with 4
the focusing key; if they do not, remove them
from the eyepiece drawtube with a pair of
tweezers. The draw tube is now free within 137.244
the eyepiece mount; remove it by pulling straight Figure 10-41.— Releasing the eyepiece mount
out (fig. 10-48). support tube setscrew.

137.245
Figure 10-42.— Removing the eyepiece mount support tube.

283
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

137.246 137.248
Figure 10-43.— Removing the eyepiece Figure 10-45.— Removing the actuating ring
mount setscrew. retaining ring lock ring setscrew.

important, for it controls chromatic aberra¬ 9. With a piece of lens tissue on the piano
tion. Remove the diaphragm in the same man¬ surfaces of the field lens and the eyelens,
ner you remove its lock ring. slowly turn the eyepiece drawtube over to allow
8. Remove the lock ring which secures the the spacer and the eyelens to slide out into your
eyepiece lenses and their spacer. CAUTION: hand. The rear surface of the eyelens is sealed,
When you remove the lock ring, the eyepiece so apply a little pressure with your thumb to
lenses and their spacers are loose and they break the seal. CAUTION: The clearance be¬
can easily fall out. This lock ring is almost tween the lenses and the inner wall of the draw-
the same diameter as the lock ring diaphragm; tube is so small that the lenses may become
do not get these rings mixed. cocked; if they do, follow the procedure given in
chapter 8 to remove them. When the lenses
and spacers are removed from the drawtube,

137.247 137.249
Figure 10-44.— Removing the eyepiece mount Figure 10-46. —Removing the actuating ring
from the eyepiece mount support tube. retaining ring.

284
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.252
Figure 10-49.— Removing the diaphragm
lock ring.

137.250
Figure 10-47.— Removing the focusing the support tube. Remove the collective lens
key screws. lock ring and remove the collective lens. Then
wrap it in lens tissue. NOTE: If this lens has
pits, scratches, or chips, it must be replaced;
because the lens is near the focal plane of the
objective lens, any fault of the collective lens
is very apparent in the field.
12. Remove the erector lens mount lock
ring from the support tube. Use precaution
to prevent damage to the fine threads on the
inner wall of the support tube. Remove the
erectors lens mount from the support tube.
NOTE: The erector lens mount may come out
of the support tube in reverse of that shown
in figure 10-51; to facilitate collimation, this
mount is designed for mounting either way.
Remove the erector lens lock ring and then the
137.251 erector lens. Note that the exposed surface of
Figure 10-48.— Removing the eyepiece dr awtube its negative element has the greatest amount of
from the eyepiece mount. curvature. Mark the lens and wrap it in lens
tissue.
mark them to indicate the manner in which they 13. Loosen and remove the sealing window
fit in the drawtube; there is only one correct mount lock ring in the eyepiece end of the eye¬
way in which they fit when assembled. Wrap piece mount support tube. Remove the sealing
the lenses in lens tissue and stow them in a window mount and the sealing window lock ring;
safe place, AWAY FROM THE METAL PARTS then withdraw the sealing window. The window
OF THE INSTRUMENT. is sealed with sealing compound. If necessary,
10. Remove the setscrew which secures the apply heat to soften the wax and use a suction
collective-erector mount support tube in the cup pressed tightly against the window to help
eyepiece mount support tube, and pull STRAIGHT break the seal.
OUT (fig. 10-50) on the tube to remove it from 14. Loosen the objective mount support with
the eyepiece mount. a fiber grip wrench and remove the objective
11. Loosen the collective lens mount lock mount support. NOTE: No setscrew secures
ring and unscrew the collective lens mount from the objective mount support to the body tube.

285
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

137.253
Figure 10-50. —Removing the collective-erector support tube setscrew.

body tube. Check both gassing screw orifices

for freedom from obstructions.
You have now completed disassembly of the
OOD spyglass. Continue with overhaul and re¬
pair of the instrument. Follow the procedures
listed in chapter 8, and also the additional re¬
assembly procedures discussed in the next
paragraphs.

REPAIR AND REASSEMBLY

When you reassemble the collective lens in

its mount, mark on the piano surface of the
137.254 lens near the center with a wax pencil, or pass
Figure 10-51.— Removing the erector lens mount a thin wire through the gas orifices in the col¬
from its support tube. lective lens mount and draw it taut by twisting
the ends together. The wax pencil mark or the
wire will act as a reference point to aid in the
The objective mount support of a QM spyglass proper positioning of the collective lens during
is PART OF THE BODY TUBE and therefore collimation.
cannot be removed. Before you reassemble the eyepiece draw-
15. Loosen and remove the lock ring which tube, check the mechanical 0 diopter setting of
secures the objective lens spacing rings and the the eyepiece assembly at MID-THROW. You
objective lens mount to the interior of the body can do this by reassembling the complete me¬
tube. Remove the front spacing rings, the ob¬ chanical action of the eyepiece mechanism, with
jective mount, and the rear spacing rings by the exception of the inner lens and parts of the
pulling them straight out of the body tube. drawtube. When you have the mechanical parts
Mark each spacer when you remove it. Press of the eyepiece assembled, turn the eyepiece
on the objective lens to break the seal which se¬ actuating ring until the drawtube stops on the
cures it in the mount. IN POSITION. Then, with a lead pencil, mark
16. Remove the two gassing screws, one of on the drawtube a line where it protrudes from
which is located just forward of the hexagonal the eyepiece mount. Next, turn the actuating
flange on the eyepiece mount support tube, and ring counterclockwise until the drawtube stops
the other is on the hexagonal section of the in the OUT POSITION. Then measure the full

286
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

amount the drawtube traveled from STOP to First, remove the parallax between the in¬
STOP and divide the amount by 2 to get the strument’s crossline and that of the collimator’s.
MID-THROW POSITION of the drawtube. Put The reference mark (wax pencil mark) on the
a mark on the drawtube to indicate its mid¬ piano surface of the collective lens or the wire
throw position and turn the actuating ring until through the collective lens mount serves as a
the drawtube moves in, to the mark for the temporary crossline for positioning the col¬
mid-throw position. lective lens in the optical system. To remove
Now observe where the index mark on the ac¬ parallax in this system, adjust the collective
tuating ring is pointing; it must point to 0 diop¬ lens mount by screwing it in or out of the sup¬
ters on the diopter scale ring when the eyepiece port tube. The eyepiece mount support tube must
is at the mid-throw position. If it does NOT be removed from the body tube each time the
point to 0 diopters, remove the setscrew which collective lens mount is adjusted; therefore,
secures the diopter scale ring and rotate the tighten the eyepiece mount support tube against
ring until the 0 diopter mark is aligned with the shoulder of the body tube after each adjust¬
the index mark of the actuating ring. Then drill ment to eliminate possible errors in the paral¬
and tap a new hole for the diopter scale ring lax readings. Furthermore, the setscrew which
setscrew. When you complete this task, you secures the collective-erector support tube in
will have the mechanical 0 diopter setting at the eyepiece mount support tube must be in
MID- THROW. place in order to eliminate such errors.
Disassemble the mechanical parts of the eye¬ If you CANNOT remove parallax because of
piece and begin reassembly of the lenses and insufficient movement of the collective lens
the inner parts of the eyepiece drawtube. Re¬ mount in the support tube, re -position one or
position the drawtube diaphragm to its original more of the objective lens spacing rings in order
position in the tube. After you insert the dia¬ to re-locate the objective lens in the desired
phragm, check its position by looking through direction. When you do this, the collective lens
the eyepiece lenses. When correctly positioned, mount is so adjusted that you can remove the
the diaphragm is sharp and clear; if it is not, final errors in parallax. After you completely
screw the diaphragm in or out until it is sharp remove parallax from the telescope, Jock the
and clear, and note the bright-yellow fringe collective lens mount lock ring against the
which should be around the diaphragm field. shoulder of the support tube and make another
You can check the diaphragm later for correct test for parallax.
positioning, after you collimate the instrument,
Now set the eyepiece to 0 diopters optically
by checking the overhauled instrument for
by adjusting the erector lens mount. Review
chromatic aberration (chapter 8).
the procedure in chapter 8. You may find,
Reseal all assemblies during reassembly,
however, that there is insufficient movement
except the eyepiece mount support tube, which
of the erector lens mount. If this is true, re¬
is withdrawn several times during collimation
move the erector lens mount from the support.
and must therefore be sealed ONLY after the Then remove the erector lens, turn it over in
instrument is collimated. the mount, and replace the erector mount in
the support tube in the opposite direction to
COLLIMATION what you had it before. The mount is so de¬
signed that it may be placed in the support tube
in either direction. CAUTION: If you do turn
You can collimate this telescope in the same the mount over, remember that the erector
manner as for any telescope with a single erec¬ lens MUST ALSO BE TURNED OVER in its
tor lens. The procedure for collimating a single
mount.
erector telescope is outlined in chapter 8 of
this manual. When you have optical 0 diopters set on the
Because spyglasses are hand-held and do eyepiece, lock the erector lens mount lock ring
not have bearing pads or feet, it is not neces¬ and give the instrument a final check for paral¬
sary that you collimate the collimator. All lax and diopter setting.
you need is an infinity target such as an outside For the last time, remove the eyepiece mount
target or the crossline of a collimator. Then support tube from the body tube and clean off
place the telescope on V-blocks in front of the the wax pencil mark from the collective lens.
collimator and proceed with collimation. Do this by removing the collective lens lock

287
 Chapter 10-SHIP TELESCOPES AND SPYGLASSES

ring without tampering with the collective lens GASSING AND DRYING
mount itself. If you remove the collective lens
mount during removal of the collective lens, you
The procedure for gassing and drying a Mk 2,
will not have the collective lens in proper posi¬
Mod 2, spyglass is as follows:
1. Remove the inlet and outlet gassing
tion; so be very careful to avoid this.
screws from the telescope and connect a gassing
When you complete the task just explained, hose to the inlet hole.
place a string of sealing wax around the eye¬ 2. Run dry nitrogen through the instrument
piece mount support tube and seal and secure and purge it at the same time.
it in the body tube. Then give the instrument a 3. After you completely dry the instrument,
final inspection. replace the two gassing screws and seal them.

288
 CHAPTER 11

BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

This chapter contains a general description target for boresighting. If the gunsights are to
of boresight telescopes, a discussion of their be aligned parallel to the gun bore, the horizon
use, and repair and maintenance procedures may be used as a target in elevation and an ob¬
pertaining to them. ject at a similar or greater distance maybe used
Because boresight telescopes are designed as a target in deflection. A 6-inch Mk 37 bore¬
specifically for use in boresighting, it is im¬ sight, and also an 8-inch Mk 31 boresight, has
portant that you have an understanding of bore- illuminated crosslines so that they may be used
sights and the boresighting procedure. in boresighting on celestial objects at night.
The following step-by-step instructions for
boresighting a gun are typical, but they vary for
BORESIGHTING PROCEDURE
different gun mounts:
1. Examine the gunsight telescopes for
Although boresighting is not a duty of an cleanliness, parallax, focusing, and clearness
Opticalman, it is explained briefly here to show and sharpness of crosslines.
the importance of the work you do on boresight 2. Operate the sight mechanisms through
telescopes used in the operation. If the telescopes their entire area of motion in deflection and
you repair for use in the process do not function elevation to determine whether they operate
properly, boresighting is unsatisfactory. freely and without excessive lost motion.
Boresighting is the procedure of aligning the 3. Open the gun breech and securely lash the
lines of sight of a gunsight telescope so that they plug or breech block open to prevent its swinging
intersect the axis of the bore of the gun at a pre¬ against the boresight or boresight telescope.
determined range, or are parallel to the axis of 4. Install and align the boresight in accord¬
the bore. ance with the procedure required for the bore¬
In order for a gun which uses gunsights to sight being used.
fire accurately, the gun barrel and the gunsights 5. Man all stations— pointer's, trainer's, and
must use the same point of aim. If the two are boresight. Use the regular gun pointer and the
not in proper alignment, the gunsight may be on regular trainer, and a Gunner's Mate at the
the target but the gun barrel will be using a boresight, if possible.
point of aim removed from the target by an 6. Adjust sight-setting mechanisms to zero
angle equal to the error in gunsight alignment. readings.
Illustration 11-1 shows how these errors may 7. Boresight the gun for deflection or
exist in deflection (A) and elevation (B). elevation. Suppose you decide to boresight
The lines of sight for antiaircraft machine first for elevation, with the horizon as a
guns, and others which fire at short range, must target. The boresight checker must coach
be so adjusted that they converge with and inter¬ the gun pointer in so aligning the gun that
sect the gun axis at a predetermined mean firing the horizontal crossline of the boresight lies
range, as shown in illustration 11-2. on the horizon; and when it does, he calls
A gun may be boresighted at a particular “Mark.” The pointer then notes the dis¬
range by using a sighting target at that range, tance his crossline is off the horizon and
tightly stretched and so mounted that its lines makes necessary adjustment of the telescope
are vertical and horizontal (fig. 11-1). An object to put it back on the horizon. When he thinks
ashore with a good reference point and at the his telescope is adjusted, the pointer also
desired distance, however, may be used as a calls “Mark.”

289
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

BREECH OF GUN

MUZZLE DISK MUZZLE DISK

FRONT VIEW REAR VIEW

110.80
Figure 11-1.— Boresighting equipment.

When the boresight checker and the pointer Boresighting in deflection is accomplished
simultaneously call “Mark” several times, the in the same manner, except that the vertical
horizontal crossline is considered adjusted. The crossline of the trainer's sight is adjusted first
adjustment should then be secured tightly and (on all mounts except those which have control
another check made to determine if a shift has for both train and elevation at the pointer's
occurred. The boresight checker and the gun station).
pointer should then change stations and make a When boresighting is completed, alignment
final check. of the boresight should be rechecked for shift
8. Adjust the trainer's telescope in eleva¬ that may have occurred during the procedure.
tion in the manner just explained for the trainer,
with the trainer calling “Mark” to indicate when BORESIGHTS
his horizontal crossline is on the horizon.
9. To complete the check, all three indi¬ A boresight is a device used to ESTABLISH
viduals must now "Mark” when on the horizon. A LINE OF SIGHT along the axis of the bore of
This is the final adjustment. a gun, or A LINE OF SIGHT PARALLEL WITH

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 Chapter 11-BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

AND CLOSE TO THIS AXIS. Most boresights of these boresights have no lenses to provide
include optical elements which provide magnifi¬ magnification; they have a reticle in the muzzle
cation of the field of view, as well as crosslines assembly, and an orifice in the breech assembly
to fix the line of sight. Some boresights, how¬ to fix the line of sight. A mirror is usually pro¬
ever, contain only line-of-sight reference points, vided to permit viewing from above the breech.
such as orifices and crosswires. Other boresights in this class use individual
telescopes which cannot be used with any other
TYPES OF BORESIGHTS boresight; and the telescopes are installed with
mandrels fitted into the gun barrel. The tele¬
Boresights are divided into two general scope may be offset from the barrel, but its line
classifications: (1) breech bar boresights, and of sight must be parallel with the axis of the bore
(2) boresights with self-contained optical ele¬ of the gun.
ments.

Breech Bar Boresights BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

A breech bar boresight normally consists of Boresight telescopes are designed for use in
a boresight telescope and several mechanical the boresighting procedure just discussed. When
elements used to mount and align the telescope used with a breech bar, muzzle disk, and other
in order to have its line of sight coincide with necessary elements, they comprise a breech bar
the axis of the bore of the gun. Telescopes used boresight.
with boresights are specially designed for bore¬ In design, a boresight telescope must be short
sight service and may be used interchangeably in length for the amount of magnification re¬
with the mechanical elements of any breech bar quired, and its diameter must be correspondingly
boresight. These telescopes provide medium- small. These characteristics are necessary in
power magnification and include crosslines to order to mount the telescope in breech bars and
fix the line of sight. to facilitate handling.
Mechanical elements of breech bar bore¬ Because of its short length, a boresight
sights are not interchangeable with other bore¬ telescope must have an objective lens of short
sights. They generally consist of an adaptor focal length; and it must be capable of focusing
(breech bar) with a central hole for mounting at distances of approximately 10 feet to infinity.
the telescope in the center of the breech of the This characteristic makes focusing on the bore¬
gun, and a muzzle disk for aligning the telescope. sight muzzle disk as well as on the target pos¬
Study illustration 11-3. Observe the breech sible. The short objective focal length permits
of the gun on the left, the breech bar mounted in this type of focusing with little adjustment of
position on the breech with screws, and the distance between the objective lens and the
boresight telescope (right) mounted in the center crossline plate (plano-plano, with a reticle en¬
hole of the breech bar. Note the extension of the graved on one surface).
telescope tube within the breech of the gun, and Since there is very little motion between a
also the two views of the muzzle disk. boresight telescope and the target during bore¬
The muzzle disk is machined for exact fitting sighting, and also because of the small size of
in the muzzle of a gun and has a small central the target, the instrument need not have great
hole (fig. 11-1) on which the crosslines of the width of field. Because of its short objective
telescope may be adjusted. Scribe marks on the length, however, a boresight telescope may have
outer surface of the disk ensure correct mount¬ some curvature of the field; but since only the
ing in the muzzle. Once the telescope is properly center of the field where the crosslines intersect
aligned, the muzzle disk can be removed to allow is used, this effect can be discounted.
a direct view of the target through the telescope.
MARK 75 BORESIGHT TELESCOPE
Boresights with Self-contained Optics

Boresights with self-contained optics use the Because the Mk 75 boresight telescope is used
gun barrel itself as a telescope tube; and the extensively on 3"/70 and 5"/54 guns, as well as
optical elements are mounted in assemblies in¬ on 16-inch guns, it is discussed in considerable
stalled in the breech and muzzle of the gun. Some detail in this chapter.

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OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

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 Chapter 11 —BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

Physical Characteristics direction. The key carries the drawtube back¬

ward or forward to change the position of the
A Mk 75 boresight telescope is illustrated in crossline lens relative to the objective lens and
figure 11-4. Study the nomenclature. It is an thus permits parallax-free focusing on objects
8-power telescope designed specifically for from 10 feet to infinity.
boresighting, and the two Mods (1 & 0) are Differences in internal construction of a Mk
similar in construction. Their differences in 75, Mod 0, boresight telescope, as compared to
construction and optical characteristics are Mod 1, are shown in illustration 11-6. Compare
explained later in this chapter. the nomenclature in this illustration with that in
The approximate overall dimensions of aMk figure 11-5.
75 boresight telescope are: In the Mk 75, Mod 0, the crossline plate
mount (fig. 11-6) contains the crossline plate
only— not both the crossline plate and the front
Length . 111/4 inches erecting lens mount, which is secured to the
Maximum diameter . 3 1/4 inches telescope drawtube in the same manner as the
Weight . 4 pounds
rear erecting lens.
The diaphragm in the Mod 1 telescope con¬
This boresight telescope consists of the tele¬ sists of a flanged bushing which slides into the
scope proper, telescope adaptor, and the end of the drawtube; in the Mod 0 telescope it is
adjusting-screw housing assembly. Study illus¬ a ring which is threaded into the drawtube and
tration 11-5, which gives a cutaway view of all held in place by a lock ring (fig. 11-6).
parts of the instrument.
The telescope body tube has a spherical Optical Characteristics
journal soldered to it, and the telescope adaptor
forms the spherical bearing which supports the
telescope about this journal. The clearance be¬ Optical characteristics of the Mk 75 bore¬
tween the adaptor and the body tube is adequate sight telescope (Mods 1 and 0) are:
for adjustment of the telescope within the bear¬
ing. The adaptor carries the external threads Mod 0 Mod 1
with which the telescope may be mounted in a
breech bar, and also a lock ring for locking it Magnification . 8x 8x
in any desired position. Field . 3°30' 3°30'
The adjusting-screw housing of the telescope Exit Pupil . 2.5 mm 2.5 mm
surrounds the body tube and is secured to the Eye Distance . 18.0 mm 19.4 mm
telescope adaptor. The four adjusting screws
(90° apart) contact the four flat surfaces on this
square (quadrangular) bearing soldered to the The image formed by a Mk 75 boresight
body tube. By manipulating the adjusting screws, telescope is erect and normal, which means
you can move the telescope with its spherical that it may be viewed exactly as observed by
journal within its spherical bearing to change its the naked eye (except for magnification pro¬
alignment with respect to the adaptor; that is, to vided by the telescope, and such distortion as
line up the telescope with the muzzle disk. This curvature of the field).
arrangement of adjusting screws, however, does Arrangement of optical elements in a Mk 75
not permit rotation of the telescope within the boresight telescope is shown in figure 11-7. Ob¬
adaptor housing. serve the position of all lenses, and the plan
The telescope drawtube slides within the body view of the crosslines.
tube and carries with it all optical parts except
the objective lens. The focusing key is attached OBJECTIVE LENS. -The objective lens is a
to the drawtube behind the adjusting-screw hous¬ cemented doublet consisting of a double convex
ing and extends through afore-and-aft slot in the lens of barium-crown glass and a concave-piano
body to engage a spiral groove cut in the actuating lens of dense -flint glass. It is mounted in a
ring which surrounds the body tube. Rotation of fixed position against a seat ring at the end of the
the actuating ring advances the key through the body tube and held in position by a retaining ring.
spiral groove as the slot in the body tube re¬ The body tube, of course, is the main support
stricts movement of the key to a fore-and-aft tube for all elements in the telescope.

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 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

BODY TUBE

TELESCOPE ADAPTOR

TELESCOPE
SCOPE ADJUSTING SCREWS
LOCK RING

FOCUSING RING

TELESCOPE HOLDER
DIOPTER SETTING RING
ASSEMBLY

EYE6UARD

84. 207
Figure 11-4.— Mark 75 boresight telescope.

ADJUSTING SCREW
ERECTING CROSSLINE
HOUSING
EYEPIECE LENSES LENS TELESCOPE
COLLECTIVE LENS
LOCK RING
OBJECTIVE
EYELENS
LENS

DIOPTER
SETTING RING
BODY TUBE
KEY DRAW nCROSSLINE ^TELESCOPE
TUBE LENS MOUNT ADAPTOR
DIAPHRAGM FOCUSING
• RING 'TELESCOPE ADJUSTING SCREW

84.207
Figure 11-5. —Cutaway view of a Mk 75, Mod 1, boresight telescope.

CROSSLINE AND ERECTING LENSES. -The lens. It is secured in a mount held in position by
crossline plate is plano-plano and made of an aligning pin which passes through the draw-
borosilicate-crown glass, with its crosslines tube. No means is provided, however, for adjust¬
etched into the surface away from the objective ing the radial position of the crossline plate; but

294
 Chapter 11-BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

CROSSLINE
.CROSSLINE LENS
DIAPHRAGM
LOCK RING

DIAPHRAGM BODY TUBE

FOCUSING RING KEY DRAW TUBE

137.256
Figure 11-6. —Partial cutaway view of a Mk 75, Mod 0, boresight telescope.

137.257
Figure 11-7.— Optical system of a Mk 75 boresight telescope (Mods 0 & 1).

since the crosslines are located in the geometric mounted in a fixed position in the crossline and
center of the plate (concentric with mechanical erecting system drawtube (double convex lenses
parts), no radial adjustments should ever be facing each other). Both lenses are secured in
required. The procedure for orienting the cross- mounts— front erector lens mount (toward objec¬
lines in order to have them located in the same tive lens) secured by a lock ring in the end of
planes as the adjusting screws is explained under the crossline lens mount, the rear erector lens
collimation at the end of this chapter. mount secured in the telescope drawtube by a
The two symmetrical, cemented doublet erec¬ lock ring. Review illustration 11-7.
ting lenses consist of a double convex lens of EYEPIECE LENSES. -The lenses of the eye¬
borosilicate-crown glass and a concavoconvex piece are symmetrical, cemented doublets with
lens of very dense flint glass, and they are their convex surfaces facing each other. The

295
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

lenses are secured at opposite ends of amount¬ body tube for smoothness and ease of motion
ing drawtube with the double convex lenses and then withdraw it. If the action is not smooth,
facing each other (fig. 11-7). The mounting check for burrs, scratches, and so forth.
drawtube slides within the eyepiece mount 6. Release (back off) the telescope adjusting
screwed onto the end of the telescope drawtube. screws, remove the telescope holder setscrew
The diopter setting can be varied by rotating (9), and unscrew the telescope holder assembly
the eyepiece actuating ring around the eyepiece from the telescope adaptor (20).
mount. The focusing key attached to the eyelens 7. Remove the objective cap setscrew (15)
mounting drawtube fits in a spiral groove in the and unscrew the objective cap (16).
eyepiece mount; so when you move the actuating 8. Rotate the body tube within the telescope
ring you also move the focusing key. An index adaptor and check for smoothness of action. If
mark on the eyepiece and graduations on the a flaw is apparent, check the bearing surfaces
actuating ring indicate the diopter setting. of the adaptor (20), the telescope retainer (18),
and the spherical journal (25) for various defects
Predisassembly Inspection as you disassemble them. Remove the telescope
adaptor setscrew (17) and unscrew the telescope
Review the discussion of the predisassembly retainer (18). Then slide off the telescope
inspection for telescopes in chapter 8 of this adaptor (20) and remove the lock ring (19) from
manual. One step in the predisassembly inspec¬ it.
tion of a Mk 75 boresight, however, which needs 9. Remove the objective lens retaining ring
mentioning here is the following: Put the tele¬ (21) and drop the objective lens (22) out into the
scope in a collimator and superimpose the palm of your hand.
crosslines on those of the collimator, and then 10. Remove the objective seat (23) from the
(with the horizontal adjusting screws) move the body tube (24).
vertical crossline of the telescope from that of 11. The spherical journal (25) and the quad¬
the collimator. If the horizontal crossline of rangular bearing (26) are permanently attached
the telescope does not stay on the crossline of to the telescope body tube and damage inflicted
the collimator, the crossline lens is incorrectly upon them cannot be repaired. If these two
positioned. bearings are damaged, REPLACE THE ENTIRE
ASSEMBLY.
Disassembly Procedure This completes the disassembly of theMk75
telescope components, and the next step is dis¬
Refer to illustration 11-8 and study carefully assembly of the assemblies (or subassemblies)
the Mk 75 boresight telescope assembly for which comprise the mechanism of the telescope.
Mods 0 and 1. The procedure for disassembling
the parts shown in figure 11-8 is as follows: EYEPIECE ASSEMBLY. -Proceed as follows
1. Remove the eyeguard (1) from the eye¬ to disassemble the eyepiece assembly (fig. 11-9)
piece end of the telescope. of a Mk 75, Mods 0 & 1, boresight telescope:
2. Hold the eyepiece assembly to the cross- 1. Check the actuating ring (5) for ease and
line and erecting system drawtube assembly and smoothness of operation; and if unsatisfactory,
remove the eyepiece setscrew (2) and unscrew inspect surfaces for burrs and other defects as
the eyepiece. you remove parts. Remove the retaining ring
3. Check the focusing ring (5) for ease and setscrew (1) and the retaining ring (2) from the
smoothness of operation. If the action is not eyepiece mount (10).
satisfactory, inspect parts for burrs, scratches, 2. Remove the actuating ring (5) from the
and so on, as you remove them. Remove the mount, unscrew the diopter scale setscrew (3),
retaining ring setscrew (3), the retaining ring and slip the diopter scale (4) from the ring.
(4), and the focusing ring (5) from the body 3. Remove the index ring setscrew (6) and
tube (24). slip the index ring (7) from the eyepiece mount.
4. Remove the two setscrews (6) from the 4. Remove the focusing key screws (8) and
focusing key (8). Remove, next, the focusing the focusing key (9) from the eyelens mount.
key, and then remove the two dowels (7) from NOTE: There are no dowel pins in this focusing
the key. key.
5. Check the operation of the crossline and 5. Check the movement of the eyepiece
erecting system drawtube assembly within the drawtube assembly within the eyepiece mount

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 Chapter 11-BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

(10) before you separate the two parts. If EYELENS MOUNT ASSEMBLY. -The eye-
a flaw in the action is evident, check the lens mount assembly for the Mk 75 boresight
outside bearing surface of the eyepiece (Mods 0 and 1) is shown in figure 11-10. The
drawtube and the inside bearing surface of two steps in disassembly are:
the eyepiece mount for burrs, scratches, and 1. Remove the eyelens retaining ring (1)
so forth. and drop the field lens (2) out.

TELESCOPE HOLDER
ASSEMBLY
10 II 12 13 14

CROSSLINE AND ERECTING SYSTEM

DRAW TUBE ASSEMBLY
137. 258
Figure 11-8. —The assembly of a Mk 75 boresight telescope (Mods 0 & 1).

137.259
Figure 11-9. —Eyepiece assembly of a Mk 75 boresight telescope (Mods 0 & 1).

297
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

2. Remove the separating ring (3) and drop mount lock ring (2) and the rear erecting lens
the eyelens (4) from the eyelens mount (5). mount assembly (illustrated).
2. Next, remove the crossline mount lock
CROSSLINE AND ERECTING SYSTEM ring (3) and the spacer (4). NOTE: This
DRAWTUBE ASSEMBLY (Mod 0). -Study the
spacer was not on early models of the Mk 75,
components of the crossline and erecting system Mod 1, boresight telescope. It was installed
drawtube assembly of the Mk 75, Mod 0, bore-
after Serial No. 3664.
sight telescope in illustration 11-11, the dis¬
3. Slide the crossline mount assembly from
assembly of which is as follows:
the drawtube (9).
1. Remove the diaphragm lock ring (1) and
4. Remove the crossline retaining ring (6)
the diaphragm (2) from the drawtube (6).
and the crossline plate from the crossline mount
2. Remove the rear erecting lens mount
(5).
lock ring (3) from the drawtube and then remove
5. From the other end of the crossline
the rear erecting lens mount assembly.
mount, remove the front erecting lens mount
3. Remove the front erecting lens mount lock retaining ring (8) and the front erecting lens
ring (4) from the drawtube, and then takeoff the
assembly. The aligning pin (10) is permanently
front erecting lens mount assembly.
installed in the drawtube.
4. Unscrew the crossline mount lock ring
(5) from the other end of the drawtube; then
ERECTING LENS MOUNT ASSEMBLIES
remove the crossline mount assembly (illus¬
(Mods 0 & 1).— Study the erecting lens mount
trated). The aligning pin (7) is permanently
installed in the drawtube (6).
CROSSLINE AND ERECTING SYSTEM
DRAWTUBE ASSEMBLY (Mod 1).-The cross-
line and erecting system drawtube assembly for
the Mk 75, Mod 1, boresight telescope is illus¬
trated in figure 11-12. Compare this assembly
with the drawtube assembly for the Mk 75,
Mod 0, boresight telescope (fig. 11-11). The
procedure for disassembling the Mod 1 cross-
line and erecting system drawtube assembly is
as follows: 137.260
1. Remove the diaphragm (1) from the draw- Figure 11-10. —Eyelens mount assembly of a
tube (9). Then unscrew the rear erecting lens Mk 75 boresight telescope (Mods 0 & 1).

137.261
Figure 11-11.— Crossline and erecting system drawtube assembly
of a Mk 75 boresight telescope (Mod 0).

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 Chapter 11 —BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

assemblies for the Mk 75 boresight telescope telescope. Some of the things you should do
(Mod 0 & 1) in illustration 11-13. The disas¬ when reassembling the instrument are:
sembly procedure for these assemblies is as
follows: 1. Apply a small amount of APPROVED
1. From the front erecting lens mount (3), lubricant on all parts which require it.
remove the retaining ring (1) and the front 2. Lightly lubricate the spherical journal
erecting lens (2). (25, fig. 11-8), the spherical bearing (20), and
2. Unscrew the lens retaining ring (4) and the telescope retainer (18). Then slip the
remove the rear erecting lens (5) from the adaptor over the eye end of the drawtube, and
rear erecting lens mount (6). slip the retainer over the other end. Screw
these parts together until they fit snugly over
CROSSLINE MOUNT ASSEMBLY (Mod 0).- the spherical journal, with no lateral or end
The crossline mount assembly for the Mk 75 play but not tight enough to restrict rotation of
boresight telescope (Mod 0) is shown in illus¬ the body tube. Then secure the adaptor with
tration 11-14. To disassemble it, remove the the setscrew (17).
crossline retaining ring (1) and the crossline 3. Apply a small amount of lubricant to the
plate from the crossline mount (3). flat surfaces of the adjusting screw bearing
(26, fig. 11-8) and the swivel heads in the tele¬
scope holder assembly. Release all the way
Repairing and Cleaning the four adjusting screws and slip the holder
assembly over the eye end of the body tube.
Refer to chapter 8 of this manual for main¬ Screw the telescope holder to the telescope
tenance procedures applicable to all optical retainer and rotate the body tube as necessary
instruments. Information presented in this to have the four swivel heads bear evenly on
section applies specifically to boresight tele¬ the four flat surfaces of the bearing ring. Then
turn the adjusting screws in until they bear
scopes.
One important thing for you to look for when lightly and evenly on the pads and secure the
you repair a boresight telescope is straightness telescope holder with the setscrew (9).
of the tube. Check the tube on a mandrel; and 4. Put the telescope lock ring (19) on the
if it is slightly bent, spin it between centers telescope adaptor.
on a lathe as you force a mandrel through it. 5. Slip the objective lens seat (23) into the
If there is a pronounced bend in the tube, unslotted end of the body tube and drop the
replace it; because it will crumple if you try to objective lens (22) into position, with its plane
force a mandrel through it. surface bearing against the lens seat. Secure
If you removed burrs from the spherical the lens with the objective lens retaining ring
bearing or the journal, it may be necessary to (21). Replace the objective cap and secure it
with its setscrew (15).
lap in the spherical bearing. Check carefully,
and be thorough. 6. Lightly lubricate the exterior of the
Check the fit of the crossline and the erecting crossline and the erecting system draw tube
system drawtube and the eyelens mount for fit, assembly and slip it into the body tube, cross-
which should be smooth and easy, without line end first. Check the fit by working it
lateral play. If these parts do not meet this forward and backward. The motion should be
requirement, lap them in, or take other correc¬ smooth and easy, without hindrance. Then line
tive action, if necessary. the focusing key screw holes up with the slot
Study notations and recommendations on the in the body tube.
casualty analysis sheet for the instrument, and 7. Put the focusing key (8) in the slot over
effect essential repairs. When in doubt about the two screw holes, insert the dowels (7)
procedure, or the action you should take, consult through the key and into the drawtube, and
your shop supervisor. secure the key with the two screws (6). Finally,
work the key backward and forward to recheck
the drawtube for smoothness of action; then
Reassembly screw on the eyepiece assembly.

Refer to illustration 11-8 as you study the CROSSLINE AND ERECTING SYSTEM
procedure for reassembling a Mk 75 boresight DRAWTUBE ASSEMBLY FOR MOD O.-Use the

299
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.262
Figure 11-12.— Crossline and erecting system drawtube assembly of a
Mk 75 boresight telescope (Mod 1).

the mount. Secure the assembly with the cross-

line plate mount lock ring (5).
2. Insert the front erecting lens mount
assembly, lens end first, in the eye end of the
drawtube and screw it down to within a half
inch of the end of the threaded area in the tube.
3. Select an auxiliary eyepiece of sufficient
focal length for focusing it on the crossline
plate. Place the drawtube on a V-block on a
collimator bed with the front erecting lens
137.263 toward the collimator. With the auxiliary tele¬
Figure 11-13. —Erecting lens mount assemblies scope, sight through the drawtube from the
of a Mk 75 boresight telescope (Mods 0 & 1). crossline lens end and adjust the position of the
erecting lens mount until all parallax is removed.
Then put in the front erecting lens mount lock
ring (4), lock the mount in place, and recheck
for parallax. NOTE: Locking of the mount
may have disturbed its position.
4. Insert the rear erecting lens mount in
the eye end of the drawtube, lens end last, and
screw it down to within a half inch of the front
lens mount lock ring. Then attach the telescope
eyepiece assembly to the drawtube, set the
137.264 diopter scale on zero, place the auxiliary eye¬
Figure 11-14.— Crossline lens mount assembly piece on the telescope eyepiece, and sight on
of a Mk 75 boresight telescope (Mods 0). the crossline plate for definition of the cross-
lines. Remove the auxiliary telescope and
procedure outlined next for assembling the eyepiece and adjust the rear erecting lens
crossline and erecting system drawtube as¬ mount assembly as necessary to obtain maximum
sembly (fig. 11-11) for Mod 0 of the Mk 75 definition on the crosslines of the telescope.
telescope: Recheck after each adjustment. When definition
1. Place the crossline mount assembly in of the crossline plate is sharp and clear, turn
the objective end of the erecting system draw- the diopter scale off zero and refocus it. If the
tube (6). Aligning pin 7 fits in the keyway in definition is still not sharper at zero, readjust

300
 Chapter 11-BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

the rear erecting lens mount assembly. After Then place an auxiliary telescope against the
you do this, remove the eyepiece and lock the eyepiece, focus on the crosslines, and note the
erecting lens mount with the rear erecting lens definition of the crosslines. Remove the auxil¬
mount lock ring (3) and recheck the definition. iary telescope and eyepiece and adjust the rear
5. Insert the diaphragm (2), with the slotted erecting lens mount for maximum definition of
side toward the inside of the drawtube, and the crosslines. Recheck after each adjustment.
screw it in far enough to allow the lock ring (1) When the definition is sharp and clear, turn
to screw down tight against the diaphragm, with the eyepiece diopter scale off zero and refocus
its rear edge one or two threads within the tube. it. If the definition is still not sharper at zero,
readjust the position of the rear erecting lens
CROSSLINE AND ERECTING SYSTEM mount. After you do this, remove the eyepiece
DRAWTUBE ASSEMBLY FOR MOD 1 OF THE and secure the lens mount with the lock ring (2)
MARK 75 TELESCOPE. -Refer to figure 11-12 and recheck the definition.
7. as you study the procedure for reassembling Insert the diaphragm (1) in the drawtube.
the crossline and erecting system drawtube
assembly for the Mk 75, Mod 1, telescope. Collimation
Proceed as follows:
1. Insert the crossline plate (7) into the Review the collimation procedure for optical
crossline plate mount, with its etched side instruments in chapter 8 and proceed in the
against the lens seat. Then center one of the following manner to collimate a Mk 75 bore-
crosslines in the keyway cut in the exterior of sight telescope (Mods 0 & 1):
the mount and secure the lens with the retaining 1. Place the instrument in a collimator
ring (6). fixture on the collimator bed and screw it up
2. Screw the front erecting lens mount as¬ against the lock ring on the telescope adaptor.
sembly, the end with the lens seat first, into See illustration 11-15. Line up the adjusting
the other end of the crossline plate mount until screws vertically and horizontally and lock the
there is enough room to insert the retaining telescope in position with the lock ring. Then,
ring (8). NOTE: Do NOT insert the ring at with the focusing key, focus on the collimator
this point. crosslines; and with the telescope adjusting
3. Select an auxiliary eyepiece of sufficient screws, superimpose the intersection of the
focal length for focusing it on the crossline telescope crosslines on the intersection of the
plate. Then place the crossline plate mount on collimator crosslines. Usually, before the in¬
a V-block on a collimator bed, with the front strument is collimated, the crosslines look
erecting lens toward the collimator; and with like those shown in figure 11-16.
the auxiliary eyepiece, sight from the crossline If the crosslines of the telescope are not
end of the mount and adjust the position of the superimposed on those of the collimator, release
front erecting lens mount .until all parallax is the telescope lock ring and rotate the telescope
removed. Lock the erecting lens mount with until they are superimposed.
the retaining ring (8) and recheck for parallax.
4. Screw the rear erecting lens mount
assembly, the* end with the lens seat last, into
the eye end of the erecting system drawtube
(9). Then turn the assembly in enough to permit
you to insert the lock ring (2) flush with the
threads in the drawtube. Do NOT insert the lock
ring at this point.
5. Slide the crossline lens mount into the
other end of the drawtube, so that the aligning
pin (10) will engage the keyway in the mount.
Then insert the spacer (4) and secure it and
the mount with the lock ring (3). NOTE: If the
serial number of the telescope is below #3666,
there will be no spacer. 137.265
6. Screw the eyepiece assembly onto the Figure 11-15.— Mounting a boresight telescope
drawtube and set the diopter scale to zero. in a collimator fixture.

301
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.268
137.266 Figure 11-18.— Adjusting the horizontal
Figure 11-16.— Typical sight of collimator crossline.
crosslines before a boresight telescope is
collimated.
4. Now use the vertical adjusting screws to
2. Use the horizontal adjusting screws to check the vertical adjustment, as explained in
move the vertical crossline to the right or to step 2. If the horizontal adjustment checks and
the left (fig. 11-17). The crossline intersection the vertical adjustment does not check, there
should remain on the horizontal crossline of the must be a twist in the body tube. Replace the
collimator; if it does not, adjustment of the tube.
crosslines is essential. See illustration 11-18. 5. Remove the eyepiece assembly. Lightly
Remove the focusing key and slide the lubricate the interior surfaces of the focusing
drawtube assembly from the body tube (24, ring (5, fig. 11-8) and slip the actuating ring
fig. 11-8). Then remove the crossline lens over the body tube in the manner required to
mount, loosen the crossline retaining ring, and have its spiral groove (in the ring) engage the
rotate the crossline in its mount in the direction focusing key. Then screw on the focusing ring
required. Replace the crossline mount, the retainer (4) and secure it with the setscrew (3).
drawtube, and the focusing key. Rotate the focusing ring to check its action and
3. Again, superimpose the telescope cross- that of the draw tube.
line intersection on that of the collimator cross- 6. Screw the eyepiece assembly into place
line and rotate the telescope until the lines and secure it with the setscrew (2), and screw
themselves are superimposed. Repeat step 2, the eyeguard (1) into position.
as necessary. 7. Make a final check on the telescope
crosslines by repeating steps 1, 2, and 4. When
collimation of the instrument is satisfactory,
its crosslines and those of the collimator look
like those shown in figure 11-19.

MARK 8 BORESIGHT TELESCOPE

The Mk 8 boresight telescope is similar in

appearance to a Mk 75 boresight telescope. It
is 11 1/4 inches long, has a maximum diameter
of 3 1/4 inches, and has 9.6 power. Its eye
distance is 11.0 mm, as compared to 18.0 mm
for the Mk 75, Mod 0, and 19.4 mm for the Mk
75, Mod 1, boresight telescope.
A cutaway view of a Mk 8, Mod 6 (only mod
137.267 of the Mk 8 currently in use), boresight tele¬
Figure 11-17.— Squaring the crosslines. scope is shown in illustration 11-20. Study it

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 Chapter 11-BORESIGHT TELESCOPES

carefully and compare the components with those

of a Mk 75, Mod 1, boresight telescope (fig.
11-5).
On occasions, you will be required to re¬
pair Mk 8 boresight telescopes, because they
are still used on some ships.
The crossline lens in a Mark 8 boresight
telescope can be adjusted, and the entire tele¬
scope can be rotated in the adjusting-screw
housing to align the crosslines with the tele¬
scope adjusting screw. NOTE: A Mk 75 bore¬
sight telescope does not have these features.
The optical system of a Mk 8, Mod 6, bore¬
137.269
sight telescope is illustrated in figure 11-21.
Figure 11-19. —Position of the crosslines when a Compare this optical system with that of a Mk
boresight telescope is correctly collimated. 75 boresight telescope (fig. 11-7).
For additional information on Mk 8 boresight
telescopes, refer to OP 1449.

SPIRAL SLEEVE REAR ROTATING FRONT CROSSLINE LENS TELESCOPE

SCREW \ ERECTING RING ERECTING ADJUSTING SCREW LOCK RING
LENS LENS

EYEPIECE CROSSLINE LENS

COLLECTIVE OBJECTIVE
LENS^ LENS

EYELENS—

EYEGUARD

EYEPIECE
FOCUSING RING BODY TUBE
TELESCOPE
ADAPTOR OBJECTIVE DRAW TUBE
ERECTING
SYSTEM/ /
DRAW TUBE/ SPIRAL OBJECTIVE ADJUSTING
KEY FOCUSING RING SCREW ADJUSTING SCREW HOUSING

137.270
Figure 11-20.— Cutaway view of a Mark 8, Mod 6, boresight telescope.
OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

304
 CHAPTER 12

FIXED PRISM GUNSIGHT TELESCOPES

Fixed prism antiaircraft gun mount tele¬ actually a filter; but it is included so that the
scopes used by the Navy are designed for diopter setting will remain constant when you
3-inch and 5-inch guns used in antiaircraft fire. turn one of the filters out of the line of sight.
These telescopes enable the pointer and the The eyepiece in the optical system of a Mk
trainer to establish accurate lines of sight from 74 telescope is symmetrical.
a gun to the target.
Antiaircraft gun mount telescopes considered MECHANICAL FEATURES
in this chapter are Mks 74, 77, and 79. A brief
summary is given for the Mk 74 telescope; Mks Study the mechanical features of the Mk 74
77 and 79 telescopes are discussed in detail. telescope illustrated in figure 12-3. The body
tube is a bronze casting which houses the
objective lens and the roof prism, and it sup¬
MARK 74 TELESCOPES ports the color filter and eyepiece assemblies.
The telescope is mounted on a gun by two
Two views of a Mk 74 telescope are shown bearings: (1) a quadrangular bearing at the
in figure 12-1. All mods of this telescope are rear, and (2) a spherical bearing near the front.
fixed-power, single-eyepiece instruments. The crossline illuminator in a Mk 74 tele¬
Mark 74 telescopes are used on 3-inch scope (fig. 12-4) lights the crossline and thus
50-caliber gun mount sights. Each mount re¬ makes the gunsight usable at night.
quires three telescopes: one for the pointer, Mark 74 telescopes, Mods 0 and 1, have
one for the trainer, and one for the checker. focusing-type eyepieces which have spiral key¬
way arrangements. Mods 2 and 3 have fixed
OPTICAL FEATURES eyepieces which allow sealing of the entire
instrument.
A diagram of the optical system of a Mk 74 NOTE: Some Mk 74, Mods 0 and 1, telescopes
telescope is illustrated in figure 12-2. The are still in service. When you receive one of
objective window is a plano-plano disk which them for repairs, perform ORDALT 2039-2 and
excludes dirt and moisture from the instrument convert it to a Mk 74, Mod 3, fixed-eyepiece
and also seals it. The objective lens is a type telescope.
cemented, achromatic doublet properly posi¬ To keep the telescope dry, charge it with
tioned to remove parallax from the instrument. dry nitrogen, through the air inlet valve at the
The roof prism deviates the line of sight 90° back.
and erects the image. Mark 74, Mods 0 and 1, telescopes are gas-
The reticle is a plano-concavo lens whose tight between the objective window and the cross-
plane surface is in the focal plane of the objec¬ line, and they are moisture-tight between the
tive lens. A crossline is etched on the plane crossline and the eyelens. Mark 74, Mods 2
surface. By diverging the light rays slightly, and 3, telescopes are gas-tight between the
the reticle increases the eye distance and helps objective window and the eyelens.
to protect the observer’s eye from gunfire
shock. MARKS 77 AND 79 TELESCOPES
There are four filters: yellow, red, variable-
density, and clear. All filters are plano-plano Pointers and trainers use Mk 77 and Mk 79
disks. The clear glass, of course, is not telescopes on 3-inch 50-caliber and 5-inch

305
 OPTICA LMAN 3 & 2

137.273
Figure 12-2.— Diagram of the optical system of
a Mk 74 telescope.

The porro prisms in the optical system

offset the line of sight and erect the image.
Refer to chapter 8 for the correct method of
mounting these prisms.
The reticle is a plano-plano disk with the
crossline on the surface, facing the prisms.
This surface is located in the focal plane of the
objective lens, within the focal length of the
eyepiece system.
137.272 Mk 77 and Mk 79 optical systems have four
Figure 12-1.— Two views of a Mk 74 telescope. color filters: red, yellow, variable-density, and
clear. The eyepiece is symmetrical.

38-caliber gun mounts. These telescopes are MECHANICAL FEATURES

prismatic, fixed-power, single-eyepiece instru¬
ments which offset the line of sight horizontally Figure 12-8 shows the outlines of Mk 77 and
and vertically. See illustration 12-5. Mk 79 telescopes. The mechanical features of
a Mk 77 telescope are illustrated in figure 12-9.
OPTICAL FEATURES The body tube is a bronze casting which houses
the objective window, objective lens, porro prism
The optical systems of Mks 77 and 79 tele¬ assembly and crossline; and it also supports
scopes are identical. Study their components the color filter and eyepiece assemblies.
in figure 12-6. A Mk 79 telescope has indirect A Mk 77 telescope is mounted on its side on
illumination provided to the crossline (fig. 12-7). a gun, and it can be mounted on either side to
A Mk 77 telescope has no illumination. All serve a pointer or a trainer (fig. 12-10).
other parts of these optical systems are inter¬ Because of its mounting feet, a Mk 79 telescope
changeable. The illuminator body is sealed in can be mounted in one position only.
the telescope body by a lead gasket, a brass Marks 77 and 79 telescopes have fixed eye¬
washer, and a brass lock ring. pieces and they can therefore be completely
The objective window in a Mk 77 or a Mk 79 sealed, from the objective window to the eyelens.
telescope is a plano-plano disk which excludes
dirt and moisture and seals the instrument. OVERHAUL AND REPAIR
The objective lens is a cemented, achromatic
doublet so positioned that it removes parallax Overhaul and repair procedures discussed in
from the telescope. this section are for Mks 77 and 79 telescopes.

306
 Chapter 12 — FIXED PRISM GUNSIGHT TELESCOPES

LAMP HOUSING ILLUMINATOR RIBBON CROSSLINE LENS MOUNT

GLASS PLATE CROSSLINE LENS

LAMP SOCKET, MARK 9 ILLUMINATOR WINDOW TELESCOPE, MARK 74

137.274
Figure 12-4. —Crossline illuminator of a Mk 74 telescope.

If you understand the procedure for overhauling Predisassembly Inspection

and repairing these instruments, you will have
no difficulty repairing other fixed prism gun- When you inspect Mk 77 and Mk 79 tele
sight telescopes. scopes, proceed in the following manner:

307
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.275
A. Mk 77 telescope.
B. Mk 79 telescope.
Figure 12-5. —Fixed prism gunsight telescopes.

CROSSLINE PLATE

137.276
Figure 12-6.— Diagram of the optical system of Mk 77 and Mk 79 telescopes.

308
 Chapter 12— FIXED PRISM GUNSIGHT TELESCOPES

137.277
Figure 12-7.— Crossline illuminator of a Mk 79 telescope.

COLOR FILTER KNOB AIR INLET VALVE VARIABLE DENSITY KNOB

137.278
Figure 12-8.— Outlines of Mk 77 and Mk 79 telescopes.

1. Check bearing surfaces for signs of end for even illumination of the crossline.
damage. The rest of the field should be dark. If you see
2. Test the action of the color filter and bright spots or hazy clouds in the field, the
variable-density knobs. crossline is dirty.
5. 3. Move each filter (in turn) into the field Inspect the eyeguard for damage, and for
of view and examine it for dirt and damage. signs of hardening or cracking. The rubber
4. With the objective cap in place over the eyeguard is particularly important on gunsight
objective window, turn on the crossline illumi¬ telescopes, because it helps to protect the
nator (Mk 79) and check through the eyepiece operator’s eye from recoil shock from the gun.

309
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

TELESCOPE BODY FIXED POLARIZING PLATE MOVABLE POLARIZING PLATE

Disassembly CAUTION: If you bend the shafts, improper

sealing and operation will result.
The Procedure for disassembling a Mk 77
or a Mk 79 telescope is as follows: 7. Remove the screws from the ray filter
1. With a proper checking telescope, colli¬ mount bearing strip.
mate the collimator and align the telescope 8. Press the ray filter shaft and the density
fixture. shaft inward until they touch the ray filter
2. Completely inspect the instrument. mount. If you FAIL TO PERFORM THIS STEP
3. Remove the gas outlet screw and release before you remove the ray filter mount, damage
the pressure. to the teeth of the gear on the density shaft
4. Remove the screws (13) from the ray will follow.
filter housing. 9. Remove the ray filter mount. Lift it
5. Break the ray filter housing away from carefully, and allow the detent spring and roller
the body tube. Lift straight up, and exercise to force the ray filter mount toward the eyelens
care to prevent bending or damage to the dowel to free it from its lower bearing.
pins in the ray filter housing. 10. Check the glass in the ray filter mount
6. To remove the ray filter selection knob, for chips, cracks, dirt, and so forth; and check
and the density knob, support the knob on your the condition of the polaroid plates. Clean,
bench block and use a drift punch to drive out wrap, and stow the ray filter mount in a safe
the taper pin which secures it. Then remove place. Do NOT remove the ray filters from the
the knob. mount unless you must replace them.

310
 Chapter 12-FIXED PRISM GUNSIGHT TELESCOPES

137.280
Figure 12-10.— Mk 77 telescope mounted on a 5-inch sight (Mk 31, Mod 8).

11. Remove the ray filter shaft and gear, Use the following procedure to disassemble a
and also the density shaft and gear. Check the Mk 77, Mod 0, telescope eyepiece:
gear teeth for burrs, and check the shaft for a. With a proper spanner wrench, remove
binding. the eyepiece mount from the ray filter
12. Remove the packing from both glands. housing.
13. Disassemble the Mk77, ModO, eyepiece. b. Hold the eyepiece mount in a fiber -
Eyepieces for the Mk 77, Mods 0, 1, and 2, and grip wrench as you use a spanner
the Mk 79 are basically the same; but there are wrench to remove the eyelens re¬
some minor differences in mechanical design. taining ring.

311
 OPTICA LMAN 3 & 2

c. Remove the brass eyelens sealing ring

and the lead gasket. Do NOT bend the
sealing ring.
d. Protect the field lens retaining ring
with a rubber or cardboard disk as you
remove it with a pin wrench.
e. Remove the field lens and mark the
path of light through it.
f. Remove the eyelens by pushing it out,
toward the rear of the telescope. Then
mark the path of light on the eyelens.
Cover the lens with lens paper before
you touch it with your fingers. Clean
and stow the lenses.
Although the two lenses in the eye¬
piece group are identical, it is best to
replace them in their original posi¬
tions.
14. Disassemble the Mk 77, Mods 1 and 2,
and Mk 79 eyepieces. The procedure for doing
this is as follows:
a. Remove the lock screw from the eye¬
lens retaining ring.
b. With the proper spanner wrench, re¬
move the eyelens retaining ring.
c. Remove the brass eyelens sealing
ring. CAUTION: Do NOT bend it.
137.281
d. Remove the lead gasket. Figure 12-11.— Prism mount screws in Mk 77
e. Put lens paper over the field lens and
and Mk 79 telescopes.
push both lenses out. When the eye¬
lens is free of the mount, mark and
inspect it. Keep pushing on the field mount; then clean, inspect, wrap, and stow it.
lens until the spacer and lens are free Inspect the illuminator ribbon in the Mk 79
of the mount. Inspect and mark the
crossline mount. Do NOT remove this ribbon
field lens and the spacer. Clean and unless it is absolutely necessary.
wrap both lenses and stow them in a 18. If necessary to clean or to replace them,
safe place. CAUTION: Stow the remove the prisms from their mount. New
spacer where it will NOT be bent. prisms must be of the SAME THICKNESS as the
f.
Run a copper wire through the gas replaced prisms. Chapter 8 explains the pro¬
passage in the lens mount. This pas¬ cedure for checking prisms for squareness.
sage runs through a boss on the out¬ 19. With a proper wrench, remove the
side, at an angle of about 45° to the objective window retaining ring.
mount. CAUTION: If this passage is 20. Remove the objective window sealing
not kept open, gas cannot reach the ring and the lead gasket.
eyelens and fogging of the eyepiece 21. With a suction cup, remove the objective
will result when the telescope is in sealing window; then clean and stow it in a safe
service. place. Note the position of the window and mark
15. Remove the screws from the prism it (fig. 12-12), so that you can replace it in its
mount. See illustration 12-11.
original position. This is important, for some
16. Remove the prism mount and the cross- windows may be slightly wedge-shaped.
line mount as a unit. If you encounter difficulty If you CANNOT remove the objective window
in freeing the prism mount, release by a few with a suction cup, do the following:
turns the three screw dowel pins.
a. With a pin wrench, reach into the back
17. Remove the crossline mount from the
of the telescope body and remove the
prism mount. Take the crossline lens out of its
objective lens retaining ring.

312
 Chapter 12-FIXED PRISM GUNSIGHT TELESCOPES

137.282 137.283
Figure 12-12.— Reassembly guide mark Figure 12-13.— Removing the eccentric
on the window. mount lock ring.

28. b. Remove the objective lens; then in¬ Remove, inspect, clean, and stow the
spect, mark, and properly stow it. objective lens.
c. Put a rubber disk over the inside of
the objective window and, with a Repair Procedure
wooden stick, push the objective win¬
dow out of its mount. After you disassemble the telescope, make
22. Place a rubber or cardboard disk over required mechanical repairs. If you are not
the objective lens and, with a pin wrench, re¬ sure about certain procedures, review chapter 8.
move the eccentric mount lock ring (fig. 12-13). Clean all mechanical parts in an approved
23. Pull straight out on the eccentric ring, cleaning solution and rinse them in warm,
eccentric mount, and the objective lens mount soapy water. Dry them in a warm oven.
to remove them as a unit.
24. Check the eccentric ring for smoothness Reassembly and Collimation
of operation. Remove the eccentric ring and
check its surfaces for burrs. Chapter 8 gives the lubrication procedure to
25. Remove the objective lens mount lock follow when you reassemble an optical instru¬
ring. ment.
26. Remove the objective lens mount by To reassemble a complete unit (eyepiece,
screwing it out of its eccentric mount. As you ray filter assembly, objective assembly, etc.),
do this, check the mount for smoothness of follow the disassembly procedure, in reverse
operation. It is important that the objective lens order.
mount move freely during collimation. 1. Reassemble the eyepiece and seal the
27. Remove the objective lens retaining ring. eyelens with .040-inch lead wire. Resin core

313
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

solder is NOT adequate. Use special tools to

form and seat the gasket, as illustrated in
figure 12-14. Replace the eyelens sealing ring
and the eyelens retaining ring. Then tighten
the retaining ring with a spanner wrench.
2. Reassemble the ray filter assembly in
its housing. Then check the detent action, order
of the filters, and operation of the polaroid
plates. Replace the HYCAR packing in the
packing glands.
NOTE: This packing should be lubricated
with GLYDAG (a mixture of glycerine and
graphite) to ensure a good seal and proper
operation of the filter shafts.
3. Reassemble the objective assembly and
put it in the telescope. Then tighten the eccentric
mount lock ring sufficiently to seat the assembly
properly.
4. Replace the prism mount and the crossline
mount in the telescope. The etched surface of
the crossline faces the prisms. Make certain
the prism mount is seated properly.
5. Secure the ray filter housing to the tele¬
scope body with the screws provided.
6. Put the instrument in the collimator and,
with an auxiliary telescope, focus on the tele¬
scope crossline. Screw the objective lens mount
in or out, as necessary, to bring the collimator
crossline into focus. When both crosslines are
in sharp focus at the same point, the instrument
is free of parallax. Tighten the objective lens
mount lock ring and recheck to make certain the
objective lens mount did not move when you
tightened the lock ring.
7. Rotate the crossline in its mount to
square the crossline. Then tighten the lock ring
and recheck for squareness.
8. Align the optical and mechanical axes of
the telescope. The axes of a Mk 77 telescope
are aligned when the telescope crossline falls
at the same point on the collimator crossline
when the telescope is rotated 180 degrees. To
get proper alignment, mount the telescope and
adjust the collimator until the telescope cross-
line is superimposed on the collimator cross-
line. Turn the telescope 180r (on its opposite
side) and observe the distance the telescope
crossline has moved the collimator crossline,
horizontally and vertically. To remove half of
this error, rotate the eccentric mount in the
telescope.
Return the telescope to the 0° position and
superimpose the telescope crossline on the col¬
limator crossline again. Rotate the telescope the eyelens retaining ring.

314
 Chapter 12-FIXED PRISM GUNSIGHT TELESCOPES

180° and note the position of the telescope cross - of the eyepiece if (1) the eyepiece is not adjust¬
line. Again, remove half the error by rotating able, (2) the crossline itself cannot be adjusted
the eccentric ring and the eccentric mount. without the introduction of parallax, and (3) the
Continue this process until the telescope instrument has a prism erecting system?
crossline remains superimposed on the colli¬ Most small instrument body housings which
mator crossline in both the 0° and the 180° contain the fixed eyepieces are cast in two parts,
position. the main body housing, and the ray filter housing.
You need not change the position of the The main body housing contains the objective
telescope to align the optical and mechanical lens, the prism erecting systems, and the cross-
axes of a Mk 79 telescope. Rotate the eccentric line. The ray filter housing contains the ray
ring and the eccentric mount until the telescope filters and the eyepiece. The two castings are
crossline is superimposed on the collimator secured together with screws and sealed with
crossline. a gasket.
The allowable tolerance for superimpos¬ Since the optical system itself cannot be
ing telescope crossline is 2 1/2 minutes of adjusted to obtain proper dioptric setting, without
field, which is equivalent to the thick part of the disturbing the previous steps in collimation,
crossline. mechanical adjustment is the only means left.
9. When you have the optical and mechanical This can be accomplished by increasing or
axes aligned, secure the eccentric mount in decreasing the thickness of the gasket between
position with the eccentric mount lock ring and the two housing castings.
recheck the collimation. This check is essential A thin gasket moves the ray filter housing
because the eccentric mount could have slipped closer to the main body housing and thus moves
while you were tightening it. the eyepiece mount and lenses closer to the
10. Replace the objective window and make crossline. The gasket selected must allow the
another check of your collimation. If the window ray filter housing to be so positioned that the
is wedge-shaped, it will change the line of sight. crossline is properly located within the focal
If collimation is still within the allowed toler¬ length of the eyepiece system.
ance, seal the objective window with .040-inch If the dioptric value of the rays leaving the
lead wire, in the same manner you sealed the eyepiece must be minus 3/4 diopter (diverging
eyelens. rays), how can you determine when this value is
reached? When you use a standard auxiliary
telescope, the telescope crossline must come
Setting the Fixed Eyepiece
into focus WHEN THE INDEX MARK OF THE
AUXILIARY TELESCOPE POINTS TO PLUS 8
Fixed eyepieces are generally set to minus DIOPTERS (graduations), plus your own eye
3/4 or minus 11/2 diopters. This means that correction. One example will explain this.
rays of light which leave the eyelens are slightly If the instrument’s eyepiece must be set at
divergent. This value is set to accommodate a value of minus 3/4 diopter, the crossline
the average operator of optical instruments, must come into focus at plus 8 diopters (gradua¬
because most operators need a MINUS setting tions) on the auxiliary telescope.
of the eyepiece to use the instrument. NOTE: The ONLY time you focus the eye¬
To obtain a minus dioptric setting for a piece of the auxiliary telescope to set diopters
fixed eyepiece, the final, real image produced is when you set a fixed eyepiece; otherwise, you
in the instrument, and/or the reticle, MUST BE focus the eyepiece of the telescope being colli¬
LOCATED WITHIN the focal length of the eye¬ mated.
piece system. When an image, or object, is When you set a fixed eyepiece to minus 11/2
placed within the focal length of any positive diopters, the telescope crossline must come
lens, the rays emitted by the image are diverg¬ into focus at plus 17 diopters (graduations) on
ing, strike the lens, are refracted, and are still the auxiliary telescope. The auxiliary telescope,
divergent when they emerge. however, will not focus out to plus 17 diopters.
Because most fixed eyepiece mounts are a A special auxiliary telescope must therefore be
part of the telescope housing, the eyepiece constructed from a standard auxiliary telescope
mount, or lenses, cannot be adjusted in any to allow the eyepiece to conform to the reading.
manner. How, then, can the crossline of the Ask your shop supervisor to demonstrate the use
instrument be positioned within the focal length of this special auxiliary telescope.

315
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

The rules to follow when you set dioptric Testing and Gassing
value to any fixed eyepiece are as follows:
1. If the dioptric reading (number of gradua¬ The procedure for testing and gassing fixed
tions) on the auxiliary telescope is PLUS (more prism gunsight telescopes is not discussed in
than required), use a THICKER gasket between this chapter because the procedure was fully
the ray filter housing and the main body housing. covered in chapter 8.
2. If the dioptric reading is MINUS, use a After you fill your repaired instrument with
THINNER gasket. gas, it is ready for service.

316
 CHAPTER 13

MAGNETIC COMPASSES

A magnetic compass is an instrument which Each end attracts iron; but ONLY ONE end will
indicates direction. As shown in illustration point North. The reason for this action is that
13-1, a steersman must constantly watch a there are TWO KINDS of magnetism (red and
compass or a gyro repeater to determine the blue) and every magnet has both kinds. If we
direction his ship is traveling. call the points where magnetism in a magnet is
Small ships and boats depend entirely on strongest the magnetic poles, every magnet has
magnetic compasses for determining their a NORTH-SEEKING pole and a SOUTH-SEEKING
direction, and large ships use them to check pole. In a bar magnet, or in a compass needle,
their gyro repeaters. When magnetic com¬ the two poles are at the ends.
passes are damaged or broken, they are sent The earth itself is a HUGE magnet, with a
to the optical shop for repair. north magnetic pole in northern Canada and a
south magnetic pole in Antarctica. Like poles
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION REPEL each other; unlike poles ATTRACT each
other. Put two bar magnets side by side, with
Somebody in Magnesia (on the coast of the both north poles together, and observe what
Aegean Sea) discovered a long time ago that happens. The two magnets repel each other;
certain stones (magnetite or lodestone) could but if you turn ONE magnet end for end, the two
attract iron. Another person learned that when magnets attract each other.
he rubbed an iron bar with a piece of lodestone For the reasons just explained, if we say
the bar became a magnet. A Chinaman then that the earth’s north magnetic pole has NORTH
learned that when he attached little floats to a magnetism, the SOUTH pole of a compass needle
magnetized needle and put it in water the needle points north; if we say the NORTH pole of a
pointed approximately North and South. Some magnet points north, then the north pole of the
time later, an Italian navigator balanced the earth is actually its SOUTH magnetic pole. All
needle on a pivot and learned that its action then of this seems confusing, and mariners have
was the same as when it was balanced on water. tried to make it a bit simpler by speaking of
These people learned through experimenta¬ RED magnetism and BLUE magnetism. The
tion the principle of operation of a magnetic Navy paints one end of its bar magnets RED and
compass. From the needle on floats or a wooden the other end BLUE. The RED end points
disk to the compass box and hanging compass, north; the BLUE end points south.
action of the compass needle has always been
the same— only the method for holding it has COMPASS VARIATION
changed.
You can learn how a magnetic compass The amount a compass needle is offset from
operates by doing a little experimenting on your true north (caused by attraction to the position of
own. Hold a small compass level and observe magnetic north) is called variation, because it
the action of its needle. Regardless of the varies at different points on the earth’s surface.
direction you turn the compass, its needle Even in the same location it usually does not
always points north; and by turning the compass remain constant— it decreases or increases an¬
until the N on the card is under the point of the nually at a certain known rate. Deposits of iron
needle, you can determine any direction. ore tend to pull a compass needle away from
If you take the needle out of the compass, you its true pole (the end of the imaginary axis on
will find that it is magnetized at both ends. which the earth rotates), and in some parts of

317
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

DEVIATION TABLE
SHIPS SHIPS SHIPS
HEAOINQ DEV. HEADING DEV. HEADING DEV.
MAGNETIC MAGNETIC MAGNETIC
OOO 4 /5'W / zo 4 /S’£ Z5o‘ 54a
0/5 4 !0‘ tV / 35 4 /(>•£ Z55° /°w
030 4 S’* / 50° /2 4E Z704 74w
055" /* /V /6S4 / 34£ zrs4 /24W
O(>0‘ Z4 E /SO4 /5‘E 3 OO* /54/V
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69.12
Figure 13-2.— Simple deviation table.
69.1
Figure 13-1. —In the pilot house of a
combat ship.

particular heading. In using the table, the devia¬

the world the needle may point as far as 60° tion for the heading nearest the one being checked
from true north. is selected. If the deviation for a 17° heading is
Because all our maps and charts are drawn desired, for example, the deviation for 15°
to true north, readings of a compass for varia¬ (10 W) would be selected.
tion must be corrected before it is used. Mag¬
netic compass variation through all navigable
CORRECTING COMPASS ERROR
waters, however, has been accurately deter¬
mined and recorded for use by ships.
Variation and deviation combined constitute
COMPASS DEVIATION magnetic compass error. If you know the true
course for a ship, worked out from the chart,
you must then know the compass course to
A compass needle is a magnet, and iron and steer to make the true course good. This is
steel attract magnets. Because ships are made accomplished by applying compass error, in
of steel, they affect the action of compass the shape of variation and deviation, to the true
needles. The amount of magnetic deflection of course. On the other hand, if there is a bearing
a magnetic compass needle from true north by taken by a magnetic compass, variation and
magnetic material in the ship is called DEVIA¬ deviation must be applied to the compass bearing
TION. Deviation is different for different com¬ to obtain the true bearing.
passes, and also for different parts of a ship. All compass errors, whether caused by
Although deviation remains a constant amount variation or deviation, are either easterly or
for any given compass heading, the amount is westerly. There are no northerly or southerly
not the same for all headings. Deviation errors. Correction for error is made by
gradually increases, decreases, increases, and ADDING easterly error and SUBTRACTING
decreases again as the ship goes through an westerly error when correcting compass course
entire swing of 360 degrees. Because the devia¬ to true course, and by SUBTRACTING easterly
tion for each heading must be known in order to error and ADDING westerly error when uncor¬
correct the error, a deviation table is made up recting true course to compass course.
for every ship; and this table usually shows the
deviation for each 15° of swing. See illustration
13-2. TYPES OF MAGNETIC COMPASSES
To find the deviation, swing the ship in 15°
increments around to 360° and note the amount Most ships carry two or more magnetic
the compass points away from each magnetic compasses like the one illustrated in figure
heading. This is the compass deviation for that 13-3. This is a U.S. Navy 7 l/2-inch compass.

318
 Chapter 13 -MAGNETIC COMPASSES

JL

45.595(CJ)
Figure 13-3. —U. S. Navy 7 l/2-inch
magnetic compass.

The two principal magnetic compasses are the

STANDARD COMPASS and the STEERING COM¬
PASS. Both compasses are similar in construc¬
tion. On combatant ships, exclusive of aircraft
carriers, the standard compass is generally
located at secondary conn. The steering compass
is located on the ship’s centerline just forward
of the wheel, where it can be seen best and
used by the helmsman. Normally, it is in the 45.23
ship’s pilothouse; and its indications are called A. Standard 4 -inch boat compass.
PER STEERING COMPASS (PSTGC). B. Steering compass.
Wet compasses are liquid filled, usually Figure 13-4.— Types of magnetic compasses.
with varsol. Other compasses contain no liquid
and are designated as dry compasses, but this
type of compass is seldom used in the Navy.
shows a standard 4-inch boat compass, and part
A wet compass consists of a bowl filled with
B of this illustration shows a 6 3/4-inch steer¬
liquid, which supports a hollow float to which the
ing compass.
compass card and magnets are attached. The
liquid steadies the compass against the motion The size of a compass is designated by the
of the ship and the shock of gunfire; and since
diameter (in inches) of its card. The compass
the liquid supports most of the weight of the
shown in figure 13-3 has a translucent card, or
magnets, it reduces the pressure and friction one with perforated markings; and a light in its
on the pivot. stand shines up through a ground-glass plate
Navy magnetic compasses vary slightly with in the bottom of the compass to illuminate the
respect to purpose. Part A of figure 13-4 card.

319
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

CONSTRUCTION OF A
MAGNETIC COMPASS

The compass card of a pocket compass is

printed on the bottom of the case, and its needle
is not hindered in its motion. A Navy compass,
on the other hand, has no needle. The steersman
is not interested in knowing the direction of
North; all he wants to know is the direction his
ship is heading.
The compass card of a magnetic compass is
mounted on a pivot and the magnets are attached
to the card, so that the card itself will swing
and point its zero mark to the north. Observe
on the bowl of the compass shown in figure 13-3
the LUBBER’S LINE. The compass is always
mounted so that an imaginary line from the
compass pivot to the lubber’s line is parallel to
the ship’s keel; so, to read the ship’s heading,
you read the graduation on the compass card
AT THE LUBBER’S LINE. When the ship
changes its course, the compass card still
points its zero graduation toward north; but the
ship, the compass bowl, and the lubber’s line
all turn— under the card.
In order that it will stay level even when the
ship is rolling and pitching, the bowl of a mag¬
netic compass is mounted in gimbal rings.
The bottom of the bowl is very heavy, to help
keep the compass level. The compass is mounted
in a stand, called a BINNACLE. See illustration
13-5. The two hollow soft iron spheres on the
sides of the binnacle are called quadrantal cor¬
rectors for deviation. (Deviation changes direc¬
tion every 90°, hence the name QUADRANTAL.)
The earth’s magnetic field magnetizes these
spheres by induction. The induced magnetism
of the spheres counteracts the induced mag¬
netism of the ship and forces the compass 118.3
needle to point toward magnetic north. The Figure 13-5.— Magnetic compass and binnacle.
force exerted by these spheres can be altered
by their distance from the compass. The size
of a sphere also affects its force.
A cross section of a typical magnetic compass
is shown in figure 13-6. Refer to the nomencla¬ The top of the bowl is covered with a glass
ture as you study the discussion of the illustra¬ plate, secured by a BEZEL ring. A rubber
tion. gasket is placed between the ring and the glass
The bowl of the compass is filled with a to prevent leakage. The pivot which holds the
liquid, and there is an expansion chamber in float is secured to the bottom of the bowl, and
the bottom of the bowl to hold excess liquid it has a rather sharp point which fits in a jewel
created by expansion. The expansion chamber located in the top-middle part of the float.
is made of thin, flexible metal; so, when the Study illustration 13-7, which shows the pivot
compass liquid gets warm and expands, the tip and the location of the jewel. The pivot tip
extra liquid is forced by pressure into the fits in a cavity in the bottom of the jewel to
expansion chamber and expands the chamber. allow smooth action of the float balanced on the

320
 Chapter 13 —MAGNETIC COMPASSES

137.285
Figure 13-6.— Cross section of a magnetic compass.

137.286
Figure 13-7.— Nomenclature of a magnetic compass.

pivot. Observe also in figure 13-7 the inlet The compass card is secured TO THE TOP
screw filler plug and the compass card. In this of the float. The bar magnets are fastened
compass, the expansion chamber is filled with UNDER THE FLOAT, as shown.
air and is surrounded by the compass liquid; The float is a hollow, metal chamber sub¬
when the liquid expands, it compresses the merged in the liquid, which gives it enough
buoyancy to support most of the weight of the
chamber.

321
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

magnets. The float assembly of a 7 l/2-inch DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE

compass, for example, weighs 3,060 grains in
air, but it weighs less than 90 grains when
submerged. The float therefore makes the The recommended procedure for disas¬
sembling a magnetic compass is as follows:
compass more sensitive and more stable.
1. Remove the filler plug and drain out a
small quantity of the liquid, to prevent spillage
OVERHAUL AND REPAIR in trying to handle a full compass bowl. Then
replace the filler plug. Save the liquid you
The following discussion of overhaul and drew out.
repair of a magnetic compass is for a 4 -inch 2. Mark the lip of the bowl and the edge of
boat compass, whose construction is very simi¬ the bezel ring, for you must put the bezel ring
lar to that of a 7 1/2 -inch compass. If you back in the same position it occupied before
understand the procedure for overhauling and removal.
repairing the 4-inch instrument, you will ex¬ 3. Remove all screws from the bezel ring.
perience no difficulty in repairing other types CAUTION: Loosen each screw a little at a time,
of magnetic compasses. in rotation or opposite each other, to prevent
tilting of the bezel ring by the rubber gasket
PREDISASSEMBLY INSPECTION and probable breakage of the glass.
4. Lift off the bezel ring and then remove
the rubber gasket. See illustration 13-8.
When you receive a defective compass for CAUTION: Use care to prevent damage to the
repairs, give it a careful inspection. You can gasket.
often determine the trouble with the instrument 5. With a suction gripper (fig. 13-9), or a
at this time, before you start disassembly. pegwood stick, lift the glass. CAUTION: The
Look for the following: glass is beveled to a thin edge and chips easily.
1. If the compass card is level and there is 6. Test the float for leaks. Push down on
a large bubble under the glass cover, liquid is one side of the float, as shown in illustration
leaking out under the cover glass, or there is a 13-10, hold it down for several seconds, and
leak in or around the expansion chamber. then release it. If the float stays down, it con¬
2. If the compass card is tilted and a large tains liquid. Repeat this test at three different
bubble is under the glass cover, but there is no points around the card.
leak around the cover, there is probably a leak
in the float.
3. If there is no bubble under the cover glass
but the card is tilted, the magnets have shifted,
or the balancing solder has fallen off the float,
or the float has jumped off its pivot.
4. Put the compass on alevel workbench and
turn it until the north point on the card is at the
lubber’s line. With your magnet, deflect the
compass card exactly 11° and then quickly re¬
move the magnet. The compass will then swing
back; and as the zero mark crosses the lubber’s
line, start your stopwatch. The zero mark will
reach the end of its swing and start back; and as
it crosses the lubber’s line the second time,
stop your stopwatch and read it. The time you
read is THE PERIOD OF THE COMPASS, and it
should be 10 seconds or less. If it is longer than
10 seconds, the magnets are weak, or the pivot
point is in poor condition.
5. If the float does not swing freely under
the influence of a magnet, the pivot point or the 137.287
jewel is broken. Figure 13-8.— Removing the rubber gasket.

322
 Chapter 13 —MAGNETIC COMPASSES

137.288
Figure 13-9. —Removing the cover glass. 137.290
Figure 13-11.— Removing the float assembly.

7. With a piece of wire bent to form two 11. Remove the screws from the base plate
hooks (fig. 13-11), lift the float out. and lift it off. See illustration 13-12. This base
8. Pour the remainder of the liquid from the is made heavy to help keep the compass on an
bowl and filter it through filter paper or ab¬ even keel.
sorbent cotton into a clean bottle for future use. 12. Note in illustration 13-12 the bottom of
9.To remove the pivot, fit a socket wrench the expansion chamber, and then study figure
over its hexagonal base and turn counterclock¬ 13-13 to learn how the chamber is secured
wise. CAUTION: Be sure the center hole of the through the hole in the bottom of the compass
wrench is deep enough to provide clearance for bowl. Beneath the expansion chamber nut is a
friction brass washer, and under this washer is
the pivot point.
10. Turn the bowl over and, with a punch, a lead washer. Between the chamber and the
make light register marks on the bowl and the bottom of the bowl is another lead washer.
base plate, to guide you in reassembling the When these washers are put under pressure,
they seal the opening in the bottom of the bowl.
base plate in its original position.
13. Turn the bowl over and remove the
expansion chamber lock nut with a socket wr ench.
14. Remove the expansion chamber from the
bowl and inspect it for leaks or other damage.

REPAIR AND REASSEMBLY

Inspection of parts, repair, and reassembly

of a magnetic compass are discussed conjointly,
step by step, as follows:
1. If the expansion chamber is in good con¬
dition, reassemble it. CAUTION: Do NOT forget
the lead washer between the expansion chamber
and the bottom of the bowl. If this washer is not
in perfect condition, replace it.
2. Replace the second lead washer, inside
the bowl and replace the brass friction washer.
137.289 If necessary, use a new washer. Start the
Figure 13-10.— Testing the float for leaks. hexagonal lock nut by hand and tighten it with a

323
 OPTIC A LM AN 3 & 2

137.292
Figure 13-13. —Expansion chamber secured to
bottom of compass bowl.

137.291
Figure 13-12.— Removing the base plate.

socket wrench. NOTE: Use enough tension to A. Worn pivot point. 137.293
make a good seal at the lead washers. B. Good pivot point.
3. Put the base plate back into position; Figure 13-14.— Pivot points.
then replace the base plate screws and tighten
them. CAUTION: Be sure to line up your two
marks you made during disassembly; otherwise, float. Study illustration 13-16. Then hone a
the compass will be out of balance. steel needle to a sharp point on an oil stone and
4. With a magnifying glass, inspect the pivot rest it on your finger nail (fig. 13-17). If it
point for wear. Study illustration 13-14. The slides under its own weight, it is NOT sharp
magnified pivot in part A of figure 13-14 is enough; if it catches on your thumb nail, it has
badly worn. Observe the round appearance. correct sharpness. Now slide the needle under
The pivot point shown in part B of this illustra¬ its own weight over the whole bearing surface of
tion has proper shape. NOTE: A badly worn the jewel, as shown in figure 13-18. If the sur¬
pivot point makes a compass sluggish. face of the jewel has a crack or a pit, it will snag
5. If the pivot point is worn, put it in a the fine point of the needle. NOTE: If the jewel
lathe and reshape it with a fine carborundum is defective, replace it.
7. ship (fig. 13-15). Then polish it with an Test the float for leaks by submerging it
Arkansas oil stone and inspect again for cor¬ in warm water (120° F). The heat will expand
rectness of shape. The tip of the pivot should the air inside the float; and if there are leaks in
have a radius of .005 inch. the float, air will bubble out through them. Use
6. Remove the screw from the top of the a pencil to mark the position of a leak.
float and use a piece of pegwood with a rounded If the float has a leak, drill a small vent
end to push the jewel and its spacer out of the hole in it, drain out the liquid, and dry the float

324
 Chapter 13— MAGNETIC COMPASSES

137.296
Figure 13-17.— Testing a needle for sharpness.
137.294
Figure 13-15.— Shaping a worn pivot point.

137.297
Figur e 1 3 - 18.— Testing a pivot j ewel with a needle.

section of the float are difficult to close; and if

you cannot seal them, replace the float.
8. Use a pegwood stick with a flat end to
137.295 press the jewel and its spacer back into the
Figure 13-16.— Removing the jewel from float, as illustrated in figure 13-19. Then re¬
place the retaining screw in the top of the card
the float.
and tighten it. CAUTION: Do NOT use force;
in an oven. Then scrape the float down to base too much pressure will crack the jewel.
metal at each leak, clean the metal, and solder 9. When you repair afloat or replace a jewel,
all leaks. Scrape the area around the vent hole you generally destroy the balance of the float and
and close the hole with solder.
must rebalance it. Materials required for
Put the float back into warm water and re¬ making a float balance test are shown in figure
check for leaks. NOTE: Leaks in the cone 13-20.

325
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

float with your magnet. See figure 13-22. As

the card spins, compare its level with the
sighting rod. If the float is balanced, the card
will stay level while it is spinning. If the float
is out of balance, you will see a high spot
(fig. 13-23).

Remove the float and scrape a clean spot on

its edge at the high point. Then apply a small
amount of solder at the spot shown in figure
13-24. Put the float back on the pivot and retest
for balance, and keep adding solder and retesting
until you have the float in perfect balance. NOTE:
If you apply too much solder, scrape off some of
it with a knife.
12. Inspect the seats for the cover glass and
the rubber gasket (fig. 13-25). If they are cor¬
Figur e 13-19.— R epl acing pivot j ewel and spacer . roded, scrape them by hand or remove the cor¬
rosion on a lathe. Then clean the surfaces
thoroughly with an approved cleaner. NOTE:
When in doubt about anything, consult your shop
10. To get bubbles from under the compass supervisor.
card and out of the cone section of the float, 13. Inspect the beveled edge of the glass
immerse the float edgewise in the compass cover. NOTE: The side which seats against the
liquid in the jar, as illustrated in figure 13-21. bowl has the larger diameter. If you find chips
Then ease the float onto the pivot. which would extend beyond the seat, as illustrated
11. Set the point of your sighting rod at the in figure 13-26, install a new glass cover.
same height as the compass card and spin the 14. Clean the bowl with a soft -bristle brush.

137.299
Figure 13-20.— Equipment for testing float balance.

326
 Chapter 13— MAGNETIC COMPASSES

137.300
Figure 13-21.— Mounting the float for
a balance test.

15. Fill the expansion chamber with compass

liquid. See illustration 13-27.
16. Replace the pivot and tighten it with a
socket wrench.
17. At several points, measure the distance
from the rim of the bowl to the tip of the pivot.
NOTE: The pivot point should be exactly
centered in the bowl. If necessary, adjust the
point with a pair of pliers in the manner shown
in figure 13-28. Be careful, lest you inflict
damage to the point.
18. With wire hooks, lower the float onto
the pivot.
19. Measure the distance between the edge
of the card and the inner rim of the bowl. If it
is not the same all the way around, remove the
float and readjust the pivot.
20. Remove the float and fill the bowl with
compass liquid to a level one half inch below
the cover glass seat.
21. Replace the float and, with a pegwood
stick sharpened to a chisel point, carefully 137.302
place the glass in position. Figure 13-23.— A float out of balance.

327
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

22. Fit the rubber gasket around the edge of

the cover glass (fig. 13-29). The ends of the
gasket should meet perfectly. If they overlap,
trim them to perfect fit; if the gasket is too
short, install a new one.
23. Replace the bezel ring, insert the
screws, and turn them tight with your fingers.
Then use a screwdriver to tighten all screws,
one half turn at a time in rotation, until the ring
is secure.

Figure 13-26.— Inspection of cover glass.

137.303
Figure 13-24.— Applying solder to the float.
137.306
Figure 13-27.— Filling expansion chamber.

137.304 137.307
Figure 13-25.— Cover glass and gasket seats. Figure 13-28. —Adjusting the pivot with pliers.

328
 Chapter 13 — M AGNE TIC COMPASSES

137.308
Figure 13-29.— Replacing the rubber gasket.
137.309
Figure 13-30.— Testing for leaks around
the bezel ring.
TESTING AND ADJUSTING

The procedure for testing and adjusting your

reassembled compass is as follows:
1. To test for leaks around the bezel ring,
make a screw to fit the filler hole and drill a
small hole through the center of the screw.
Insert the screw in the filler hole and fit a
piece of rubber tubing over the screw. Suck on
the tube and then pinch it off (fig. 13-30). If
there are leaks around the ring, bubbles will
rise from them.
2. With a rubber bulb syringe, finish filling
the bowl with liquid; then replace the filler vent
plug and secure it.
3. Put the compass in a warm place and let
it stand for 24 hours, with the filler hole up.
This amount of time allows trapped bubbles to
rise and dissolved air to come out of the com¬
137.310
pass liquid. NOTE: Less time is satisfactory
if the air is fairly warm. Remove bubbles by Figure 13-31.— Equipment for testing
adding more liquid and then replace the plug. compass balance.
4. Retest the period of the compass. See
step 5 under DISASSEMBLY. to move the bearing edge over toward the heavy
5. Test the compass for balance. To do side (fig. 13-33). Make a light cut with your
this, you need the material shown in illustration file and test the balance. Repeat this process
13-31. Mount the compass bowl on the V’s and until the balance is perfect.
put the level on the glass. NOTE: Be sure to Now mount the compass in its gimbal ring
center the level; otherwise, the level itself may and mount the ring on the V’s (fig. 13-34). Test
unbalance the compass. See illustration 13-32. the balance. If necessary, file the lugs (slight
If your compass does not balance, file the amount each time) of the gimbal ring until you
lugs (projections by which the compass is held) have the balance perfect.

329
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

45.23
Figure 13-32.— Testing compass balance.

45.23
Figure 13-34.— Final balance test.

330
 CHAPTER 14

AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

The meaning of the terms AZIMUTH and sights made especially for measuring the azi¬
TRUE BEARING is the same; namely, the direc¬ muth of the sun. Study illustration 14-1. A navi¬
tion of an object from true north (measured gator uses measurements of the sun’s azimuth
clockwise in degrees). In the Navy, however, to check the deviation of his ship’s magnetic
there is a difference in the use of these two compass and the accuracy of the gyro compass.
terms —AZIMUTH is used in connection with An azimuth circle consists of a balanced,
CELESTIAL BODIES, and TRUE BEARINGS are non-magnetic ring which fits over the bowl of a
taken of TERRESTIAL OBJECTS. A Quarter¬ standard 7 l/2-inch Navy compass or compass
master, for example, takes a bearing of alight- repeater. To prevent disturbance of the accuracy
house, but he gets the azimuth of the sun. Rela¬ of magnetic compasses on which they are
tive bearing is the direction of an object mounted, azimuth and bearing circles must be
relative to the heading of a ship (measured in made of non-magnetic metals. Parts are made
degrees). of brass or bronze, except screws, which are
made of nickel silver. The full assembly is then
balanced. Because the compass bowl is mounted
CONSTRUCTION on pivots, the azimuth circle must be accurately
balanced to prevent tipping of the compass in its
The instrument used for measuring all bear¬ mount.
ings (true and relative) is the BEARINGCIRCLE, Illustration 14-1 shows two sets of sights
which consists of a balanced, non-magnetic ring (mirrors) mounted on the azimuth circle ring.
made to fit snugly over a magnetic compass or The set mounted on the 0° and 180° graduations
a gyro repeater. Study illustration 14-1. is the same as the set on the bearing circle;
the set mounted on the 90° and 270° graduations
Mounted on the ring of a bearing circle is a
is the one made especially for measuring the
pair of sights which enable an observer to line
azimuth of the sun. Each set of mirrors (sights)
up a ship or terrestial object and read the com¬
has a small spirit level to indicate when the
pass bearing of the object on a compass card.
circle is in a horizontal plane. See illustration
This pair of sights can also be used for meas¬
14-2, which gives an enlarged view of the front
uring the azimuth of the sun.
sight assembly. Observe the open sight and the
When piloting his ship within sight of land, prism.
a navigator uses his bearing circle to obtain his NOTE: If the azimuth circle is out of the
ship’s position— by taking the bearing of a land¬ horizontal plane when a bearing is taken, the
marks) ashore. When his ship is in a formation bearing is inaccurate.
at sea, an officer of the deck uses a bearing A small pentagonal box mounted at 0° on the
circle and astadimetertokeephisshipin proper ring holds all optical elements of the 0° and 180°
position relative to the guide ship. (Astadimeter set of sights. The spirit level is mounted hori¬
is used aboard ship to measure the range of zontally at the inside edge of the pentagonal box.
objects of known height.) The navigator and the Illustration 14-3 shows the path of light rays
officer of the deck of a ship keep a bearing through the pentagonal prism. As shown, light
circle in almost constant use; for this reason, from the compass card is internally reflected
it must function accurately. at two different faces of the prism. When you
An azimuth circle is exactly like a bearing look into the front face, you see a virtual image
circle except that it has an additional pair of of part of the compass card. Because the image

331
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

65.122
A. Counterweight. E. Penta prism. I. Right-angled prism
B. Front sight. F. Penta spirit level. assembly.
C. Black mirror. G. Hand knot. J. Right-angled spirit
D. Rear sight. H. Curved mirror. level.
Figure 14-1. —Mark 3, Mod 2, Azimuth circle and Mark 1, Mod 2, bearing circle.

332
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

OPEN SIGHT MIRROR

FRONT SIGHT BLACK MIRROR

VANE FRAME

PENTAGONAL IMAGE OF
PRISM BOTTOM SIGHT
WIRE

137.314
SPIRIT LEVEL Figure 14-3. —Path of light through the
pentagonal prism.
137.313
Figure 14-2.— Enlarged view of the front
sight assembly.
horizontal axis to enable its operator to adjust
it to the angle required to reflect the sun’s rays
is reflected twice, it appears erect and normal. to the right-angled prism. See illustration
A sight wire mounted on the bottom face of the 14-4.
prism housing serves as a reading index of the The right-angled prism in the 90° and 270°
virtual image of the compass card. set of sights is mounted in a metal housing and
The front sight vane (fig. 14-2), sometimes located at the 90° graduation on the ring of the
called the far vane (farthest from your eye), is a azimuth circle. A narrow, vertical slit in the
rectangular frame with a fine wire stretched face of the housing (fig. 14-5) and in the focal
down the center of its long dimension. The whole plane of the cylindrical mirror allows entrance of
vane (black mirror) moves on a horizontal axis reflected light from the mirror. The prism re¬
to allow movement down and out of the way when ceives the light, just like a mirror, and reflects
the vane is not in use. The triangular point on it downward to the cylindrical lens mounted under
the upper edge of the frame is the far point of the prism in the prism housing. This lens then
the open sight. focuses the light on the compass card in the form
The rear sight vane is mounted on the 180° of a bright, narrow band.
graduation directly opposite the pentagonal box.
As you can see in figure 14-1, this vane is a
thin, rectangular plate with a vertical slot down PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
its center. It swings on a horizontal axis to en¬
able the operator to turn it out of the way when When a Quartermaster or a navigator de¬
not in use. The V-shaped notch in the top edge sires to take a bearing, he puts a bearing or an
(center) of the frame is the rear half of the open azimuth circle on a magnetic compass or ship’s
sight. course indicator and follows a definite pro¬
The cylindrical mirror of the 90° and 270° cedure. Suppose, for the sake of illustration,
set of sights is mounted over the 270° graduation you are piloting a ship within sight of land and
on the scale, and it reflects the sun’s rays to the spot ashore a lighthouse whose bearing you need^
You can get this bearing by using the 0C to 180°
right-angled prism. This mirror swings on an

333
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

137.315
Figure 14-4. —Front view of the
cylindrical mirror.

137.317
Figure 14-6. —Front sight assembly in position
for taking a bearing.

5. Check the spirit level to determine

whether the bearing circle and compass are
horizontal; if not, level them and sight again.
6. Look into the prism and read the number
of degrees on the compass card, at the point
137.316 where the bottom sight wire cuts across the
Figure 14-5. —Enlarged view of the right-angled image. This is the COMPASS BEARING of the
prism housing assembly. lighthouse.
7. To get the true bearing, correct the com¬
pass bearing for variation and deviation.
set of sights on a bearing or an azimuth circle You can find the relative bearing of the light¬
in the following manner: house by lining up the sights of the azimuth
circle as you did to get a true bearing, and by
1. Put an azimuth circle on a compass and reading at the point on the inner lip of the ring
turn the front and rear sight vanes to the vertical just above the lubber’s line the number of de¬
position. Then turn the black mirror down and out grees on the scale of the azimuth circle.
of your way. The front sight assembly in illus¬ You can measure the sun’s azimuth on the
tration 14-6 is in position (black mirror down) general purpose sights (0C to 180°) on an azi¬
for taking a bearing. muth or a bearing circle when the sun is par¬
2. Use the open sight and turn the circle to tially obscured. The image of the sun is reflected
an approximate bearing on the lighthouse. to the observer’s eyes from the black mirror
3. Move your eye down an inch or more and (raised for this operation), which fully utilizes
sight through the slit in the rear vane. available light from the sun and produces a clear,
4. Adjust the circle so that the vertical wire distinct image.
on the front sight vane appears to split the light¬ When the sun is too bright to measure its
house. azimuth with the general purpose sights, use the

334
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

90° to 270° sights on the azimuth circle, in the 4. SIGHT WIRES. Check the vertical sight
following manner: wire in the front vane sights and the bottom
1. Turn the circle until the cylindrical mir¬ wire at the base of the pentagonal prism for
ror bracket (fig. 14-4) is toward you and adjust straightness and tautness in their frames. If the
its angle until it reflects a band of sunlight to the wire in the front sight vane is loose, it can be
prism housing. tightened; if it is kinked or broken, replace it
2. Now, turn the circle until the light reflec¬ with .011-inch brass wire. If the bottom sight
ted by the cylindrical mirror enters the slit in wire is loose or broken, replace the wire.
the housing (fig. 14-5). When it does, you will 5. CIRCLE RING AND PARTS. Inspect the
see a band of light under the prism housing and azimuth or bearing circle ring for distortion. It
superimposed on the graduations of the compass must be a true ring. Check also all parts on the
card. ring.
3. Check the spirit level to make certain the 6. SPIRIT LEVELS. Put the ring on a level
ring is horizontal. surface and look at the bubble in the spirit level.
4. Read the compass card at the point where If the bubble does not fall exactly between the
the band of light intersects the scale. two lines on the vial, the level is not correctly
adjusted.
7. HINGE MOTION OF SIGHTS AND MIR-
OVERHAUL AND REPAIR ORS. The motion of hinges on sights and mir¬
rors must be smooth and easy but tight enough
Because the corresponding parts of azimuth to hold the sights and mirrors in any desired
and bearing circles are identical, except for the position.
holes in the circle rings for mounting different 8. SCREWS. Inspect the slots of screws for
parts, a common repair procedure is applicable burrs or deformities.
to both types of instruments. In this section,
therefore, basic and complete coverage is given
DISASSEMBLY
for the Mk 3, Mod 2, azimuth circle, with ad¬
ditional coverage for peculiarities of the Mk 1,
Unless otherwise indicated, disassembly
Mod 2, bearing circle.
procedures in this section apply to both azi¬
Review again the repair and maintenance
muth and bearing circle. Hlustrations are for
procedures discussed in chapter 8.
the azimuth circle. We explain first how to re¬
PREDISASSEMBLY INSPECTION
move the major assemblies and then give the
step-by-step procedure for disassembling the
subassemblies.
Before you start to repair or overhaul an
azimuth or bearing circle, give it a predis¬
assembly inspection to determine whether it Removing the Rear Sight Assembly
should be repaired or surveyed and salvaged.
Record all your findings and recommendations To remove the rear sight assembly, do the
on a casualty analysis sheet. following:
The things for which you should look when 1. Remove the two rear sight bracket
you make a predisassembly inspection are: screws. See figure 14-7.
1. GRADUATIONS. Are the graduations 2. With a prying tool, lift the rear sight
clear? Can you read them easily? assembly off the azimuth or bearing circle ring
2. PAINT. Because azimuth and bearing assembly. The rear sight bracket is dowelledto
circles generally are exposed to severe weather the ring, and the two rear sight dowel pins
for long periods of time, their metal parts must (fig. 14-8) should come out of the ring and
be protected by paint. If these parts are worn or remain in the bracket. If they do not, pull them
chipped, the logical decision is to follow estab¬ out of the ring with pliers.
lished procedures and repaint them.
3. OPTICAL ELEMENTS. Examine the Removing the Front Sight and
cylindrical mirror, the black mirror, and the Prism Assembly
two exposed faces of the pentagonal prism for
scratches, cracks, pitting, watermarking, or The black mirror and a spirit level are also
peeling of silver on the cylindrical mirror. attached to the front sight and prism assembly,

335
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

FRONT SIGHT, CURVED

CIRCLE RING ASSEMBLY

137.318
Figure 14-7.— Azimuth or bearing circle ring assembly.

as indicated in illustration 14-7. To remove all which secure the bracket and lifting the assembly
parts of this assembly, proceed as follows: off the azimuth circle ring assembly.
1. Remove the penta prism box screws. NOTE: The bearing circle assembly (Mk 1,
2. Grasp the sides of the penta prism box Mod 2) does not include a cylindrical mirror
and lift the front sight, mirror, prism, and assembly and a right-angled prism assembly.
level assembly off the azimuth or bearing circle
assembly. If the assembly is stuck to the ring, Removing the Right-Angled
use a prying tool to loosen it. Prism Assembly
NOTE: The two front sight dowel pins (fig.
14-7) should come out of the ring and remain in The right-angled prism assembly is secured
the prism box. If they do not, pull them out with to the circle with four screws, and when you
pliers. remove them you can lift the assembly off.
Removing the Cylindrical See illustration 14-7.
Mirror Assembly This step completes the removal of major
assemblies from an azimuth or a bearing circle
You can remove the cylindrical mirror and we are now ready to consider the procedure
assembly (fig. 14-7) by taking out the two screws for disassembling subassemblies.

336
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

FRONT SIGHT, MIRROR, CURVED MIRROR

PRISM AND LEVEL ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY

137.319
Figure 14-8.— Removing the rear sight assembly.

Disassembly of the Rear in figure 14-11. Disassemble it in the following

Sight Assembly manner:

1. Take out the two bottom frame screws and

The procedure for disassembling the rear
remove the bottom sight assembly (bottom part
sight assembly is as follows:
of fig. 14-11).
1. Set the assembly on an anvil block, with
2. Remove the four penta prism spirit level
the end of the rear sight bearing pin over a hole
mounting screws and the spirit level assembly
in the block. Then (with a hammer and punch)
will come off easily.
drive the bearing pin out of the rear sight and
3. With a screwdriver, remove the two
rear sight bracket. Study figure 14-9.
spirit level caps from the spirit level mount.
NOTE: Do NOT remove these pins unless it is Use tweezers to pull out the cotton wadding
absolutely necessary. packed over the ends of the spirit level. Study
2. Use the metal block as a support and drive illustration 14-11.
the rear sight dowel pins out of the rear sight 4. Slide the spirit level out of the tube in
bracket. See illustration 14-10. the penta spirit level mount. Then slide out the
white paper level tube liner from the tube and
discard the paper liner.
Disassembly of the Front Sight
5. Cover the end of the penta prism with
and Prism Assembly
lens tissue and push it out of the penta prism
box (fig. 14-12). Then grasp the prism by its
All parts of the front sight, black mirror, unpolished sides, wrap it in lens tissue, and set
penta prism, and spirit level assembly are shown it in the parts tray.

337
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

10. To disassemble the front sight assembly

from the front sight and mirror bracket, re¬
move the front sight bearing pin.
11. Remove the two front sight wire screws
to loosen the sight wire from the front sight
frame and pull the wire out of the frame.
12. With a hammer and punch, remove the
two front sight dowel pins (fig. 14-11) from the
penta prism box.
13. Next, remove the four cylindrical mirror
plate screws and take the mirror backing plate
off the back of the mirror frame. Then remove
the mirror, wrap it in lens tissue, and put it in
a safe place. See illustration 14-14.
14. Remove the two cylindrical mirror bear¬
ing screws and separate the mirror bracket
from the mirror frame.
15. Now, remove the screws from the cover
of the right-angled prism box and take the cover
off. Refer to figure 14-15.
16. Alwasy spill the right-angled prism out
of its box onto several thicknesses of lens tissue.
If the prism is sealed in the box remove the
sealing compound with a pointed, hardwood stick
and pick the prism loose with the stick. Then
use a stick padded with lens tissue to push the
lens out of the prism box.

REAR SIGHT

137.320
Figure 14-9.— Driving the bearing pin out of the
rear sight bracket.

NOTE: The penta prism may be sealed in its

prism box. If so, remove the sealing compound
with a hardwood stick.

6. Take out the two penta prism side shims

in the penta prism box (fig. 14-11).
7. Now, unscrew the four front sight bracket
screws and remove the front sight and black
mirror assembly from the penta prism box.
8. Remove the black mirror plate screws and
remove the mirror backing plate and the black
mirror from the mirror frame. Wrap the mirror
in lens paper and set it in a safe place (parts
tray).
9. To remove the black mirror frame from
the front sight and mirror bracket, drive out the 137.321
black mirror bearing pin. Study illustration Figure 14-10.— Disassembled parts of
14-13. the rear sight.

338
 Chapter 14- AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

FRONT SIGHT AND

Figure 14-11.— Disassembled front sight and mirror, pentaprism, and penta spirit level assembly.

17. Next, remove the right-angled level NOTE: For modified azimuth or bearing
mount screws to disassemble the right-angled circle assemblies which include ball-type de¬
spirit level assembly from the right-angled tents (fig. 14-17), omit the last step. For un¬
prism box. See figure 14-15. modified azimuth or bearing circle assemblies
18. To disassemble the right-angled prism (fig. 14-16), omit step 22.
20.
bracket from the right-angled prism box, re¬ To disassemble the three ball detents
move the bracket -to -box screws (fig. 14-15). (fig. 14-17), remove the two detent screws in
19. Disassemble the two circle adjusting each. Disassemble the detent spacer and detent
screws and their adjusting screw lock nuts, and spacer shims at the same time. Then wrap each
remove the circle spring screw and the circle ball detent and its spacer and shims in a piece
spring shoulder screw to disassemble the circle of paper marked 120°, 240°, and 3601, at which
adjusting spring. Study figure 14-16. points they were assembled.

339
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

21. Disassemble the counterweight from the

PENTA Lens Tissue circle (figs. 14-16 & 14-17).
22. Wrap the hand knobs with cloth (as a
protection) and loosen them with pliers.
This completes the disassembly of an azi¬
muth circle (Mk 3, Mod 2) or a bearing circle
(Mk 1, Mod 2). The next step in maintenance is
inspection of parts and repair.

PARTS INSPECTION AND REPAIR

This section pertains to the procedure for

inspecting and repairing disassembled parts of
azimuth and bearing circles in accordance with
the procedures prescribed in the C ontr ol Manual
(NavShips 250-624-12) and the Manual for Over¬
haul, Repair, and Handling of Azimuth and
137.323 Bearing Circles (NavShips 250-624-7). When
Figure 14-12.— Pushing the penta prism in doubt about any procedure, or the action you
from its box. should take, consult your shop supervisor.

340
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

Inspection of Parts the ball detent, the detent spacer, and the detent
spacer shim on the azimuth or bearing circle ring
On optical parts, inspect the condition of the in figure 14-17. The ball detent adjustment is a
silver on the cylindrical mirrors. If the reflect¬ replacement for the screw and circle adjusting
ing surface of either is defective, replace the ring; and if modifications are necessary, drill
mirrors. Proceed as follows to inspect mechan¬ holes to secure the ball detents. Note in illustra¬
ical parts: tion 14-17 the two small screw holes on the sides
1. Check for wear, dents, damaged threads, of the large hole for the ball detent.
burrs, and distortions. Materials required for installing the ball
NOTE: Judge defects on the basis of their detents consist of three ball detents (with
performance in the instrument, not on appear¬ springs and housing), six detent screws, three
ance. Performance of the instrument must be detent spacers, and an assortment of detent spa¬
perfect. cer shims. These are available in three thick¬
2. If the sight wire in the bottom sight frame nesses: .002, .003, and .004 inches.
is missing or damaged, install a new one. Observe the engraved markings on the circle
3. The recessed spots on the rear sight ring. If they are indistinct, clean them out with
and the front sight frame are used for sighting a scriber and refill with monofill. If the circle
and rough alignment at night. When necessary, requires paint, remove the old paint and repaint
refill these spots with monofill. it before you restore the engraved markings.
4. Inspect mechanical parts for appearance
and condition of finish. After repairs have been Straightening Distorted Rings
completed on a part, refinish or repaint the part,
If a circle ring is not flat, inspect the under¬
as required.
side for burrs, dents, or anything which may
Observe in illustration 14-16 the circle ad¬
prevent even seating. If you find defects, file
justing screw and the adjusting screw lock nut,
them down smooth with the surface of the ring.
and also the circle adjusting ring. Then look at
If a circle ring is bent, put it on a circle
testing ring and press down on top of the ring
(fig. 14-18) at various points to determine where
CURVED MIRROR CURVED MIRROR the ring is rocking. When you determine the
FRAME BACKING PLATE location of a bend, put the circle ring on a 2 x 4-
inch wood block on a bench, firmly grasp the
ring in two places, as shown in figure 14-19,
and press down on it hard enough to remove the
bend.
When an azimuth or bearing circle is out-
of-round, hammer it down over the circle re¬
pair ring, as shown in figure 14-20. Use a raw-
hide mallet and hammer all around the edge to
shape the ring. To remove an azimuth or bearing
circle ring from a repair ring, place both rings
inside the removing ring (part A, fig. 14-21),
which will support the azimuth or bearing circle
ring, and hammer the repair ring to drive it
down and out of the bearing circle ring.

Modification of a Circle Ring

All Mk 3, Mod 2, azimuth circle and Mk 1,
Mod 2, bearing circles must be modified to their
respective Mod 3 types when they are in the shop
for repair. To do this work, proceed as follows:
BRACKET SCREWS 1. Clamp the circle ring modifying drill jig
tool (part B, fig. 14-21) on the azimuth or bear¬
137.325 ing circle ring, with the jig’s guide mark aligned
Figure 14-14.— Curved mirror assembly. with the 120° line on the circle ring.

341
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

RIGHT -ANGLE RIGHT -ANGLE RIGHT -ANGLE

2.With a 13/32-inch diameter commercial resent the 0° to 180° and 0° and 270° axes of the
drill, drill a .406-inch hole in the circle ring, stand.
through the center hole of the jig. Then use a 6. The 90° and 270° points on the ring should
.0935-inch drill to drill the two side holes in the line up (within the width of a marking line) with
positions indicated in illustration 14-22 and tap the 90° to 270° dumb line on the circle testing
the holes with a No. 4-48NF-3 tap. ring. If they do not, try different spacer shims
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 at the 0C and 240° under the ball detents to get alignment of the 0°,
90°, 180°, and 270°points with the corresponding
points on the azimuth or bearing circle ring.
dumb lines of the testing ring.
4. Change Mod 2 on the data plate of the 7. As a further test of roundness which will
circle to Mod 3. give true readings for all points on the azimuth
5. Turn the assembly as necessary to line or bearing circle ring assembly, turn the ring to
up the 0C and 180° cardinal point with the 0° to align the 45° and 225° points with the 0° to 180°
180 DUMB LINE on the circle testing ring. dumb line on the testing ring. The 135° and 315°
points should now line up with the 90° to 270°
NOTE: The two DUMB LINES on the dummy dumb line. When you complete this test, try
stand of the collimator are lines drawn to rep¬ several other combinations around the ring.

342
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

CIRCLE ADJUSTING CIRCLE AZIMUTH OR

Figure 14-16. —Circle ring with adjusting screw lock nuts

and adjusting ring.

Wiring the Bottom Sight Frame 5. Place the bottom sight frame under the
bottom sight wire and position it to make the wire
If the bottom sight wire must be replaced in line up with the grooves. Then tighten the tension
the bottom sight frame, proceed as follows: key (fig. 14-23) to draw the wire tight across
1. Heat the solder which holds the sight wire the frame.
in the grooves in the bottom sight frame and re¬ 6. Hold the wire taut and solder it in the
move the old wire. See illustration 14-23. grooves in the frame.
CAUTION: Do NOT release the tension on the
2. With a triangular file, remove enough
solder from the grooves in the frame to provide wire until the solder has had time to cool and
harden. The wire must be tight and straight.
space for the new wire.
3. Cut a short length of No. 28 gage 7.
Clip the excess wire with a diagonal cutter
phosphorous-bronze wire and attach one end (fig. 14-23) and file off the excess solder, even
under the binding screw of the bottom sight with the face of the frame. Then paint the wire
wiring fixture (fig. 14-23). Wrap the other end black and touch up the solder with black paint.
of the wire around the tension key of the fixture
with the wire pulled around the pins on the REASSEMBLY PROCEDURE
fixture.
4. If you use a new frame, tin the wire The reassembly procedure for the Mk3, Mod
grooves with solder. There should always be 3, azimuth circle is presented in this section in
some solder in these grooves, whether the frame step-by-step operations. Exceptions in the pro¬
is new or old. cedure for a bearing circle are clearly noted.

343
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.328
Figure 14-17.— Circle ring with ball detents used for adjusting.

Rear Sight Assembly Front Sight and Black Mirror Assembly

To assemble the rear sight assembly, do the Refer to illustration 14-13 as you study the
following: procedure for reassembling the front sight and
1. Fit the rear sight between the bearing lugs black mirror assembly, as follows:
of the rear sight bracket, align the holes, and 1. Fit the black mirror frame between the
put a rear sight bearing pin in the aligned holes. rear set of lugs of the front sight and mirror
Support the lugs on an anvil block and tap the bracket, align the holes in both parts, and insert
pin in with a hammer. the black mirror bearing pin. Use an anvil block
2. If the bearing pin does not hold (by fric¬ for this operation. If the mirror does not stay in
tion) the rear sight in any position you place it, any position you put it, peen (spread) the ends
set the lugs on the anvil block and spread the end of the bearing pin. If this does not help, replace
of the bearing pin with a ball-peen hammer. If the frame and the bearing pin.
the hinge is still too loose, spread the other end 2. If the sight wire is missing from the front
of the pin. When this action does not produce sight frame, insert the front sight wire screws
enough friction, install a new rear sight and a in the frame, and cut a piece of black sight wire
rear sight bearing pin. about 2 1/2-inches long. Insert one end of the wire

344
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

AZIMUTH OR AZIMUTH OR

137.331
Figure 14-20.— Shaping a circle ring
with a rawhide hammer.

through one of the holes in the frame and wrap

it clockwise 11/2 turns under the head of the
front sight screw. Tighten the screw down on the
wire and insert the loose end of the wire in the
other hole in the frame. Pull the wire taut across
the frame with a small pair of long-nosed pliers
and wrap it 1 1/ 2 turns clockwise under the head
of the adjacent front sight wire screw. If any
wire remains, cut it off and tighten the screw
down on the wire.
3. Put the front sight assembly (fig. 14-13)
in the front sight and mirror bracket and insert
the front sight bearing pin. Tension exerted by
the bearing pin should hold this assembly in any
position; and if it is not, peen the ends of the
bearing pin. If the friction now is not satis¬
factory, replace the front sight frame and the
bearing pin.
4. Clean the black mirror, place it against
the black mirror frame (fig. 14-13), put theblack
mirror backing plate against it, and insert the
screws in the plate and tighten them. If the
mirror is loose in the frame, put a fish paper
Figure 14-19.— Removing bends from shim (same size as mirror) between the backing
a circle ring. plate and the mirror.

345
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

Diagonal
Cutter

A. Circle repair ring, with removing ring.

137.334
B. Circle ring modifying drill jig.
Figure 14-23.— Installing a bottom sight wire.
C. Bottom sight wiring fixture.
Figure 14-21.— Special service tools for azimuth
and bearing circles.
5. Put the front sight and black mirror as¬
sembly on top of the penta prism box and secure
it with screws.

Bottom Sight Assembly

Assembly of the bottom sight assembly is as

follows:
1. Screw the bottom sight assembly (fig. 14-
24) to the bottom of the penta prism box.
2. Clean the polished surfaces of the penta
prism, place a penta prism side shim on each
side of the prism, and slide it into its box (fig.
14-24). Use as many shims as required to get
a good fit.
NOTE: Cut the penta prism side shims from
.01 -inch-thick fish paper, a little smaller than
the actual dimensions of the side of the prism,
so that they will not extend into the sealing
bevel on the edges of the box.
3. Apply sealing compound all around the
Figure 14-22.— Measurements for drilling edge of the penta prism to seal it in the prism
a hole in a circle ring. box. The edges of the box are beveled to

346
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

All subassemblies of a Mk 1, Mod 3, bearing

BOTTOM BOTTOM
circle have now been reassembled. Reassembly
operations from this point to REASSEMBLY OF
ASSEMBLIES pertains only to the Mk 3, Mod 3,
azimuth circle.

Cylindrical Mirror Assembly

Refer to illustration 14-14 as you study the

procedure for reassembling the curved mirror
assembly. Proceed as follows:
1. Assemble the cylindrical mirror frame to
the cylindrical mirror bracket with the two cyl¬
indrical mirror bearing screws. Tighten the
screws and test the friction of the frame in the
bracket by moving the frame back and forth. If
it is loose, recheck the bearing screws for tight¬
ness. If it is still loose, disassemble the parts
and squeeze the split lugs of the bracket to¬
gether.
NOTE: Put cardboard on the lugs to protect
Figure 14-24.— Putting a penta prism
the finish when you squeeze them together.
in its box. 2. Clean the cylindrical mirror and place it
in its frame, uncoated side in.
3. Screw the cylindrical mirror backing
provide space for the compound. Use a spatula
plate (with spring) onto the back of the frame.
to smooth the compound flat with the edges of the
prism and the box.
Right-Angled Prism Assembly
Penta Spirit Level Assembly The procedure for reassembling the right-
Refer to illustration 14-11 as you study the angled spirit level assembly is illustrated in
following procedure for reassembling the penta figure 14-15 and is the same as for the penta
spirit level assembly: prism, previously explained under reassembly of
1. Wrap enough level tube liner (.005-inch- subassemblies.
thick white paper) around the spirit level to make Other steps in the reassembly of the right-
it fit snugly in the tube of the penta spirit level angled prism assembly are:
mount, with the spring. The paper must not cover 1. Attach the right-angled spirit level as¬
the portion of the level exposed and centered in sembly to the right-angled prism box with the
the opening in the top of the tube (area around the mounting screws.
two black leveling lines). See illustration 14-11. 2. Clean the right-angled prism with lens
2. Pack level tube wadding (white cotton) in tissue and place it in the right-angled prism box,
the tube against the ends of the spirit level and as shown in illustration 14-25.
screw a spirit level cap into each end of the tube. 3. Apply sealing compound all around the
NOTE: The caps should compress the wadding edges of the prism and the box, in the beveled
lightly, so add or remove wadding as necessary space provided for the compound.
to center the leveling lines of the spirit level in 4. Assemble the top cover to the prism box
the opening in the tube. with the two top cover screws. Seefigure 14-15.
3. Place one penta prism front shim on the 5. Clean the cylindrical lens with lens paper
long exposed surface of the penta prism and as¬ and place it flat side down in the opening in the
semble the penta spirit level assembly to the bottom of the right-angled prism box. NOTE:
penta prism box with the four penta spirit level The curved side of the lens faces out.
mount screws (fig. 14-11). 6. Apply sealing compound all around the
4. Apply sealing compound to the joint be¬ edges of the lens and box, in the beveled space
tween the top edge of the penta spirit level mount provided.
7. Screw the bottom cover to the prism box.
and the exposed face of the prism.

347
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

This last step completes the reassembly of a

Mk 1, Mod 3, bearing circle; but there are two
more steps in the assembly of a Mk 3, Mod 3,
azimuth circle, and they are explained next.

CYLINDRICAL MIRROR ASSEMBLY. -Study

figure 14-7. Screw the curved mirror assembly
to the azimuth circle ring assembly with the
two curved mirror bracket screws.

RIGHT-ANGLED PRISM ASSEMBLY. —Put

the right-angled prism assembly in position on
the azimuth circle ring assembly and secure it
with the four screws provided.
The Mk 3, Mod 3, azimuth circle is now
ready for final inspection, testing, and adjusting.

COLLIMATION

137.336 When you complete repairs on an azimuth or

Figure 14-25. —Putting a right-angled bearing circle, give the assembled instrument
prism in its box. a careful inspection. Test the ring assembly for
flatness and trueness; and if inspection results
are satisfactory, collimate the instrument.
Collimation of an azimuth or bearing circle
NOTE: The front cover of the prism box is is performed on a collimator which simulates
soldered on. a gyrocompass repeater or a standard ship
8. Assemble the right-angled prism bracket magnetic compass with the sun at a known azi¬
to the prism box. muth. Study the azimuth and bearing circle colli¬
The subassemblies of a Mk 3, Mod 3, azi¬ mator shown in figure 14-26. This collimator
muth circle have now been assembled. consists of a dummy stand, representing a cyro-
compass repeater, and an artificial sun aligned
with the 0° and 180° axis of the stand. Observe
Reassembly of Major Assemblies
the nomenclature in figure 14-26. Study particu¬
The procedure for assembling the major larly the enlarged view in the circle.
assemblies on the circle ring is given in the The following discussion on collimation is
following steps. Refer to illustration 14-7. for both azimuth and bearing circles. Pro¬
NOTE: Reassemble the counterweights and cedures inapplicable for a bearing circle are
all other parts to the bearing ring before you so designated.
start to install the major assemblies. See il¬
lustrations 14-16 and 14-17. ALIGNING THE REAR SIGHT

REAR SIGHT ASSEMBLY. —Attach the rear

sight assembly to the bearing circle ring as¬ The procedure for aligning the rear sight
sembly. If the original parts are being used, of an azimuth or bearing circle is as follows:
1. Put the circle assembly on the collimator
align the holes for the rear sight dowel pins and
stand, as shown in illustration 14-26.
tap them in.
2. Turn the circle assembly as necessary to
FRONT SIGHT AND PRISM ASSEMBLY. - align the 0°, 180°, 90°, and 270° marks, called
Attach the front sight, mirror, prism, and level cardinal points, of the azimuth circle ring with
assembly to the ring assembly with the screws the four cardinal points on the collimator stand,
provide. If you are using original parts, align with the 180° mark set to the zero point. The rear
the holes for the front sight dowel pins and tap sight will then be toward the artificial sun of the
the pins in. collimator.

348
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

3. Turn the rear sight to a vertical position (fish paper, for example) on one side in order
and note the shadow of the sight cast by the arti¬ to get alignment.
ficial sun on the collimator stand. Light which
passes through the slot should be centered on the If the light is not even all along the length,
0° to 180° dumb line on the stand. If the light is loosen the rear sight bracket screws and shift
not aligned at one end or the other, use a shim the rear sight assembly sideways. Turn the sight

349
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

from the vertical position to the horizontal po¬ LEVELING THE PENTA SPIRIT LEVEL
sition and observe the light through the slot.
If should still be centered on the dumb line; and
To level the penta spirit level, do the fol¬
if it is out at one end, loosen the rear sight
lowing:
bracket screws and turn the whole rear sight
1. Since the collimator stand is level, the
assembly. Then check vertical and horizontal
bubble in the spirit level should be centered
alignment in all positions.
between the leveling lines on the level. To make
NOTE: If the rear sight dowel pins were
a SMALL adjustment, loosen the penta level
assembled and the rear sight assembly needs
mounting screws and adjust the spirit level as¬
adjustment, drive out the pins and effect neces¬
sembly as necessary to center the bubble. When
sary adjustment. Then replace the dowel pins.
a GREATER AMOUNT of adjustment is neces¬
sary to center the bubble, remove the spirit level
FRONT SIGHT, BLACK MIRROR, caps and shim the level with cotton wadding and
AND BOTTOM SIGHT paper liner.
At this point, a Mk 1, Mod 3, bearing circle
is completely aligned. The next step in colli-
To align the front sight, the black mirror,
mation for this instrument is “Dowelling the
and the bottom sight, proceed as follows:
Front and Rear Sights,” which is explained later.
1. Align the 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° marks
For a Mk 3, Mod 3, azimuth circle you must
on the circle ring with the corresponding points
collimate the azimuth elements.
on the collimator stand; that is, at the ends of the
dumb lines.
2. Look through the rear sight at the face of CYLINDRICAL MIRROR AND RIGHT-
the penta prism for the reflection of the bottom ANGLED PRISM ALIGNMENT
sight wire and the dumb line on the collimator
stand. The reflected dumb line should line up with
The procedure for aligning the cylindrical
the front sight wire (with the front sight as¬
mirror and the right-angled prism follows:
sembly vertical).
Turn the azimuth circle assembly to bring
3. Raise both front and rear sights to the
the face of the cylindrical mirror toward the ar¬
vertical position and sight through the front sight tificial sun. The 90° and 270° marks on the azi¬
at the rear sight. The front sight wire should be
muth circle ring must be aligned with the 0° to
exactly centered along the slot in the rear sight. 180° dumb line on the collimator stand. The 90°
If each sight was properly aligned, the front and
mark should be set at the 0° end of the dumb
rear sight will align with each other.
line.
4. Look through the sights and raise the black
mirror to reflect the artificial sun. The front
sight wire should appear to split the image of LEVELING THE RIGHT-ANGLED
the artificial sun for all positions of the mirror SPIRIT LEVEL
which reflects the sun into the sights. If the sun
is displaced to one side throughout the travel, The right-angled spirit level bubble should be
disassemble the mirror and place a thin strip centered between the two leveling lines on the
of shim paper between the long edge of the mir¬ level. Make small adjustments by loosening the
ror and its frame on the opposite side to which right-angled level mounting screws and shifting
the image was displaced. If the image is off at the right-angled spirit level assembly. For
one end of the mirror only, shim the opposite larger adjustments, remove the two spirit level
corner across from the direction of displace¬ caps and shim the right-angled spirit level.
ment. This last step completes the collimation pro¬
5. Look through the rear sight into the face cedure for a Mk 3, Mod 3, azimuth circle.
of the penta prism at the image of the bottom
sight wire and the 0° to 180° dumb line on the
DOWELLING THE FRONT
collimator stand. The bottom sight wire should
AND REAR SIGHTS
coincide with the dumb line; and if it does not,
shift the bottom sight assembly as required to
bring the bottom sight wire into coincidence with The front sight, mirror, prism and level
the dumb line. assembly, and the rear sight assembly must be

350
 Chapter 14-AZIMUTH AND BEARING CIRCLES

dowelled to an azimuth or bearing circle ring. FINAL SHOP INSPECTION

To do this, proceed in the following manner:
After you collimate an azimuth or bearing
1 . If the sights need realignment, the original
circle, give it a final inspection to make certain
holes for the dowel pins may be slightly mis¬
everything concerning repair and adjustment of
place. When this is the case, use a tapered bot¬
the instrument is satisfactory. Inspect as fol¬
tom reamer to enlarge and form a straight tap¬
lows:
ered hole and install a tapered dowel pin.
1. Check the circle for completeness of
2. If a new azimuth or bearing circle ring parts.
was assembled, use the original holes in the rear 2. Inspect the general appearance, finish of
sight bracket and the penta prism box. With a parts, tightness in the assembly, legibility of
.086-inch drill, drill holes 1/8-inch deep in the engravings, and tightness of screws.
azimuth or bearing circle. Then assemble the 3. Examine optical parts for defects and
rear and front sight dowel pins. See illustration cleanliness.
14-7. 4. Inspect the pivot tension of the front and
3. If you must use a new rear sight bracket rear sight vanes, and the black and cylindrical
or penta prism box, plug the original holes and mirror assemblies.
use an .086-inch drill to make new holes 1/8- Make final notations (if any) on the casualty
inch deep in the ring and assemble the front and analysis sheet for the instrument and put it in the
rear sight dowel pins. case.

351
 CHAPTER 15

SEXTANTS

A sextant is an instrument used for meas¬ and forth along the horizontal board. To take a
uring the angle between two objects. The arc on sight, the navigator sighted from the end of the
which the scale for reading angles is engraved horizontal board to the celestial body and then
is approximately one-sixth of a circle; hence the moved the vertical board until its tip was on his
name of the instrument, SEXTANT. line of sight. All the while, he had to keep the
When a ship is at sea and away from visible horizontal board pointed at the horizon. A scale
landmarks, the navigator must use celestial on the horizontal board at the point where the
navigation to determine his ship’s position. vertical board crossed it gave him the angle
Celestial navigation is possible because the navi¬ formed by the celestial body with the horizon.
gator can use a sextant to determine the angle Although Sir Isaac Newton was probably the
which the sun or another celestial body makes first man to put in writing the idea of the modern
with the visible horizon. He can then determine sextant, a man by the name of Hadley was per¬
the position of the particular celestial body at haps the first man who actually made one (1731).
the time he took the sight by referring to Since that time many improvements have been
the NAUTICAL ALMANAC. If he knows the po¬ made to sextants, with the result that those in use
sition of the celestial body at the TIME OF SIGHT today are very accurate.
and the angle it makes with the horizon, he can
(after applying certain correction factors) as¬
certain the exact position of his ship. TYPES OF SEXTANTS
A sextant is well adapted for measuring
angles at sea for three reasons: The only sextants currently in use in the Navy
1. It is small, light, and can be held easily are the PIONEER and the DAVID WHITE, and
in one hand. both of these are designated as ENDLESS
2. It does not need a stable mounting. TANGENT SCREW TYPES. During your study of
3. It measures angles accurately to the near¬ the next few pages you will learn the meaning of
est tenth of a minute. “endless tangent screw.”
Two of the earliest types of sextants are This chapter is limited in scope to a discus¬
shown in figure 15-1. The ASTROLABE was a sion of David White sextants, with references to
round, wooden disk with graduations from 0° to differences in the pioneer sextant. The David
359 degrees. A movable wooden pointer was White sextant is used much more extensively
fastened to the center of the disk. The instrument than the Pioneer.
was suspended from a plumbline, supposedly to
keep the horizon line level. When a navigator
desired to measure the altitude of a star with this CONSTRUCTION
sextant, he sighted along the pointer to aim at a
star and then read the scale on the disk at the end At this point, study illustration 15-2, par¬
of the pointer. ticularly the nomenclature and location of parts.
The CROSS STAFF had a little more accuracy Refer to this illustration as you study the con¬
than an astrolabe but it had one big disadvantage— struction of the instrument.
the navigator had to look in two directions at the The principal parts of a sextant are:
same time. A cross staff was made of two wooden 1. ARC, OR LIMB. The arc of a sextant is
boards at right angles to each other, as illustra¬ the lower curved part of the frame, with a scale
ted, and the vertical board could be moved back graduated in degrees engraved on it (fig. 15-2).

352
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

Gear teeth (one tooth to each degree on the scale)

are cut in the lower edge of the arc.
2. INDEX ARM. The index arm moves on a
pivot mounted at the geometric center of the
arc, and the index mirror is attached to the upper
part of the arm (at the pivot). The index mirror
is silvered plate glass and moves with the index
arm. Its plane is perpendicular to the plane of
the index arm.
Near the lower end of the index arm is the
index mark, where you read the plane of the arc.
The endless tangent screw (fig. 15-3), attached
to the lower part of the index arm, engages the
gear teeth on the arc.
If you turn the tangent screw through one
revolution, you advance the index mark one
degree. A micrometer drum and vernier are
mounted on the shaft of the tangent screw to en¬
able an observer to read an angle accurately to
a small part of a degree. Up to and including
90 degrees, the maximum permissible error for
137.338 declination and inclination readings is plus or
Figure 15-1.— Early types of sextants. minus 30 seconds of arc. Above 90 degrees, the

INDEX MIRROR
TELESCOPE
TELESCOPE HOLDER

INDEX MIRROR
FILTER

•TELESCOPE HOLDER
HORIZON MIRROR LOCK SCREW

% FRAME

NDEX ARM

HORIZON MIRROR
FILTER

INDEX ARM STOP SCREW

GEAR TEETH RELEASE LEVERS

"VERNIER SCALE
HANDLE
GUIDE RACK
MICROMETER DRUM

MICROMETER
KNOB LOCK SCREW -MICROMETER KNOB

29.268
Figure 15-2.— David White endless tangent screw (ETS) sextant.

353
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

CENTER
COVER -

LEG

137.339
Figure 15-3.— Bottom view of a David White sextant.

maximum permissible error is plus or minus through the sextant telescope. The image is re¬
35 seconds of arc. flected from the index mirror to the horizon
NOTE: DECLINATION readings are taken by mirror.
going one degree ABOVE the required reading, The outer half of the horizon glass is clear
and then by rotating the micrometer drum to set to enable an observer to see the horizon through
the index mark at the required reading. INCLI¬ it. The horizon glass is perpendicular to the plane
NATION readings are taken by starting one of the arc; and when the index mark is at 0° on
degree BELOW the required reading, and then the scale, the horizon glass is parallel to the
by setting the index mark to the required reading index mirror.
with the micrometer drum. 4. TELESCOPE. A sextant telescope enables
When you press the two release levers to¬ an observer to see objects (images) more
gether (fig. 15-2), you disengage the tangent clearly, and it helps him to direct his line of
screw from the gear teeth of the arc and obtain sight to the horizon glass. The telescope has
freedom of movement of the index arm. a magnification of 3, and its resolving power
3. HORIZON GLASS. The horizon glass (fig. must be 18 seconds of arc in the center of the
15-2) is attached to the frame and does NOT field.
move. The half of the glass closest to the frame 5. POLAROID FILTERS. There are two sets
is silvered so that it will reflect images of ce¬ of polaroid filters. When an observer looks
lestial bodies to the eye of an observer looking through the clear part of the horizon glass, he

354
 Chapter 15 -SEXTANTS

should use the filters with circular frames to of sight as rays from the horizon. Your next
reduce glare from the horizon. He should use step, therefore, is to read the angle on the
the shades with square frames to eliminate or graduated scale at point V.
reduce glare produced by the reflected image. Because one degree on the arc is marked as
two degrees on the scale, when angle VIZ is 15°
the pointer at V shows exactly 30° on the scale.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION If the sextant is to give a true reading, angle
COD must therefore be twice angle VIZ. How
A sextant consists basically of two optical can you prove that it is of this size?
systems, one rotatable and one fixed, and a sex¬ Line FE in the diagram is the normal to the
tant must have both to perform satisfactorily. index mirror and HE is the normal to the hori¬
If you understand how these optical systems zon glass. Angle CIF is therefore the angle of
function, you will have little difficulty in under¬ incidence on the index mirror, and FIH is the
standing the principle of operation of a sextant. angle of reflection. Because both of these angles
are equal, as you learned in chapter 3, we can
FIXED OPTICAL SYSTEM designate both as a; and since the angles of inci¬
dence and reflection at the horizon glass are also
The components of the fixed optical system equal, we can call both of them angle b.
of a David White or Pioneer sextant are: (1) a Line IZ goes from the geometrical center of
horizon mirror, and (2) a telescope. Study part the arc to the zero mark on the scale, and the
X of illustration 15-4. You already learned in horizon glass is always parallel to this line.
this chapter the function of these components. Since line HE is perpendicular to the horizon
glass, it is also perpendicular to line IZ. Line
ROTATABLE OPTICAL SYSTEM IV lies along the reflecting surface of the index
mirror, so it is also perpendicular to the normal
The rotatable optical system of a sextant is (FE).
composed of the index arm and the index mirror, A theorem in plane geometry states that: “If
which is mounted on the index arm. See part X the two arms of an angle are respectively per¬
of figure 15-4. The index arm rotates around a pendicular to the two arms of another angle, the
center point (top), and it indicates on the sextant two angles are equal.’’ Angles VIZ andlEH are
arc scale (by means of an index mark) the angle therefore equal. A principle of operation of a
in degrees a celestial body makes with the vis¬ sextant also states that: “The angle between the
ible horizon. first and last directions of a ray of light that
has suffered two reflections in the same plane is
OPERATION OF THE OPTICAL SYSTEMS equal to twice the angle that the two reflecting
surfaces make with each other.’’ The reflecting
Study part Y of illustration 15-4, which is a surfaces in this case are the index mirror and
schematic diagram of a sextant. Compare this the silvered section of the horizon mirror.
part with part X. The letter C represents a It follows in reverse order, then, that if the
celestial body whose angular altitude you must celestial body you have under observation is 60
know. Your eye is at point 0, which would be above the visible horizon, the angle which the
next to the eyepiece of the telescope shown in index mirror and the silvered section of the
part X. Line OD is your direct line of sight to horizon mirror must make with each other to
the horizon. This means that angle COD is the bring the celestial body tangent to the visible
one you must determine, because it represents horizon is 30 degrees. This is just half the
the angle of the celestial body above the horizon. angular height of the celestial body.
The horizon glass is represented by H, and
I is the index mirror, attached to index arm IV. READING A SEXTANT
When you swing the index arm along arc AB, you
change the angle of the index mirror. When you The scale on the arc of a sextant is graduated
move the arm to the point where the reflected in degrees. From this scale, therefore, you can
image of the celestial body appears to lie on the read with accuracy ONLY TO the nearest de¬
horizon, rays from the body travel from C to I, gree. Look at the index mark and read the num¬
from I to H, and from H to O. As you can see, ber of degrees on the arc. Then use the microm¬
these rays enter your eye along the same line eter to get a more accurate reading.

355
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Y
137.340
Figure 15-4. —Schematic drawing of the principle of operation of a sextant.

356
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

The micrometer drum has a scale with sixty

divisions, and each division represents one
minute of arc. To increase further the accuracy
of the reading, use the vernier scale located
alongside the micrometer drum. This scale
has ten divisions and enables you to determine
the angle being measured to one-tenth of a
minute, or to the nearest six seconds or arc.
To read a sextant, therefore, you read de¬
grees on the arc at the index mark. Then you add
the number of minutes read on the micrometer
drum, and also the number of tenths of a minute
you read on the vernier scale.
Study illustration 15-5, which gives two
sample sextant readings. In part A of this il¬
lustration, the reading on the arc is 13 plus
(at the index mark), the 0 mark on the vernier
scale is between 16 and 17, and the first mark on
the vernier which coincides with a mark on the
drum is 7 on the vernier scale; so the reading
is 13°16.7\ The reading in part B of figure 15-5
is 55°25.2\

OVERHAUL AND REPAIR

Overhaul and repair procedures discussed

in this section are for Mk 2 endless tangent
screw David White sextants. Space does not
permit a detailed discussion of Pioneer sex¬
tants; but to the degree possible, differences
in procedure for the Pioneer instrument are
explained.
Go back at this time and review the repair
procedures given in chapter 8.

PREDISASSEMBLY INSPECTION
29.268(69)
A preliminary decision must always be made Figure 15-5. -Examples of sextant readings.
concerning the feasibility of repair of an instru¬
ment. This is the purpose of a predisassembly
inspection, to determine whether the instrument
should be repaired or surveyed and salvaged; and
if repair is the decision, the extent of dis¬ 5. Cleanliness and physical condition of the
telescope assembly. If mounted, remove the
assembly required.
Some of the things to check when giving a telescope from its sliding bracket before you
sextant a predisassembly inspection include: make this test.
1. Condition of silver on mirrors. NOTE: Be certain the diopter scale refer¬
2. Corrosion, and failure of protective fin¬ ence mark is at the top when you mount the
sextant telescope in the sliding bracket.
ishes.
3. Evidence of unauthorized tampering and 6. Action of the diopter focusing ring. It
should be smooth over the entire diopter scale
disassembly.
4. Appearance, finish, and condition of parts range, but it should be fairly tight.
7. Polaroid filter assemblies. There should
in the sextant assembly. Examine scale markings
be no cracks or chips, cloudiness, or dark spots
for legibility.

357
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

caused by dirt or moisture between the indi¬ Index Arm and Worm Frame Assembly
vidual glasses of each filter.
The index arm and worm frame assembly
NOTE: Polaroid filters must have a protec¬
(fig. 15-9) are attached to the male center, which
tive coating on their edges.
is critically important in the instrument. Re¬
8. Rack teeth. Check with an eye loupe
move first the center lock screw and washer
for wear, bends, and chipping. Clean the rack
before removing the arm.
teeth, the endless tangent worm and worm gear
Remove the index arm stop screw from the
thread, and the guide slot with a suction line or a
O-degree end of the arc. Then press the release
ny^pn brush.
levers together and swing the index arm free
of the arc, as shown in illustration 15-10.
DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE The last step completes the removal of major
assemblies from the sextant, with the exception
To prevent confusion of terms, removal of of male and female centers, which should NEVER
major assemblies from the sextant is considered be removed.
first. Disassembly of the subassemblies then
follows. Before proceeding, study the special Disassembly of the Worm Frame Assembly
service tools for sextants (fig. 15-6).
Before you can disassemble the worm frame
assembly, you must first remove it from the
Removal of Mirror Filter Assemblies
index arm:
1. Remove the retainer block screw from the
Remove the mirror filter assemblies first to
back of the index arm to free the worm frame
eliminate unnecessary chances of damaging
retainer block (fig. 15-11).
them. The parts of these assemblies are shown
2. With an end thrust nut wrench (fig. 15-6),
in figure 15-7. Remove the screws which se¬
remove the disengaging lever end thrust nut and
cure these assemblies, along with the washers
lift the disengaging lever and shoe off the pivot
and spring, and then carefully remove the as¬
screw bushing. Then remove the disengaging
semblies and protect them in a parts tray.
lever pivot screw (fig. 15-11) from the back of
the index arm.
Horizon Mirror Mounting, Bracket, and
NOTE: If the disengaging lever shoe remains
Filter Bracket Assembly
in its recess in the worm frame during this
operation, remove the shoe from its recess and
With a capstan head screw pin wrench (fig.
place it with the disengaging lever.
15-6), remove the horizon mirror and filter
bracket capstan head screw. See illustration 3. Remove the end-thrust spring screws to
release the spring from the worm frame (fig.
15-8. Then remove the horizon mirror and
15-11).
filter bracket screw and the assembly.
4. With a forked screwdriver (fig. 15-6),
remove the end-thrust screw from the end of the
Removal of Index Mirror Mounting shaft of the endless tangent worm and shaft
worm gear. See figure 15-11.
Remove the index mirror mounting screws 5. Remove the spring support block screw
which secure the mounting to the index arm and from the back of the index arm (fig. 15-11).
worm frame assembly (fig. 15-8). 6. With a pivot screw lock nut screwdriver
CAUTION: Exercise extreme care to pre¬ (fig. 15-6), remove the worm frame pivot screw
vent damage to the index arm. Rough treatment lock nut (fig. 15-11); then remove the pivot
will damage it beyond repair. screw and tension washer.
Refer to illustrations 15-11 and 15-12 as you
Removal of Telescope Bracket Assembly Study the procedure for disassembling the worm
frame assembly.
To remove the telescope bracket assembly, 1. Remove the worm frame holding spring
grasp the sextant by its handle and hold it close stop screw and the spring from inside the worm
to the bench. Then, with an adjusting-screw frame.
wrench (fig. 15-6), remove the telescope bracket 2. Remove the drum lock screw and the
assembly, which secures the telescope to the washer and slide the micrometer drum off its
frame (fig. 15-2). adapter.

358
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

3. Remove the adapter lock pin by pressing it Horizon Mirror Mounting, Bracket, and
out. If necessary, drive it out with a pin and mal¬ Filter Bracket Assembly
let. Then slide the micrometer drum adapter
off the shaft of the endless tangent worm and shaft Proceed as follows to disassembly the parts
worm gear. Be careful NOT to bend the worm named in this heading:
gear shaft. 1. Remove the horizon mirror mounting
4. Remove the vernier yoke clamp screw coupling screw (fig. 15-15) and the top adjusting
and slip the yoke off the front worm bearing. To screw directly below the mounting coupling
remove the front bearing cap, remove the screw hole. The mirror mounting will then be
screws which secure it. free. Then remove the bottom mounting adjust¬
ing screw.
The front bearing cap is lapped to the worm
2. Remove the mirror bracket coupling
frame. If these parts were not marked by the
screw and the inner bracket adjusting screw.
manufacturer to ensure their being kept together,
Then remove the outer mirror bracket adjusting
scribe a mark on one face of the front bearing
screw.
cap and on the worm frame. See illustration
15-13.
Disassembly of the Polaroid Filter
If you must remove the front bearing cap
Assembly
locating pin (fig. 15-12), support the bearing
cap (protected by pads) between the jaws of a vise
To disassemble either the index or the hori¬
and press on the pin, or tap it lightly with a
zon mirror polaroid filter assembly, proceed
flat-end pin and mallet (fig. 15-6). Then re¬
as follows:
move the rear worm bearing clamping screw and 1. Remove the filter yoke screw (fig. 15-16)
push the bearing out of the frame.
and slide the yoke off the assembly.
Slide the endless tangent worm and shaft
2. Put the filter assembly on a bench with the
worm gear out of the worm frame (fig. 15-12) and
filter holder facing up and rotate the holder
place the frame with the front bearing cap. Be
counterclockwise until it is stopped by the pin in
very careful NOT to damage bearing surfaces.
the holder. Then press down on the filter with
Slide the front worm bearing off the worm gear
your index finger with a sliding counterclockwise
shaft and wrap it in tissue paper.
motion and push the rotating filter holder out of
To remove the vernier yoke locating pin the fixed filter holder.
(fig. 15-12) in the front worm bearing, grasp 3. Disassemble the filter spacer, the filters,
the bearing firmly between the index finger and and the filter spring from the holders.
the thumb of one hand and remove the pin with
a pair of flat-nosed pliers. Disassembly of the Telescope
Bracket Assembly
Disassembly of the Index Arm Use the procedure outlined next to disas¬
semble the telescope bracket assembly:
The index arm guide lugs, stationary lever, 1. Remove the clamp nut screw from the
and index arm stiffening rib (fig. 15-14) are telescope sliding bracket clamp nut. See illustra¬
generally left assembled to the index arm. If tion 15-17.
these parts must be removed, however, do the 2. Unscrew the bracket clamp nut by hand and
following: remove the parts secured to it. Then remove the
1. Remove the stationary lever screws from bracket retainer screw from the bracket support.
the back of the index arm to free the lever. If necessary, remove the fulcrum pin with a pin
2. Remove the index arm guide lug (fig. 15- punch and a light hammer.
14). Then turn the index arm guide lug over and
scribe the letter R beside the hole in which the Disassembly of the Sextant Frame Assembly
lug fits. Scribe the letter Lon the left hand index
arm guide lug and screw. At this stage of disassembly, you have re¬
3. Remove the stiffening rib from the back of moved everything from the sextant frame as¬
the index arm and put a reassembly guide mark sembly except the: (1) rack, (2) handle assembly,
on the top of the rib, the part near the male cen¬ (3) arc support studs, (4) index filter stop stud,
ter (removed in this illustration). and (5) the index arm center assembly. The rack

359
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

NYLON BUFFING BRUSH

LENS
MOUNTING
ASSEMBLY
EXTRACTOR

COLLECTIVE LENS COLLECTIVE AND ERECTOR LENS TELESCOPE ERECTOR LENS

RETAINER RING WRENCH EYEPIECE LENS RETAINER RING FLAT WRENCH SUCTION ADAPTER
WRENCH WRENCH

FRONT COLLECTIVE AND REAR COLLECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE ADJUSTING

ERECTOR LENS ADJUSTING EYEPIECE LENS ADJUSTING TUBE
SLEEVE SLEEVE

Figure 15-6. —Special service tools. 137.341

360
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

ADJUSTING SCREW
EXTENSION PIN SUPPORT STUD PIN CAPSTAN HEAD SCREW
WRENCH
WRENCH WRENCH PIN WRENCH

GUIDE SLOT SCRAPER

Figure 15-6. —Special service tools— Continued. 137.341

361
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

FILTER FILTER ASSEMBLY INDEX MIRROR

ASSEMBLY PIVOT SCREW POLAROID FILTER
PIVOT ASSEMBLY
FLAT
WASHER

FILTER INDEX FILTER

ASSEMBLY STOP STUD
PIVOT
SPRING
WASHER
INDEX MIRROR
CLAMPING SCREW
(TOP)
FILTER
ASSEMBLY
PIVOT
SCREW

HORIZON MIRROR
CLAMPING SCREW

INDEX MIRROR

INDEX MIRROR
FRAME

INDEX MIRROR
CLAMPING SCREW
(Bottom)

INDEX MIRROR
BACK PLATE

137.342
Figure 15-7.— Sextant mirror filter assemblies.

and frame are considered as one unit, and the grip. Then disassemble all parts of the grip
rack must NEVER be removed from the sextant handle, as shown.
frame.
Telescope Eyepiece and Field Lens
Remove the grip assembly screws (fig. 15-
Assembly
18), the hand grip cap-stud end support, the
hand grip retainer screw (to remove hand grip To disassemble the eyepiece and field lens, do
support), and the cap-stud screw from the hand the following:

362
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

HORIZON MIRROR
and FILTER BRACKET

137.343
Figure 15-8.— Horizon mirror mounting, bracket, and filter bracket assembly.

1. Remove the key screw and slide the eye¬ wrench and the eyepiece lens mount assembly
piece and field lens assembly off the end of the wrench.
telescope body. See illustration 15-19. When you 3. To disassemble the eyepiece lens mount
have the assembly moved far enough off the body assembly, remove the retainer ring lock screw
to expose the eyepiece movement shoe (illus¬ in the side of the eyepiece lens mount.
trated) pick out the shoe from its slot in the body. 4. With a flat telescope wrench, unscrew and
Scribe reassembly guide marks on the eyepiece remove retaining ring for lenses F and G.
cap, diopter focusing ring, and the eyepiece lens 5. Tip the eyepiece lens mount for lenses F

mount assembly. and G over a pad of lens tissue on the workbench

and carefully slide the lenses and spacers out of
2. Remove the lock screw in the diopter the mount and onto the cloth. With a BLACK lead
focusing ring (top part, fig. 15-19) and unscrew pencil, mark the first lens which comes out with
the eyepiece cap and the eyepiece lens mount an F, on its edge; and mark the last lens out at

assembly. If necessary, use the eyepiece cap the same place with a G.

363
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

4. Tip the retaining housing for lens C and

slide the lens onto lens tissue and put the letter
C on the lens.

Body Tube and Objective Lens Assembly

Scribe reassembly guide marks on all parts

of the body tube and the objective lens assembly;
mark also the obj ective end of the telescope body.
Then do the following:
1. Remove the lock screw on the objective
end of the telescope body and unscrew the
(Objective lens mount. The retaining housing as¬
29.268 sembly for lens B also comes out at this time.
Figure 15-9.— Removing the index arm. 2. Grasp the objective lens mount by its
knurled edge and unscrew the retaining housing
assembly for lens B from the mount. If it is
Disassembly of the Telescope Body stuck or frozen, use a retainer housing wrench.
3. Remove objective lens A from its mount
Before you disassemble the telescope body, and put the letter A on its edge.
scribe a reassembly line across the two halves 4. Follow the same procedure as for lens C
and the erector lens mount (fig. 15-19). to disassemble the retainer housing assembly for
The telescope body is composed of two halves lens B.
threaded onto the erector lens mount assembly This completes the amount of disassembly
and locked in place with two lock screws (fig. you will perform on sextants in optical shops.
15-19). Remove the lock screws and unscrew The next step in the repair procedure is inspec¬
the two halves of the body from the erector lens tion of disassembled parts.
mount assembly. If necessary, use a telescope
body and objective lens mount wrench. INSPECTION OF DISASSEMBLED PARTS
NOTE: The telescope securing ring is force-
fitted to the eyepiece end of the telescope body During the predisassembly inspection of the
and must not be disassembled from the body. Ob¬ sextant you made recommendations concerning
jective lenses A and B are in the objective end some parts on the casualty analysis sheet for the
of the body and comprise the body tube and ob¬ instrument. After disassembly, inspect all dis¬
jective lens assembly. Set this aside for further assembled parts and make a decision concerning
disassembly. their usability. If they are still good, clean them
in the approved manner and protect them until
Disassembly of the Erector Lens
Mount Assembly

Scribe a reassembly guide mark on the

erector lens retaining housing and on the mount
before you disassemble an erector lens mount
assembly. Then continue as follows:
1. Unscrew the retaining housing for lens C
from the erector lens mount and mark the housing
with a C.
2. Put lens tissue on the workbench and
gently spill erector lenses D and E (fig. 15-19)
from the lens mount onto the tissue. With a
black lead pencil, put the letter D on the first
lens out; mark the second lens with an E.
3. Remove the lock screw in the retaining 29.268
housing assembly for lens C; then remove the Figure 15-10.— Index arm removed from
retaining ring and mark it with a C. the frame.

364
 Chapter 15 -SEXTANTS

RETAINER BLOCK

365
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

BEARING SCREW
CLAMPING
SCREW

137.345
Figure 15-12.— Disassembled worm frame assembly.

needed. Put parts which can be repaired in a Components of the worm frame assembly are
special tray; discard parts which have no further listed in the parts list for the David White sextant
usefulness. in the repair manual for the instrument (NavShips
At this time, review the discussion of mainte¬ 250-624-10). All parts are replaceable indi¬
nance in chapter 8. vidually except the worm frame and the front
A sextant’s accuracy is dependent upon ac¬ bearing cap. If either of these parts must be re¬
curate engagement of the endless tangent worm placed, get the worm frame and front bearing cap
and shaft worm gear in the sextant rack teeth. assembly.
Nicks or burrs on the rack teeth, or high spots
on the worm gear thread, will cause large errors The index arm and its stiffening rib are fitted
in readings. together to form the index arm assembly and are

366
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

SCRIBER mount against the end of the diopter focusing

ring. Then place the eyepiece cap in the diopter
focusing ring.
With a drill .0595 inch in diameter, drill a
hole approximately l/16-inch deep in the diopter
focusing ring and into the eyepiece lens mount
and eyepiece cap. This hole shouldbe9/64 inch
from the eyepiece cap end of the ring, at the
point where the two parts butt together in the
diopter focusing ring. Be careful, lest you drill
completely through the mount and cap and damage
the surface of the eyepiece lens.
To provide room for the head of the lock
screw, counterbore the hole in the diopter focus¬
ing ring a depth of .040 inch and with a diameter
of .140 inch. Tap the drilled hole for a No.
1-72NF thread and assemble the lock screw.
Then put an assembly mark on the eyepiece cap
and also on the mount.

Scraping the Rack Teeth

Examine the rack teeth carefully with an eye

loupe to locate defective teeth. Then hold the

BEARING CAP
137.346
INDEX ARM
Figure 15-13.— Scribing reassembly guide marks STIFFENING RIB

on the worm frame and the front bearing cap.

not available separately. If either part is dam¬

aged, procure a complete index arm assembly.
Inspect the condition of cement between
lenses, and the condition of the silver on the
horizon and index mirrors. Inspect each polaroid
filter for the condition of the cement between the
glass elements, and also the condition of the pro¬
tective coating around the edge of the filter.

REPAIR PROCEDURE

The following discussion of repair of a David

White sextant pertains to some of the repairs
you will be required to perform on the instru¬
ment. Repair involves everything necessary to
put the sextant in excellent working condition, in
accordance with prescribed standards.

Replacing the Diopter Focusing Ring

Put the eyepiece lens mount in the diopter 137.347

focusing ring, with the flange on the eyepiece lens Figure 15-14. — Disassembled index arm.

367
 OPTIC A LM AN 3 & 2

HORIZON MIRROR BRACKET

ADJUSTING SCREW (Inner)

HORIZON MIRROR
MOUNTING ADJUSTING HORIZON MIRROR BRACKET
SCREW (Bottom) ADJUSTING SCREW (Outer)

HORIZON MIRROR
MOUNTING ADJUSTING
SCREW (Top)
L_

HORIZON MIRROR
MOUNTING COUPLING
SCREW

HORIZON MIRROR
MOUNTING

HORIZON MIRROR
BRACKET
HORIZON MIRROR
BRACKET COUPLING
HORIZON FILTER SCREW
STOP STUD

HORIZON MIRROR
and
FILTER BRACKET
137.348
Figure 15-15.— Horizon mirror mounting, bracket, and filter bracket assembly.

sextant assembly in the manner shown in illus¬ in order to attain the degree of accuracy re¬
tration 15-20 while you remove burrs or nicks on quired of sextants. For this reason, you must
the teeth with a sextant rack tooth scraper. The remove high spots or burrs on the worm gear
purpose of this operation is to bring the teeth thread. Examine the worm gear thread with an
back to almost perfect condition without remov¬ eye loupe for burrs or other defects. High spots
ing TOO MUCH metal. will show up as small, highly polished areas
on the surface of the thread.
Endless Tangent Worm and Place a worm gear support block in a bench
Shaft Worm Gear Thread vise and hold the endless tangent worm and shaft
worm gear on the block as you remove with a
The endless tangent worm and shaft worm triangular stone existing burrs or high spots
gear thread must fit the rack teeth perfectly on the worm gear thread.

368
 Chapter 13-SEXTANTS

or lifting of the worm gear. If this still occurs,

apply a fine film of sextant rack and worm gear
lapping compound to the teeth with a small,
soft-bristle brush. Then run the worm gear back
and forth over the entire length of the rack. Do
NOT press down on the worm gear. With an
approved solvent and a nylon brush, clean the
lapping compound from the teeth and thread and
recheck the movement of the worm gear thread
in the rack teeth.

137.349
Figure 15-16.— Disassembled polaroid
filter assembly.

CAUTION: If you damage the worm gear

thread, you will be required to procure a new
worm frame assembly, complete with pivot.

Lapping the Worm and Shaft to the

Rack Teeth

Run the endless tangent worm and shaft worm

gear along the rack teeth and FEEL for spots
which indicate binding. If a high spot or a defect
is on the worm gear thread, binding will occur
at regular intervals along the rack. If defects
exist on the rack teeth, binding will probably
occur at erratic points where such defects exist
along the rack. Mark the spots where binding is
indicated and then repeat the process outlined
under “Scraping the Rack Teeth.” Do NOT allow
metal dust to enter bearing surfaces of the worm
frame. SPRING
Check the movement of the worm gear thread 137.350
in the sextant rack teeth a second time for binding
Figure 15-17.— Telescope bracket assembly.

369
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

ASSEMBLY

137.351
Figure 15-18.— Sextant frame assembly.

Lapping the Worm Frame Pivot

pivot screw, and then secure the worm frame to
Screw to the Frame
the pivot lapping plate with the pivot screw. Put
the pivot screw in the No. 2 hole in the plate.
If you replace the worm frame pivot screw, Then put the lock nut on the pivot screw, and put
you must lap the screw to the worm frame to pro¬ the worm frame pivot clamping screw in its
vide smooth movement of the frame. Proceed frame.
as follows: 3. Tighten the clamping screw sufficiently to
1. Apply a coat of worm frame pivot lapping have the frame move stiffly on the pivot screw
compound to the surface of the worm frame pivot and lap the two parts together. As you do this,
screw. tighten the clamping screw gradually until you
2. Lubricate the surface of the worm frame obtain the best fit.
pivot lapping plate with an approved oil. Put the 4. Clean all parts and replace the worm
worm frame pivot screw tension washer on the frame on the pivot lapping plate.

370
Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

371
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Replacing a Worm Bearing Cleaning the Rack Teeth

or a Worm Frame
Proceed in the following manner to clean the
Front and rear worm bearings must have a rack teeth of a sextant:
smooth-running fit on the shaft of the endless 1. Apply a coating of approved sextant rack
tangent worm and shaft worm gear. If either polish to the teeth and use a small, soft brush
bearing (or both) is tight or has been replaced, to rub it well into the teeth.
do the following: 2. Hold the sextant frame horizontally and
1. Put the front or rear worm bearing on the press it lightly against a nylon buffing brush,
shaft and check for tightness. mounted on a suitable buffing motor. Then move
2. Apply a thin coat of worm bearing lapping the rack continuously across the brush.
compound to the bearing surface of the shaft,
CAUTION: If you allow the rack to remain
replace the bearing, and lap it to the worm gear
stationary at a spot, it will cause uneven wear
shaft.
3. Clean the worm bearing and the worm gear of the teeth.
shaft. 3. After you remove dirt and corrosion from
the teeth, blow off excess polish with an air hose
4. Apply a thin strip of worm gear shaft
oil to the worm gear shaft and replace the worm or remove it with a nylon brush.
bearing. Then check the action of the bearing on
the shaft. It should rotate smoothly, without play. Cleaning the Worm and
Clean the parts. Shaft Worm Gear
NOTE: If fitted, the front bearing cap locating
pin must be removed before you perform step No.
5. To clean the endless tangent worm and the
shaft worm gear, do the following:
5.
Put the front worm bearing in the frame,
flush with the inner face of the worm frame seat. 1. Apply a coat of approved worm gear polish
Then assemble the front bearing cap and check its to the thread of the worm gear and polish it well
fit to the worm frame. It should seat squarely into the thread with a small, soft brush.
and hold the front worm bearing firmly. If the 2. Hold the worm gear by its shaft at each
cap does not seat on the frame when light pres¬ end and press it lightly against a nylon buffing
brush. Rotate the worm gear in an even manner,
sure is applied by the cap screws, remove enough
metal from the outer surface of the front worm to ensure uniform buffing everywhere on the
bearing to get a correct fit. gear.
3. After removing dirt and/or corrosion
NOTE: Perform step No. 6 only when the
from the gear, remove excess polish with a soft
ORIGINAL front bearing cap is used; perform
nylon brush or an air hose.
step No. 7 only when a new cap is used.
6. Replace the front bearing and drill a hole
l/l 6 inch in diameter and 180° from the vernier REASSEMBLY
yoke locating pin hole in the bearing for the
front bearing cap locating pin. Use the existing
hole in the bearing as a guide. The hole should The reassembly procedure discussed in this
be deep enough to accommodate the end of the chapter is for a David White sextant. During
locating pin, but it should not pierce the inner reassembly, oil and/or grease moving parts with
approved lubricants. Clock oil is approved by
bearing surface of the front worm bearing.
7. Assemble the front worm bearing and drill the Navy for sextant centers, worm gear bear¬
a hole 1/16 inch in diameter and 3/32 inch from ings, and pivots; lubriplate is approved for the
the inner face of the front bearing cap in the cap shoe; and petroleum jelly is approved for the
and also in the bearing for the cap locating pin. arc groove. Apply anti-seize lubricant to screws
The hole must be deep enough to accommodate before you replace them. No lubricant should be
the end of the locating pin. applied to the rack teeth or the endless tangent
worm and worm gear thread.
CLEANING OPERATIONS Subassemblies are reassembled first, in
reverse order of disassembly; reassembly of
Cleaning operations considered in this sec¬ major assemblies and the telescope assembly
tion are peculiar to sextants. follows.

372
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

Grip Assembly and Arc If you replace an index arm guide lug, fit it
Support Studs to the guide slot by filing metal from both sides
Steps in the reassembly of the grip assembly of the lug. Use a good lug as a guide when you do
and arc support studs are: this.
1. Put the hand grip cap-stud on the grip and 5. Put the stationary lever on the index arm
replace the cap-stud screw. Review figure 15- (same side as the guide lugs) and secure it with
18. the screws provided.
2. Replace the hand grip support and secure 6. Replace the spring support block in its
it with the retainer screw. recess in the index arm.
3. Slide the hand grip cap-stud end support
on the hand grip cap-stud into the hole in the Reassembly of the Worm
support. Then assemble the two supports in the Frame Assembly
sextant frame assembly.
Proceed as follows to reassemble the worm
4. Replace the grip assembly screws and
frame assembly:
tighten them.
5. Replace and tighten the two arc support 1. If you removed it, replace the vernier
studs in the sextant frame assembly. Use a pin yoke locating pin in the front worm bearing
(fig. 15-12) and tap it lightly into position with
wrench.
a small hammer. The flat sides of the pin should
Reassembly of the Index Arm be in line with the front worm bearing, so that it
will slide easily into the vernier yoke slot when
Refer to illustration 15-14 as you reassemble you assemble the yoke.
the index arm. The procedure follows: 2. Apply a thin stripe of worm gear shaft
1. Replace the index arm stiffening rib and oil to the shaft of the endless tangent worm and
secure it. Follow the reassembly guide mark. shaft worm gear. Apply the oil along the shaft
2. Put the index arm on a bench (rib beneath), where the front and rear worm bearings will be
with the worm frame end of the arm near you, located.
and assemble the index arm guide lug marked L 3. Replace the front worm bearing on the
in the recess on the left-hand side of the arm shaft of the endless tangent worm and shaft
guide lug. Secure the lug with its screw. Replace worm gear and slide the shaft of the worm gear
the index arm guide lug marked R in the same into the end of the worm frame in which the rear
manner. worm bearing is assembled. At the same time,
NOTE: At this point, check the fit of the bring the front worm bearing down to rest on its
index arm guide lugs in the guide slot of the sex¬ seat on the worm frame.
tant rack. 4. Slide the rear worm bearing over the
3. Move the index arm along the rack and worm gear shaft and into the worm frame; then
check the movement of the index arm guide lugs assemble the rear worm bearing clamping
along the guide slot. There should be no binding screw.
or slackness. If you feel binding, look for dirt CAUTION: Do NOT exert enough pressure on
or corrosion in the guide slot. If the guide slot the rear worm bearing clamp screw or the bear¬
is slightly damaged, remove existing high spots ing to SQUEEZE them out of the round. Check
or burrs with a guide slot scraper. the rotation of the worm and shaft for freedom
If a guide lug is tight in the slot, file some of fit and action.
metal from the face of the guide lug, just enough 5. If removed, reassemble the front bearing
to make it fit correctly. If the guide lug is slack, cap locating pin and tap it lightly into place with
support it on a metal peening block andpeen the a small hammer, from the flat side of the bearing
top of the guide lug with a small hammer and cap.
chisel. Then recheck the fit. Continue with this 6. Rotate and position the front worm bearing
procedure until the fit is correct. until the hole drilled in the bearing to accom¬
When the index arm guide lugs are correctly modate the front bearing cap locating pin is
fitted and aligned, the index arc is just clear correctly positioned. Place the front worm
of, and parallel to, the sextant arc scale. Check bearing cap over the bearing and insert the locat¬
the amount of clearance with a feeler gage. The ing pin in the cap in the corresponding hole in
endless tangent worm and shaft worm gear teeth the front worm bearing. Follow the reassembly
should also be centered in the sextant rack teeth. guide marks.

373
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

7. Secure the front bearing cap to the worm 4. Lightly coat the two bearing surfaces on
frame. Then check the rotation of the worm gear the underside of the worm frame retainer block
in its bearings for freedom and smoothness of flange with retainer block grease and replace
action. the block. Secure it with its screw.
8. Assemble the vernier yoke on the front 5. Move the worm frame back and forth to
worm bearing. Slide it into position to allow the spread the lubricant on the worm frame retainer
yoke locating pin to enter the slot in the yoke. block, along the top sides of the slot in the
Then insert the vernier yoke clamp screw but do worm frame. Make certain the worm frame as¬
not tighten it. sembly moves smoothly and freely, without
9. Slip the micrometer drum adapter onto binding or play.
the shaft of the endless tangent worm and shaft With a suitable feeler gage (fig. 15-22),
worm gear and pin it in position with the adapter measure the clearance between the bottom bear¬
lock pin. ing surfaces of the worm frame and the index
When you assemble this pin, support the worm arm. The maximum clearances should be .001
gear shaft firmly and squarely on a wooden block, inch when measured at the worm frame retainer
and use care to prevent bending of or damage block end of the frame. The frame and index arm
to the shaft. If it is necessary to fit a new drum should be in direct contact at the pivot end of the
adapter, drill a hole for the adapter lock pin with
frame.
a .10-inch diameter drill. If the frame retainer block is tight, use a fine
10. Put the micrometer drum on the adapter file to remove a little metal from the two bear¬
and lock it in position with its lock screw and ing surfaces on the underside of the flange, an
washer. equal amount from each bearing surface. If the
11. Lightly lubricate the worm frame holding block is too slack, remove metal from its base
spring with approved grease and place the spring
with a fine file.
in the frame. Then replace the frame holding
6. Adjust the tension of the worm frame hold¬
spring stop screw, with its head flush with the
ing spring with its stop screw. Tension of the
frame.
spring should be enough to hold the endless tan¬
gent worm and shaft worm gear firmly against
Reassembly of the Worm Frame Assembly the sextant rack teeth; and when you have it
to the Index Arm adjusted correctly, lock the worm frame holding
spring stop screw by spreading the slot at right
angles to the screwdriver slot. Use a screw¬
Some early types of David White sextants
driver with a sharp blade. Study illustration 15-
(Mk 2) have a worm frame pivot screw which
23. The worm frame should move smoothly and
does not have assembled with it a pivot screw
freely.
tension washer, a pivot screw lock nut, or a worm
7. Put a drop of worm gear shaft oil on the
frame pivot clamping screw. In this case, omit
exposed end of the rear worm bearing.
step No. 1 in the reassembly procedure.
8. Replace and tighten the screw in the end of
1. Apply a thin coat of worm frame grease
the worm gear shaft. Its head must bear evenly
to the three bearing surfaces on the bottom side
against the rear worm bearing flange.
of the worm frame, and a thin film of pivot oil
9. Bend the end thrust spring (fig. 15-11)
over the bearing surface of the worm frame pivot
as necessary to provide ample thrust when as¬
screw. Then assemble the worm frame assembly
sembled to the worm frame. Apply a drop of end
to the index arm (fig. 15-11). With a pair of
thrust screw oil to the tip of the end thrust
tweezers, engage the frame holding spring on the
screws and replace the end thrust spring.
stud of the spring support block. See illustration
15-21. Then lower the frame assembly onto NOTE: Tension of the end thrust spring
the index arm and replace the pivot screw and should be such that no movement of the endless
its tension washer. See figure 15-11. tangent worm and shaft worm gear is felt when
2. With a pivot screw lock nut screwdriver, the micrometer drum is lightly pushed or pulled.
replace the worm frame pivot screw lock nut. Test it by turning the worm gear. There should
3. Insert and tighten the worm frame pivot be slight resistance, but the worm gear should
clamping screw, just tight enough to eliminate rotate smoothly, without binding. With a screw¬
play or slackness. There must be smooth action driver blade, bend the end thrust spring out¬
of the worm frame around the pivot. ward to adjust its tension.

374
 Chapter 15 -SEXTANTS

SEXTANT WORM FRAME

RACK TEETH- RETAINER BLOCK

SEXTANT RACK
TOOTH SCRAPER

137.355
Figure 15-22.— Measuringthe clearance between
the bottom bearing surfaces of the worm frame
and the index arm.

SEXTANT
FRAME ASSEMBLY

137.353
Figure 15-20.— Scraping the rack teeth.

Figure 15-23. —Adjusting tension of the end

thrust spring.

10. Position the vernier yoke and move it

along the front worm bearing as required to have
the edge of its scale located .001 to .0015 inch
from the edge of the micrometer drum scale.
Measure with a suitable feeler gage. Tighten the
137.354 vernier yoke clamp screw and slack off slightly
Figure 15-21.— Engaging the worm frame hold¬ on the micrometer drum lock screw, because the
ing spring on the stud of the spring support micrometer drum will be adjusted to zero during
block. testing and adjusting.

375
 OPTIC A LM AN 3 & 2

11. Insert and tighten the disengaging lever HORIZON MIRROR

pivot screw bushing to the index arm. MOUNTING, BRACKET
CAPSTAN HEAD
and FILTER BRACKET
12. Apply disengaging lever grease to the SCREW PIN
ASSEMBLY
following parts: bearing surface of the lever WRENCH
pivot screw bushing, track in the worm frame
for the lever shoe, and the pin in the disengaging
lever. Then put the shoe on the lever and put
the lever on the bushing (fig. 15-11).
13. Use an end thrust nut wrench to replace
the disengaging lever end thrust nut on the lever
pivot screw.
This assembly is now reassembled. Wipe off
excess lubricant with a dry cloth. Check the as¬
sembly for smoothness of action when you de¬
press the disengaging lever, and also the freedom
of action under spring tension.

Horizon Mirror Mounting,

Bracket, and Filter Bracket Assembly
HORIZON MIRROR
To assemble all of these parts, proceed as and FILTER
follows: BRACKET
1. Assemble the horizon mirror bracket to CAPSTAN HEAD
the mirror and filter bracket. Use an adjusting SCREW
screw wrench. See figure 15-15. If you must
tap a hole for a new bracket, use a No. 5-44NF
thread.
Guide Slot
2. Replace the outer mirror bracket adjust¬
ing screw.
3. Assemble the horizon mirror mounting to
137.357
its bracket, and replace the bottom adjusting
Figure 15-24.— Replacing the horizon mirror
screw.
and filter bracket capstan head screw.
4. Replace the filter pivot screw extension in
the mirror and filter bracket.
5. If removed, replace and tighten the hori¬ NOT allow grease to get on the surface of the
zon filter stop stud to the mirror and filter rack or teeth.
bracket. 2. Press the disengaging lever to free the
endless tangent worm and shaft worm gear from
Telescope Sliding Bracket Support the sextant rack and swing the index arm over
the end of the rack. Make certain the index
Replace the telescope sliding bracket re¬ arm guide lugs (fig. 15-14) are engaged in
taining screw (fig. 15-17). Tighten the screw. the guide slot as you move the index arm onto
If you disassembled the fulcrum pins from the the rack.
telescope sliding bracket support, press-fit them The endless tangent worm and shaft worm
into place. CAUTION: Do NOT damage the gear should be centered in the rack teeth and in
conical heads of the fulcrum pins. line with the rack. Check with your eye. If they
are not centered and in line with the rack, the
Index Arm and Worm Frame Assembly index arm guide lugs were not adjusted cor¬
rectly. Disengage the worm gear and move the
The index arm, endless tangent worm, and index arm back and forth along the arc scale.
the shaft worm gear thread (or rack teeth) can The movement should be smooth.
be damaged easily; handle them with care. 3. Rotate the worm gear along the full length
Proceed as follows: of the rack and check the action. It should be
1. Apply a thin coat of guide slot grease to smooth, but there should be a slight, constant
the slot in the sextant rack (fig. 15-24), but do drag on the worm gear.

376
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

4. Put the index arm stop stud in the end of hole in the F and G lens retainer ring. If the
the sextant rack nearest the location of the hori¬ holes do not line up, turn the retainer ring to
zon mirror. line them up. The lenses must be held tight in
the eyepiece lens mount.
Horizon and Index Mirror Polaroid NOTE: If you use a new eyepiece lens mount,
Filter Assemblies drill a hole .0460 inch in diameter and 7/32
inch from the retainer-ring end of the eyepiece
Put the filter assembly pivot spring washer, lens mount when assembled. Tap the mount and
flat washer, and the horizon mirror polaroid ring for a No. 0-80NF screw. Countersink the
filter assembly on the filter assembly pivot hole to provide space for the screw head.
screw. Then mount them on the mirror and 7. Put the eyepiece lens mount assembly in
filter bracket and tighten the screw. See il¬ the diopter focusing ring, with the flange of the
lustration 15-23. lens mount against the end of the diopter focusing
NOTE: The horizon mirror polaroid filter ring. Tighten the assembly with an eyepiece lens
assembly must be mounted with the rotating mount assembly wrench.
filter facing the mirror mounting. 8. Screw the eyepiece cap in the diopter
Reassemble the filter assembly pivot spring focusing ring until the reassembly guide marks
washer, pivot flat washer, and index mirror on the eyepiece and the diopter focusing ring
polaroid filter assembly on the filter assembly align.
pivot screw. Then mount them to the horizon 9. Insert and secure the lock screw in the
mirror and filter bracket. diopter focusing ring to lock the assembled parts
NOTE: The index mirror polaroid filter as¬ together.
sembly must be mounted with the rotating filter
away from the direction of the mirror. ERECTOR LENS MOUNT ASSEMBLY. -
Replace the index mirror mount on the index Assemble the erector lens mount assembly in
arm; then insert and tighten the screws. the following manner:
The sextant assembly, less the telescope, is 1. With a lens suction adapter, pick up
now ready for testing, adjusting, and final in¬ erector lens E (fig. 15-19) by its side of greatest
spection. curvature and place it flat side down in the erec¬
tor lens mount.
Reassembly of the Telescope Assembly 2. Put the erector lens spacer ring in the
erector lens mount, on erector lens E.
All optical parts and components of the tele¬ 3. Pick up lens D by its flat side with a lens
scope assembly must be perfectly clean when suction adapter and assemble it (convex side
you reassemble them. Refer to figure 15-19 first) in the erector lens mount.
as you study the reassembly procedure. 4. Put the lens retaining housing for lens C
on the bench; then put lensC in the housing, with
EYEPIECE AND FIELD LENS ASSEMBLY. - the side of greatest curvature of the lens down.
Do the following to reassemble this assembly: 5. Replace the retaining ring for lens C and
1. Set the eyepiece lens mount on the bench tighten it with a telescope flat wrench.
(threaded collar down) and, with a lens suction 6. Replace the lock screw in the retaining
adapter, pick up the eyepiece lens (G) by its housing for lens C and tighten it.
convex surface and place it flat side down in the 7. Put the lens C retaining housing assembly
eyepiece lens mount. in the erector lens mount and align the reas¬
2. Place the F and G lens spacer ring in the sembly marks on the lens retaining housing and
eyepiece lens mount, on eyepiece lens G. erector lens mount you made during dis¬
3. With a lens suction adapter, put field lens assembly. Tighten the assembly with a retaining
F in the eyepiece lens mount, flat surface up. housing wrench.
4. Place the retainer ring spacer ring in
eyepiece lens mount, on field lens F. BODY TUBE AND OBJECTIVE LENS AS¬
5. Screw the F and G retainer ring into the SEMBLY.— The procedure for reassembling the
eyepiece lens mount and tighten the retainer body tube and objective lens assembly in a David
ring down with a telescope flat wrench. White sextant telescope follows:
6. Insert the retainer ring lock screw into 1. Put the objective lens mount on the bench,
the side of the eyepiece lens mount and into the knurled edge down, and place the objective lens

377
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

(A) in it, convex side down. Use a lens suction 2. Slide the eyepiece and field lens assembly
adapter. onto the eyepiece end of the telescope body far
2. Assemble lens B retaining housing as¬ enough to bring the edge of the diopter focusing
sembly, including the lens, retaining ring, and ring just over the edge of the diagonal slot in the
lock screw. body.
3. Place the retaining housing assembly of 3. Apply a light coat of approved grease to
lens B in the objective lens mount and tighten the the eyepiece movement shoe and place the shoe,
assembly with a retaining housing wrench. Align convex side up, in the diagonal slot in the eye¬
the reassembly guide marks. piece end of the telescope body. It must slide
NOTE: If you replaced the retaining housing, smoothly in the slot.
drill a hole .0469 inch in diameter in the housing. 4. Slide the eyepiece and field lens assembly
Use the hole in the objective lens mount as a forward to bring the hole for the key screw in the
guide. diopter focusing ring over the hole in the eye¬
4. Screw the objective lens mount assembly piece movement shoe; then insert the key screw.
into the objective end of the telescope body,
which you marked during disassembly. If re¬
FINAL REPAIR INSPECTION
quired, use the telescope body and objective lens
mount wrench to tighten the assembly. Align
the reassembly guide marks. Final repair inspection for an overhauled
5. Replace the lock screw of the objective David White sextant should be made from the
lens mount. standpoint of (1) the sextant assembly and (2) the
NOTE: If you replace the objective end body telescope assembly.
of the telescope or the objective lens mount,
loosely assemble the objective lens mount as¬
sembly. Replace the lock screw during testing Sextant Assembly
and adjusting.
EYEPIECE, TELESCOPE BODY, AND After you reassemble a sextant telescope,
ERECTOR LENS MOUNT ASSEMBLY. -The inspect the following:
1. TENSION OF THE END THRUST SPRING.
procedure for assembling these parts is as
follows: Disengage the endless tangent worm and shaft
1. Assemble the erector lens mount as¬ worm gear from the rack teeth. Then pull and
push lightly on the micrometer drum to check
sembly to the body tube and the objective lens
for lateral movement of the endless tangent
assembly by screwing the mount assembly into
the objective end of the telescope body. Align worm and shaft worm gear relative to the worm
the reassembly guide marks. frame. There must be no lateral movement. If
2. Replace the telescope body lock screw to there is lateral movement, backlash will occur
lock the erector lens mount assembly and body during collimation. Proper tension on the spring
tube and objective lens assembly together. eliminates backlash.
3. Screw the eyepiece end of the telescope 2. Disengage the endless tangent worm and
body onto the erector lens mount assembly and shaft worm gear from the sextant rack and move
align the reassembly guide marks. If required, the index arm back and forth along the arc scale.
use the telescope body and objective lens mount The arm should move freely without binding of
wrench. the index arm guide lugs, or the index arm guide
4. Replace the telescope body lock screw to stud and index arm guide lug on a Pioneer sex¬
lock the eyepiece end telescope body to the erec¬ tant.
tor lens mount assembly. Check the guides for slackness. Disengage
the worm gear from the rack teeth, grasp the
EYEPIECE AND FIELD LENS ASSEMBLY. - worm frame end of the index arm between the
Use the procedure which follows to replace the thumb and forefinger, and apply up-and-down
eyepiece and field lens assembly. pressure to the index arm. There should be NO
1. Put a thin coat of eyepiece grease on the movement of the index arm up or down.
inside of the slotted end of the eyepiece end of the Check for slackness in the worm frame. Dis¬
telescope body. Extend the coating approximately engage the endless tangent worm and shaft worm
3/4 inch inside the body to lubricate the eyepiece gear from the rack and move the micrometer
lens mount as it slides in the body. drum up and down at right angles to the plane of

378
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

the index arm surface. There should be no Telescope Assembly

movement as a result of:
a. Loose worm frame bearings (Pio¬
neer). Check the telescope assembly in the following
b. Loose worm bearings, front or rear manner:
(David White). 1. Inspect optics for cleanliness and physical
c. Loose worm frame pivot (Pioneer) condition.
or worm frame pivot screw (David 2. Make a visual inspection of the appearance
White). and finish of mechanical parts and legibility of
d. Loose worm frame retainer block engravings.
(David White), or guide screw (Pio¬ 3. Check the action of the diopter focusing
neer). ring, which should move evenly and smoothly
over the entire diopter scale range.
4. Use a feeler gage to check the worm frame
on a Pioneer sextant for parallelism with the Diopter Setting
index arm. The frame should be parallel to within
.001 inch when tested at each end. In David
White sextant, the clearance between the bottom The procedure for adjusting and checking the
bearing surfaces of the worm frame and the index diopter setting of a David White sextant is as
arm must not be greater than .001 inch when follows:
measured at the worm frame retaining block end 1. Set the diopter setting auxiliary telescope
of the worm frame. The worm frame and the to your eye requirements by sighting the colli¬
index arm must be in direct contact at the pivot mator target and setting the diopter ring on the
end of the frame. auxiliary telescope to give the sharpest focus.
2. Mount the sextant telescope assembly on a
5. Check the tension of the worm frame inner suitable stand in front of the collimator tube.
and outer springs (Pioneer), and the worm frame 3. Place the diopter setting telescope against
holding spring (David White). Disengage and the sextant telescope eyepiece cap and, with the
re-engage the worm gear thread in the rack diopter focusing ring on the sextant telescope,
teeth, and apply pressure with your fingers to bring the collimator target into sharp focus.
the micrometer drum. There should be no fur¬ The diopter reading from the sextant telescope
ther movement of the worm gear thread into the assembly should be 0 within plus or minus one-
rack teeth. Check the worm frame assembly for quarter diopter. Each mark on the diopter scale
freedom of movement on the index arm. Erratic represents one diopter. If the telescope does not
action caused by the following must not be tol¬ meet this performance requirement, proceed
erated: with the following steps; if the requirements are
a. Over-tight worm frame pivot (Pioneer met, uses steps No. 7 and No. 8 only.
and David White). 4. If assembled, remove the lock screw for
b. Over-tight worm frame retaining the objective lens mount assembly and loosen
block (David White). the assembly in the objective end of the tele¬
c. Over-tight guide screw (Pioneer). scope body. See figure 15-25. Set the diopter
d. Binding between the base of the worm scale of the sextant telescope at 0, place the
frame and the surface of the index arm diopter setting auxiliary telescope against the
(Pioneer and David White). sextant telescope eyepiece cap, and sight the
collimator target. Then slowly rotate the ob¬
6. Check moving parts for freedom of move¬ jective lens mount to move the mount assembly
ment and smoothness of action. Run the index out of the objective end of the telescope body. If
arm back and forth along the arc scale by rotat¬ the collimator target comes into sharp focus,
ing the endless tangent worm and shaft worm measure the distance (A, fig. 15-25) from the
gear, which should rotate smoothly, without inner edge of the objective lens mount to the
sticking or knocking resulting from high spots nearest edge of the mount. Replace the existing
on the worm gear thread. objective end of the telescope body with one of
the length of A in figure 15-25.
7. The polaroid filter assemblies should
rotate smoothly. The assemblies should be firm If the collimator target does not come into
on their respective pivots. focus when you move the objective lens mount

379
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

assembly out of the telescope body, proceed from one end. Then reassemble the objective end
with the operations which follow: of the telescope body and the lens mount as¬
NOTE: If the objective end of the telescope sembly and check the performance. If it is still
body is too long, turn it down in a lathe to the unsatisfactory, remove more metal; but each
length required. Be sure to take an equal amount time remove a smaller amount than you removed
of metal from each end of the body. Leave the the previous time. Continue this procedure until
body 1/ 64 inch longer than the length of A in performance is satisfactory.
figure 15-25. 7. To drill and tap holes for the telescope
5. Remove the objective lens mount as¬ body lock screws, or the lock for the objective
sembly from the objective end of the telescope lens mount assembly, locate the holes as indi¬
body, and disassemble the objective end of the cated in the top portion of figure 15-25. Use a
telescope body from the erector lens mount. drill .0409 inch in diameter, and drill each hole
Then assemble the objective adjusting tube to the depth shown in the circles in illustration
loosely on the erector lens mount and put the 15-25. Be sure to clean the telescope of metal¬
mount assembly in the objective adjusting tube. lic particles after you finish drilling; you will
6. Repeat step No. 3. If the sextant tele¬ generally have to disassemble the telescope to
scope still does not meet performance require¬ do this.
ments, disassemble the objective end of the tele¬ 8. Screw the telescope into the sliding
scope body and remove a SMALL amount of metal bracket on the sextant and check the reference

380
 Chapter 15 -SEXTANTS

mark for the diopter scale, which should be at is an apparent shaking or wiggle of the line
the top when the sliding bracket is assembled. formed by the edge of the arc scale, the mirror
is not adjusted correctly.
Adjusting the Mirrors
PARALLEL ADJUSTMENT OF THE HORI¬
You can adjust the index and horizon mirrors ZON MIRROR.— The horizon mirror must be
by sighting natural targets, but check your ad¬ so adjusted that the reflecting surface of the
justments with an artificial target. These mir¬ silvered section of the mirror is parallel to that
rors get out of adjustment easily, even during of the index mirror when the sextant is set at
normal use. One procedure for checking the zero. Assemble the sextant telescope in the
mirrors before taking a sight is discussed next. sliding bracket and proceed as follows:
1. Set the index arm at 1° on the arc scale
PERPENDICULAR ADJUSTMENT OF THE and then make the setting 0 with the micrometer
INDEX MIRROR.— The reflecting surface of the drum knob (Pioneer), or micrometer drum
index mirror must be perpendicular to the sex¬ (David White).
tant frame in order for the sextant to function 2. Hold the sextant so that its frame is
properly. To make proper adjustment, do the horizontal and sight through the telescope at a
following: suitable vertical object such as a spire, crane
1. Place the sextant on a stand (with the arc boom, or flagpole with a ball on top. Study figure
scale farthest from you) and rest it on the arc 15-27. The object should be at least 300 yards
support studs and center cap. Then release the distant. If the mirrors are parallel, the directly-
endless tangent worm and shaft worm gear from viewed object and its reflected image will be in
the rack teeth and shift the index arm around line with each other in the vertical plane (part
the arc scale until the index mark is about on C, fig. 15-27). If they are not, proceed with the
35 degrees. next steps.
2. With one eye, sight the 0° mark on the arc 3. If the reflected image is to the left of the
scale. Then bring your line of sight down until directly-viewed object, the left-hand edge of the
you can see simultaneously the reflected image horizon mirror is toward you (part A, fig. 15-
of that section of the arc scale in the vicinity of 27). Adjust the horizon mirror as required to
the 140° mark in the index mirror. You should see bring the directly-viewed object and its reflected
the reflected image level with the directly- image into line. Loosen the outer horizon mirror
viewed scale, as shown in part C of figure 15- bracket adjusting screw and tighten the inner
26, provided the index mirror is adjusted prop¬ one so that the left-hand edge of the mirror
erly. If the mirror is not adjusted correctly, moves away from you. See figure 15-28 for the
you will view the conditions shown in part A or position of the adjusting screws. If the reflected
part B of illustration 15-26. When this is true, image is to the right of the directly -vie wed
proceed with the adjustments which follow. object (part B, fig. 15-27), reverse this pro¬
3. Adjust the index mirror clamping screws cedure. When properly adjusted, the directly-
to bring the reflected image level (in coincidence) viewed object and the reflected image line up
with the directly-viewed scale (part C, fig. 15- and are centralized in the mirror.
26). If the reflected image is high, loosen the To prevent stripping of threads, loosen one
top clamping screw and tighten the bottom clamp¬ of the bracket adjusting screws before you tighten
ing screw; if the reflected image is low, reverse the other. If the reflected image of the vertical
this procedure. ALWAYS loosen one of the in¬ object observed is far to the left or to the right
dex mirror clamping screws before you tighten of the directly-viewed object when the outer
the other, to prevent cracks in the mirror. horizon mirror bracket adjusting screw is about
Tighten both screws LIGHTLY and EQUALLY at its halfway point of adjustment, the index
when adjustment is correct. mirror mounting should be adjusted. With the
4. Check the index mirror adjustment by index arm set at 0°, loosen the index mirror
moving the index arm along the arc scale from mounting screws and move the mirror as neces¬
the 0° mark to about the 55° mark and, at the sary to have the reflected image near coincidence
same time, view the arc scale and its reflected with the directly-viewed object and also in the
image. The directly-viewed arc scale and its center of the horizon mirror. Then tighten the
reflected image should appear continuous as the screws and check the perpendicular adjustment.
index arm is moved along the arc scale. If there If necessary, use the horizon mirror bracket

381
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Reflected
Image
Directly -
Viewed
Scale

A. Index Mirror leaning forward A. Horizon Mirror left hand edge

(Reflected image high) toward you

Reflected
Image
Directly-
Viewed
Scale

B. Index Mirror leaning backward B. Horizon Mirror left hand edge

(Reflected image low) away from you

Reflected
Image
Directly-
Viewed
Scale

C. Index Mirror perpendicular to C. Horizon Mirror parallel to Index

the plane of the Sextant Frame Mirror but not perpendicular
(Reflected image level with to the Sextant Frame
directly-viewed scale)
137.360
137.359 Figure 15-27. —Parallel adjustment of
Figure 15-26. —Adjusting the index mirror. the horizon mirror.

382
 Chapter 15-SEXTANTS

—(Outer)''- - HORIZON MIRROR

BRACKET ADJUSTING
-(Inner) SCREW

A. Horizon Mirror top edge leaning

toward you

^ (Inner)- (Outer)j
HORIZON MIRROR
MOUNTING ADJUSTING
SCREW

137.361
Figure 15-28.— Horizon mirror mounting
and adjusting screws.
B. Horizon Mirror top edge leaning
away from you

adjusting screws to bring the dir ectly-viewed ob¬

ject and its reflected image into line.

The horizon mirror is now parallel with the

index mirror. The next adjustment is to make the
horizon mirror perpendicular to the sextant
frame.

PERPENDICULR ADJUSTMENT OF THE

HORIZON MIRROR.— You can adjust the horizon
mirror perpendicularly in two steps:

1. With the index arm set at 0 and the sex¬

tant held horizontally, sight the same vertical
object and check for coincidence of the reflected
to the Index Mirror
image with the directly-viewed object. If the mir¬
ror is adjusted correctly, the object and the 137.362
image will be in coincidence. If this is not Figure 15-29. —Perpendicular adjustment
true, proceed with step No. 2. of the horizon mirror.

383
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

2. If the reflected image is high , the horizon zon mirror moves away from you. If the reflected
mirror’s top edge will lean toward you (part A, image is low, reverse this procedure.
fig. 15-29). Adjust the mirror as necessary to
bring the directly-viewed object and its reflected After you complete the perpendicular adjust¬
image into coincidence. Then loosen the outer ment of the mirror, recheck for parallelism
horizon mirror mounting adjusting screw and with the index mirror. Correct adjustment is
tighten the inner one, so that the top of the hori¬ shown in figure 15-30.

DIRECTLY-VIEWED
VERTICAL LINE

DIRECTLY-VIEWED
HORIZONTAL LINE
HORIZON MIRROR

REFLECTED IMAGE -REFLECTED IMAGE

OF VERTICAL LINE OF HORIZONTAL LINE

HORIZON MIRROR PARALLEL TO INDEX MIRROR

BUT NOT PERPENDICULAR TO FRAME

DIRECTLY-VIEWED
VERTICAL LINE

HORIZON MIRROR DIRECTLY- VIEW ED

HORIZONTAL LINE

REFLECTED IMAGE -REFLECTED IMAGE

OF VERTICAL LINE OF HORIZONTAL LINE

137.363
Figure 15-30.— Correct adjustment of the horizon mirror.
 CHAPTER 16

STADIMETERS

A stadimeter is an instrument used to meas¬ 5. CARRIAGE SCREW. The carriage screw

ure the range of objects of known height. Aboard moves the carriage block back and forth on the
ship, the officer of the deck uses a stadimeter frame, and it is used to set the carriage index
to maintain his position in a formation by sighting mark to the proper height on the height scale.
on the guide ship for range. The height scale is 6. MICROMETER DRUM AND SCREW. The
calibrated in feet for objects from 50 to 200 feet micrometer drum shows in yards the range of
in height. The range scale is calibrated in yards an object. For any given position on the height
for readings from 200 to 10,000 yards and in¬ scale, the position of the drum controls the angle
finity. of the index arm and the index mirror.
7. CARRIAGE BLOCK. The carriage block
carries the micrometer drum and screw (on a
TYPES OF STADIMETERS track) along the length of the frame.
8. INDEX MIRROR. The index mirror re¬
The Navy uses two types of stadimeters: ceives rays of light from the target and reflects
(1) sextant, which looks like a sextant (part A, them to the horizon mirror.
fig. 16-1) and (2) Fiske, which has a rectangular 9. HORIZON MIRROR. This mirror, as in a
frame, as shown in part B of figure 16-1. The sextant, enables an observer to see two images
sextant-type is a Mk 5, Mod 0; the Fiske of the target, a direct image and an image
stadimeter is made in two types, I and II, but reflected from the index mirror. Unlike the
type II is used much more extensively than type I. horizon glass of a sextant, however, the horizon
Study the nomenclature of the two stadimeters mirror of a stadimeter has no clear glass on one
illustrated in figure 16-1, and note the dif¬ side. It is merely a half-sized mirror in half of
ferences in construction. the mirror frame.
10. TELESCOPE. The telescope of a Fiske
stadimeter is a low-power Galilean telescope
CONSTRUCTION which directs the line of sight toward the horizon
mirror and gives a magnified image of the target.
Refer to illustrations 16-1 and 16-2 as you 11. MAGNIFYING GLASS. The magnifying
study the construction of a Fiske stadimeter, glass is mounted on a bracket above the microm¬
the principal parts of which are: eter drum to give the observer a magnified
1. FRAME. The frame is the rectangular image of the range scale. The bracket is ad¬
base on which all other parts of the instrument justable, to allow movement of the glass up and
are mounted. down for focusing on the scale.
2. INDEX ARM. This arm carries the height
scale; and it swings on a pivot at one corner of
the frame. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
3. INDEX MIRROR TABLE. The index mir¬
ror table is an adjustable platform mounted on A stadimeter operates in the following man¬
the index arm (directly over the pivot) to carry ner: It elevates the observer’s line of sight in
the index mirror and its frame. order that he may view the top of an object which
4. HORIZON MIRROR TABLE. This table moves AWAY FROM or TOWARD him. If the
is an adjustable platform which supports the object moves away, the angle of elevation of the
horizon mirror and its frame. observer’s line of sight becomes smaller; if the

385
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

SEXTANT TYPE STADIMETER MARK 5 MOD 0

A -HORIZON MIRROR F -FRAME

B- STADIMETER TELESCOPE ASSEMBLY G- RADIUS ARM
C- INDEX MIRROR H- ARCUATE ARM
D- RANGE DRUM I - SCALE ARM
E- INDEX SCALE J- CARRIAGE SCREW ASSEMBLY

STANDARD FISKE TYPE STADIMETER

58.78
Figure 16-1.— Types of stadimeters

386
 Chapter 16— STA DIMETERS

object moves toward the observer, the angle 5. Turns the index mirror by rotating the
becomes larger. Study the top portion of illustra¬ range drum until the reflection of the object
tion 16-3. This means that if the object is coincides with the directly-viewed bottom of the
distant (1, fig. 16-3), the angle of elevation is object.
small; if the object is near, the angle is large. 6. Reads on the range drum in yards the angle
Heights of objects at sea, such as the masts between the horizon mirror and the index mirror.
of various classes of ships, are generally known; Actually, the angle (subtended by the object)
and by means of its optical system astadimeter measured is twice the angle between the two
measures the angle to which an observer’s line mirrors.
of sight is elevated to permit him to view the
top of an object. Then the calibrated range drum
of the stadimeter converts the angular measure¬ OVERHAUL AND REPAIR
ment to a range reading in yards.
This calibration of the range drum would be Overhaul and repair procedures considered
all right if all observed objects had the same in this section are for a Fiske stadimeter, be¬
height. Observe in illustration 16-3 that the ob¬ cause it is used more extensively than a sextant-
ject in the bottom portion is at the same distance type stadimeter. Before you study the following
from the observer as the object in the top por¬ discussion, however, review the repair pro¬
tion; but the extra height of the object increases cedures outlined in chapter 8.
the angle of the observer’s line of sight. To Some special tools required for repairing a
compensate for this, a sextant-type stadimeter stadimeter are shown in figure 16-5.
has an arcuate arm and the Fiske stadimeter has
a scale arm (fig. 16-1) which gives a greater or PREDISASSEMBLY INSPECTION
lesser displacement of the index mirror (in
accordance with the height of the obj ect observed) When you start to work on a stadimeter,
for the same movement of the range drum. The prepare a casualty analysis sheet for the instru¬
distance of the object (regardless of height) is ment and make a predisassembly inspection to
therefore measured correctly. determine whether it should be repaired or sur¬
The sighting triangle is not actually a right veyed and salvaged. Record your findings on the
triangle, because the observer is generally above inspection sheet.
the waterline of the ship he is observing (bottom During the predisassembly inspection of a
part, fig. 16-4). However, because of the distance stadimeter, look for:
involved, the triangle can be considered right- 1. Excessive play of the drum screw in the
angled in actual practice. carriage.
When the officer of the deck desires to de¬ 2. Too much play of the carriage to the
termine the range of a ship, he swings the range frame.
drum (fig. 16-1) on a sextant-type stadimeter 3. Excessive play in the center assemblies.
over to the graduation on the index scale which 4. Condition of lubricants.
represents the known height of the object. On a 5. Excessive errors resulting from the con¬
Fiske stadimeter, he runs it along on the car¬ dition of the scale arm.
riage screw assembly to the proper-height 6. Condition of silver on the mirrors.
setting on the index scale. Then he: 7. Corrosion and/or failure of protective
1. Holds the stadimeter by the handle with finishes.
his right hand. 8. Evidence of unauthorized tampering and
2. Screws the telescope into its mount. disassembly.
3. Brings the instrument up to his eye (fig.
16-4), with the frame in a vertical plane, sights DISASSEMBLY
through the telescope toward the object, and
focuses the telescope. The disassembly procedure considered in
4. Views the bottom of the object directly this section for a Fiske stadimeter is divided
through the open half of the horizon mirror, and into two parts: (1) REMOVALof assemblies, and
at the same time views the top of the object as (2) DISASSEMBLY of the subassemblies. The
a reflected image in the index mirror and the complete assembly of the instrument consists
mirror half of the horizon mirror. See the of the stadimeter assembly plus the telescope
circled portion of figure 16-4. assembly.

387
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

1. FRAME 5. HANDLE 9. TELESCOPE HOLDER 13 MICROMETER DRUM

2. HORIZON MIRROR AND RASE 6. INDEX ARM SPRING 10. CARRIAGE SCREW 14. INDEX MIRROR TABLE

3. HORIZON MIRROR FRAME 7. LEGS 11. CARRIAGE SCREW NUT 13 INDEX MIRROR FRAME

4. HORIZON MIRROR TABLE 8. PEEP SIGHT 12. MICROMETER DRUM SCREW

137.364
Figure 16-2.— Construction of a Fiske stadimeter.

137.365
Figure 16-3.— Stadimeter principle of operation.

388
 Chapter 16—STADIMETERS

137.366
Figure 16-4.— Determining the range of an object.

Removal of the Telescope Assembly 2. Cover each mirror with lens tissue (as a
protection) and lift the mirror and frame from
To remove the telescope assembly from the
the stadimeter.
stadimeter, unscrew it from the telescope Study the enlarged view of the horizon and
holder. The position of the peephole in the tele¬ index mirror assemblies in figure 16-7.
scope holder is critical; so, do NOT BEND or 3. Hold the range drum magnifier by its
TWIST the holder when you remove the telescope. frame and remove the magnifier retaining screw
(figs. 16-6 and fig. 16-7).
Removal of the Horizon and Index Mirrors
and Range Drum Magnifier NOTE: Do NOT disassemble the magnifier
To remove the horizon and index mirrors, lens from its frame, because the range drum
with their frames and the range drum magnifier, magnifier must be replaced as a unit if either
do the following: part is defective.
1. Remove the mirror clamping screws from 4. With an adjusting screw wrench (fig.
the backs of the horizon and index mirror, as 16-5), remove the two horizon mirror radial
shown in figure 16-6.
adjusting screws (figs. 16-7 & 16-8).

389
 OPTICA LMAN 3 & 2

ADJUSTING SCREW
WRENCH WRENCH NUT WRENCH WRENCH

137.367
Figure 16-5.— Special service tools.

390
 Chapter 16-STADIMETERS

washer, as illustrated in figure 16-10. Note the

enlarged portion in the circle.
10. Turn the stadimeter over and lift the in¬
dex mirror base and scale arm assembly out of
the female center, as illustrated infigure 16-11.
Observe the position of the left hand, which
should hold the scale arm spring to prevent
pressure on the scale arm.

Removal of Handle Assembly

Remove the handle and handle-to-framepost

screws and lift the post off, as shown in figure
16-12. Then remove the handle post and
bracket (fig. 16-13).
NOTE: Replace the handle and stud as a com¬
plete unit whenever necessary. Do NOT dis¬
assemble it.

Removal of Carriage and Drum

Screw Assemblies

Run the carriage and drum screw assembly

all the way down on the carriage screw and
scribe a reassembly guide mark across the
carriage guide plate and the carriage, as
illustrated in figure 16-14. Then remove the
bearing cap screws and lift off the carriage
screw bearing cap and guide plate. Be sure
to reassemble together the bearing cap and
screw. They are parts fitted to the frame.
Lift the carriage screw assembly from its
open bearing (fig. 16-15), withdraw it from the
end bearing in the frame, and unscrew it from
the carriage and drum screw assembly.

Removal of Frame Legs and Scale

137.368 Arm Assembly
Figure 16-6.— Removing the horizon mirror
clamping screw. Do NOT remove the frame legs and the scale
arm assembly spring unless you must do so on
effect repairs, make a replacement, or refinish
5. Remove the horizon turntable mounting
the frame. The procedure for removing these
screw and washer. Then remove the horizon parts follows:
mirror base and turntable assembly.
1. Unscrew the three frame legs (fig. 16-16).
6. Turn the stadimeter over and let it rest 2. Unscrew the spring assembly screws and
on its legs. Then remove the scale arm guide remove the scale arm spring. Do NOT dis¬
screw. See figure 16-9. assemble the spring assembly. The two springs
7. Remove the center cap (fig. 16-7). are riveted together and must be replaced as a
8. Support the scale arm to keep the male unit.
center (part of the index mirror base and scale
arm assembly) in the female center as you re¬ Removal of Telescope Holder
move the male center screw (fig. 16-7).
9. Scribe a reassembly guide mark across The telescope holder is secured to the frame
the end of the male center and the male center with a screw, and it is doweled to correct

391
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

-MIRROR CLAMPING SCREW

— HORIZON MIRROR FRAME

HORIZON MIRROR

HORIZON MIRROR BASE

AND TURNTABLE ASSEMBLY

HORIZON MIRROR
RADIAL ADJUSTING SCREW

HORIZON TURNTABLE
MOUNTING SCREW

HORIZON TURNTABLE
WASHER

CENTER
CAP

MALE
CENTER SCREW

CENTER
CAP
SCREW-
INDEX MIRROR
BASE AND SCALE
ARM ASSEMBLY

INDEX MIRROR

-MIRROR CLAMPING
SCREW

INDEX
MIRROR FRAME
137.369
Figure 16-7.— Horizon and index mirror assemblies.

392
 Chapter 16— STADIMETERS

HORIZON MIRROR BASE MALE CENTER Reassembly

Guide Mark

MALE CENTER
WASHER FEMALE
CENTER

INDEX MIRROR
137.370 BASE and SCALE
Figure 16-8.— Removing the horizon mirror ARM ASSEMBLY—1 FEMALE CENTER
radial adjusting screw.
137.372
Figure 16-10.— Scribing reassembly guide
marks on the male center and washer.

SCALE ARM INDEX MIRROR BASE

SCALE ARM Screwdriver

Figure 16-9.— Removing the scale arm Figure 16-11.— Removing the index mirrorbase
guide screw. and scale arm assembly.

393
OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

HAND
SCRE
CARR
POS
ASS 1
3
asse
hand
and
drum
Car
16-1
Figu
post
scre
han
the
Rem

aH
DCn
1AS
SC
H
BR
—A

394
 Chapter 16— STADIMETERS

CARRIAGE SCREW CARRIAGE Disassembly of Carriage and Drum

BEARING CAP SCREW Screw Assembly
HEAD

Refer to illustrations 16-18 and 16-19 as you

BEARING study the procedure for disassembling the car¬
CAP SCREW riage and drum screw assembly, as follows:
1. Remove the index plate screws, the index
plate, and the two parts of the drum screw socket
from the end of the drum screw. These parts are
fitted with dowel pins. Put reassembly guide
marks on them to ensure proper reassembly. The
drum screw has a double thread fitted to a cor¬
responding thread in the carriage.
2. Turn the drum screw as required to bring
the end of the thread flush with the surface of
the carriage and scribe a reassembly guide
mark across the end of the screw and the face
of the carriage. See illustration 16-20.
3. Remove the drum screw from the car¬
riage.
4. Scribe a reassembly guide mark across
the side of the carriage (fig. 16-21). The drum
CARRIAGE screw and carriage must be reassembled in their
AND original positions.
DRUM
5. Remove the four drum index arm screws
SCREW
(fig. 16-19).
ASSEMBLY
NOTE: Keep the carriage and the drum index
arm together, because they were drilled and
GUIDE
tapped as an assembly for the drum screw.
Reassembly PLATE SCREW
Guide Mark

- CARRIAGE FRAME Open Bearing

FEMALE CENTER GUIDE PLATE
137.376
Figure 16-14. —Scribing reassembly guide
marks across the carriage plate and carriage.

losition for the peephole (small hole in the car)

vith the telescope holder pin. Remove the screw
ind pry the holder off the pin (fig. 16-16). Keep
he holder with the frame for correct re-
issembly.

Disassembly of Carriage
Screw Assembly

With a carriage screw head nut wrench (fig.

.6-5), remove the carriage screw head nut 137.377
fig. 16-17). Then unscrew the carriage screw Figure 16-15.— Removing the carriage
lead from the screw, as illustrated. screw assembly.

395
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

FRAME LEG TELESCOPE

HOLDER SCRE\

SCALE ARM
FRAME
SPRING ASSEMBLY

TELESCOPE HOLDER FEMALE CENTE

SPRING FEMALE
ASSEMBLY SCREW CENTER SCREW

137.3
Figure 16-16.— Removal of the female center, legs, scale arm spring assembly,
and telescope holder.

396
 Chapter 16— STADIMETERS

screw assembly.

DRUMCLAMP ^
PLATE SCREW - ©

137.380 137.381
Figure 16-18.— Disassembly of the carriage Figure 16-19.— Components of the carriage
and drum screw assembly. and drum screw assembly.

397
 OPTIC A LM AN 3 & 2

Reassembly Guide Scribing

Mark Tool

mark across the side of the carriage.

Figure 16-20.— Scribing reassembly guide marks

on the drum screw and the face of the carriage.

DRUM SCREW Scribing Tool

Reassembly
Guide Mark
137.384
Figure 16-22.— Scribing reassembly guide marks on the drum screw and the range drum.

398
 Chapter 16-STADIMETERS

Scribe a reassembly guide mark on the drum

figure 16-29. If necessary, use an eyepiece
screw and the range drum, as shown in figure
clamp wrench to hold the eyelens mount when
16-22. Then remove the clamp plate screws and
you do this task.
plate and disassemble the range drum from the
4. The eyelens is loose in its mount (fig.
screw.
16-28); so use lens tissue as a protection when
you remove it.
Disassembly of Index Mirror Base and
Scale Arm Assembly 5. Unscrew the objective lens mount from the
telescope body (fig. 16-30).
6.With an eyelens and objective retainer
Do not bend or damage the scale arm when
ring wrench, unscrew the objective lens retainer
you disassemble the index mirror base and scale
ring, as shown in illustration 16-31.
arm assembly. Bumps or depressions on the
7. Use lens tissue to protect the objective
finished edge WILL CAUSE ERRORS in range
lens as you remove it from the mount. Then
readings. Proceed as follows to disassemble the
wrap it in the tissue.
assembly:
1. Remove the scale setscrew from the bot¬
tom of the scale arm (fig. 16-23). REPAIR PROCEDURE
2. Hold the scale arm flat on the bench, as
shown in figure 16-24. Then press down on the
slot in the end of the index scale with a screw¬
After disassembling the stadimeter, inspect
mechanical and optical parts, particularly those
driver and pull the scale arm straight toward
you. Do NOT bend or twist the arm. parts which were not easily accessible during
the predisassembly inspection. Repair those
3. To disassemble the index mirror base and
parts which still have useful life; replace broken
clamp spring assembly from the scale arm, re¬
and missing parts. Clean usable parts in the
move the index mirror vertical adjusting screw
(fig. 16-25). prescribed manner and protect them until
needed.
4. Remove the mirror clamping spring from
The repair procedures discussed herein are
the index mirror base and clamping spring as¬
peculiar to stadimeters.
sembly. See illustration 16-23.
Fitting the Drum Screw
Disassembly of Horizon Mirror Base
to the Carriage
and Turntable Assembly
The procedure for fitting the drum screw to
The procedure for disassembling the hori¬
the carriage is the same for sextant-type and
zon mirror base and turntable assembly follows. Fiske stadimeters.
1. Use an adjusting screw wrench to remove
The drum screw of a Fiske stadimeter fits
the vertical adjusting screw (fig. 16-26). Note
in the two sections of the carriage in a 3/8-
the differences in the assemblies illustrated.
inch- 12 National Special, right-hand, double
2. To disassemble the clamping spring, re¬
thread. It is a Class 4 fit, which is a lapped fit.
move the screw which secures it.
A sextant-type stadimeter has a 3/8-inch Amer¬
ican National Acme thread, which is a Class 3 fit.
Disassembly of the Telescope Assembly A fit as close as either of these is essential to
eliminate play in the drum screw. A sideshake
The following disassembly procedure is ap¬
or backlash (endshake) of .001 inch will cause
plicable to telescopes on Fiske and sextant-
an appreciable error in range readings.
type stadimeters:
The thread wears from use and causes play
1. Grasp the knurled shoulder of the eyepiece in the drum screw. Proceed as follows to fit
lens mount and pull the eyepiece drawtube (fig. the parts:
16-27) from the telescope body. If it is stuck, use
1. Remove old grease from the parts with an
an eyepiece clamp wrench.
approved cleaning solvent and test the fit of the
2. Unscrew the eyelens mount from the eye¬
drum screw in the carriage for sideshake and
piece drawtube. See illustration 16-28.
endshake. Study illustrations 16-32 (Fiske) and
3. With an eyelens and objective retainer 16-33 (sextant-type). If the screw is looser at
ring wrench (fig. 16-5), unscrew the eyelens
some points than at others, uneven wear has
retainer ring and remove the eyelens. Study taken place and the screw must be replaced.

399
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

-INDEX SCALE

SCALE SET
SCREW

INDEX
MIRROR
BASE
and
CLAMPING
SPRING
INDEX MIRROR
ASSEMBLY
VERTICAL ADJUSTING
(TYPE n)
SCREW

INDEX MIRROR
ADJUSTABLE BASE
INDEX
(TYPE I)
MIRROR
BASE
and CLAMPING
CLAMPING SPRING SCREW
SPRING
ASSEMBLY
(TYPE I) MIRROR CLAMPING
SPRING (TYPE I)
137.38E
Figure 16-23.— Index mirror base and scale arm assemblies.

400
 Chapter 16—STADIMETERS

HORIZON MIRROR BASE AND

TURNTABLE ASSEMBLY TYPE H

- f\ _
r
HORIZON MIRROR BASE
AND CLAMPING SPRING
ASSEMBLY TYPE II

(—CLAMPING SPRING SCREW

[-MIRROR CLAMPING
SPRING TYPE II
HORIZON MIRROR
ADJUSTABLE BASE
TYPE U

HORIZON MIRROR
HORIZON TURNTABLE
MIRROR
VERTICAL
ADJUSTING BASE-TO-
SCREW TURNTABLE SCREW

CLAMPING MIRROR CLAMPING

SPRING SPRING TYPE I
SCREW

HORIZON
MIRROR
ADJUST¬
ABLE
BASE
TYPE I

HORIZON MIRROR BASE AND

TURNTABLE ASSEMBLY TYPE I

137.388

Figure 16-26.— Disassembled horizon mirror

base and turntable assembly.

Tissue % -INDEX MIRROR

wrapped around VERTICAL
Male Center— ADJUSTING SCREW

137.387
Figure 16-25.— Removing the index mirror
vertical adjusting screw.

401
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

2. If a drum screw is loose, partially release

the four drum index arm screws (Fiske) and shift
the upper part of the carriage as necessary
to eliminate looseness (fig. 16-34). Then tighten
the screws.
The aligning step in a Type II Fiske or a
sextant-type stadimeter keeps the threaded
portion of the upper and lower parts of the
carriage aligned. Study illustration 16-34. If
necessary, use step No. 3 to eliminate play.
3. On a Fiske stadimeter, separate the two
parts from the carriage and file their contact
faces with a fine file to close up the threaded
hole for the drum screw. Then reassemble the
parts and try the fit of the drum screw.

CAUTION: Remove a MINIMUM amount of

metal, because this adjustment makes the hole
egg-shaped and causes rapid wear on the threads
as a result of increased pressure on them.
4. If a drum screw does not fit after you
file it down, use the set of six drum taps pro¬
vided and tap the carriage. These taps range
Figure 16-27. —Pulling the eyepiece drawtube from .002 inch below the .0045 inch above the
from the telescope body. normal of 3/8 inch provided for tapping the car¬
riage. Start with the smallest tap and try the
drum screw. Then try the next larger size and

402
 Chapter 16—STADIMETERS

EYEPIECE LENS EYEPIECE DRAW OBJECTIVE EYEPIECE LENS

LENS MOUNT RETAINER RING

EYEPIECE
DRAW TUBE
EYEPIECE
LENS MOUNT

EYEPIECE CLAMP OBJECTIVE RETAINER \ CLAMP

WRENCH
WRENCH RING WRENCH
-TELESCOPE BODY EYEPIECE LENS -
137.391 137.392
Figure 16-29.— Unscrewing the eyepiece Figure 16-30.— Removing the objective lens
lens retainer ring. mount from the telescope body.

OBJECTIVE CLAMP
WRENCH-
EYEPIECE
DRAW TUBE

EYE LENS and OBJECTIVE

RETAINER RING WRENCH

137.393
Figure 16-31. —Unscrewing the objective
lens retainer ring. drum screw in the carriage.

403
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

CARRIAGE CARRIAGE Carriage Upper

and Lower Parts
Aligning Step

Carriage Upper

137.395
Figure 16-33.— Testing the fit of the drum screw
in the carriage of a sextant-type stadimeter.

as many others as necessary until a proper fit is

obtained.

Fitting the Carriage to the Frame

To prevent play of the carriage, its tongue

(fig. 16-35) must fit the groove in the frame
137.396
over its entire length; and the carriage guide
Figure 16-34.— Aligning steps in
plate must fit the carriage and the frame in
stadimeter carriage.
order to hold the carriage in the groove for a
close fit. The fitting procedure outlined next
will eliminate play in original and new parts.
1. Slide the lower part of the carriage on the
frame, as shown in illustration 16-35. Carriages 3. Try the tongue for fit in the widest point
for Types I and II Fiske stadimeters are shown in the frame groove. If the tongue is too wide,
in figure 16-36. remove enough material from its side with fine
2. If the lower part of the carriage is loose emery cloth to make it fit. This action is some¬
over the entire length of the frame groove, the times necessary when a new carriage is being
tongue is too narrow. Set the tongue of the car¬ fitted.
riage (carriage upside down) on a metal block 4. Start at the widest point to which you
and spread the tongue by hitting each section fitted the lower part of the carriage and move
on its bottom edge with a chisel, as illustrated the carriage along the frame to try it for fit.
in figure 16-37. If necessary, use a frame scraper to scrape the
CAUTION: To prevent damage to the carriage side of the groove to the extent required to make
during this operation, hold it securely on the it fit the tongue of the carriage. Study illustration
metal block. 16-3. Arrow No. 1 in the illustration points

404
 Chapter 16—STADIMETERS

to the side which should be scraped, because the

tongue bears more heavily against it and there¬
fore causes greater wear than on the other side
(arrow No. 2). Check the unscraped side for
burrs or other defects.
5. When the lower part of the carriage slides
over the length of the groove without play or
binding, replace the carriage guide plate on the
carriage (fig. 16-39). Assemble original parts
in accordance with guide marks. If you fit new
parts, scribe reassembly guide marks on them.
6. Slide the lower part of the carriage along
the frame and locate the position where the car¬
riage has the most play. Then remove the car¬
riage guide plate and file the bottom of the lower
part of the carriage to make the guide plate come
down and hold the carriage without play.
If the lower part of the carriage (with guide
plate attached) is tight all along the frame, use
fine emery cloth to remove alittle material from
the two bottom bearing surfaces of the carriage
guide plate.
7. Start with a fit at the widest (loosest)
point, move the carriage along the frame, and
scrape the frame in the manner shown in figure
carriage guide plate to the frame. 16-39. If a smooth, close fit cannot be obtained
all along the frame, the frame is warped and
must be replaced.

Frame Bearing
Surface

137.398
Figure 16-36.— Carriage for Type I and Type II Fiske stadimeters.

405
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Cold Chisel Hammer Frame Tongue of

Groove Carriage
CARRIAGE

Tongue of
Carriage

%Metal Block

137.399
Figure 16-37.— Spreading the tongue of FRAME
the carriage. 137.400
Figure 16-38.— Removing metal from the
frame groove.

CARRIAGE
GUIDE PLATE

GUIDE PLATE
SCREW

CARRIAGE
GUIDE
PLATE

137.401
Figure 16-39.— Assembly of the carriage guide plate.

406
 Chapter 16— STADIMETERS

Positioning and Pinning the The procedure for drilling holes for a tele¬
Telescope Holder scope holder is somewhat detailed and is not
discussed here. You may on occasions be re¬
A telescope holder must be so positioned on quired to drill these holes, however, and the
the frame that the optical center of a telescope instructions in NavShips 250-624-6 will be most
mounted in it is in line with the pivotal point helpful.
of the horizon mirror. See illustration 16-40.
The telescope holder pin fits tight in the frame Repair of Sextant-Type Stadimeters
and in a sliding fit in the telescope holder. See
the circled portions at the bottom of illustration If you understand the procedure for dis¬
16-40. assembling and repairing a Fiske stadimeter,

%Block Mounting Screw

-Horizon Mirror
Pivotal Point

-Block (Mounted in place

of Horizon Mirror Base
and Turntable Assembly)

TELESCOPE
Underside view of Frame HOLDER

Rod

Locating Hole

Slot

Underside view of Frame

(FISKE TYPE) Underside view of Frame

137.402
Figure 16-40. —Positioning and pinning the telescope holder.

407
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

you will experience little or no difficulty in guide pin in the adjustable base. Use care as
repairing a sextant-type stadimeter. There are you tap the pin into position.
2. some differences in the procedure, however, With an adjusting screw wrench, replace
which should be emphasized, as follows: the horizon mirror base and clamping spring
1. After removing the telescope and mirrors assembly on the horizon mirror turntable.
from a sextant-type stadimeter, remove the
screws from the arcuate arm guard (fig. 16-41)
Index Mirror Base and Scale
and then the guard (fig. 16-42).
Arm Assembly
2. Remove the center covers from the two
moving centers.
The first two steps in the reassembly of the
3. Remove the locking screw and bushing
index mirror base and scale arm assembly are
from the center assembly of the arcuate arm
(fig. 16-43). the same as for the horizon mirror. After
completing these steps, slide the index scale
4. Screw the index drum out and lift the
into the groove in the scale arm, high end of
arcuate arm from its pivot (fig. 16-44).
scale (marked 200) first. The parts are shown
5. The arcuate arm tension spring will push
in illustration 16-23. Replace the scale set
the plunger out of the spring housing (fig. 16-45).
screw in the underside of the scale arm, but
Remove the spring and the plunger.
do not tighten it until you collimate the instru¬
6. Drive the dowel pin out of the retaining
ment.
ring on the end of the lock spindle screw (fig.
16-46) to free the lock nut assembly spring
(fig. 16-47). Carriage and Drum Screw Assembly
7. Withdraw the lock spindle from the other
end of the assembly (fig. 16-48). When reassembling the carriage and drum
8. The drum index marker (fig. 16-49) is screw assembly, proceed as follows:
adjustable. When you reassemble the instru¬ 1. Put the upper part of the carriage on
ment, adjust the pointer so that the circular lines the lower part and line up the reassembly
on the index drum are visible and line up the guide marks. Review illustrations 16-19 and
index mark with the range marks on the drum. 16-21.
9. Before replacing the arcuate arm pivot in 2. Place the drum index arm on top of the
its center assembly, turn the drum screw out upper part of the carriage, with the index arm
enough to give room for working. Then depress facing away from the tongue on the carriage,
the spring and plunger with the left thumb while and replace the four drum index arm screws.
you slip the arm in place (fig. 16-50). 3. Replace the range drum and clamp plate
to the drum screw (fig. 16-19), but do not
REASSEMBLY
tighten the screws. Turn the drum screw
assembly over, look for the reassembly guide
This section contains the standardized pro¬ mark on the drum screw and range drum (fig.
cedure for reassembling Fiske stadimeters. 16-22), and then realign them. Tighten the drum
Subassemblies are assembled first, in reverse clamp plate screws.
order to disassembly, and they are then placed 4. Apply a thin coat of approved drum screw
in the assemblies for final installation on the grease on the thread of the drum screw and
frame. screw the assembly into the hole formed by the
two parts of the carriage. The shoulder of the
Horizon Mirror Base and drum screw must be flush with the other side
Turntable Assembly of the carriage. If the reassembly guide marks
on these parts (fig. 16-20) coincide, the double
Proceed as follows to reassemble the turn¬ thread is reassembled in its matched position.
table assemblv:
5. If the drum screw assembly runs smoothly
1. Replace the mirror clamping spring on the throughout its travel in the carriage, the parts
back of the adjusting base. These parts comprise are assembled properly. Wipe off any drum
the horizon mirror base and clamping spring screw grease which was squeezed out during the
assembly. Review illustration 16-26. The slot operation. There must be NO play of the drum
in the clamping spring fits around the clamping screw in the carriage. Shift the upper part of the
spring guide pin. If you removed it, replace the carriage to adjust for fit.

408
 Chapter 16— STADIMETERS

137.403 137.406
Figure 16-41— Removing screws from the Figure 16-44.— Removing the arcuate arm.
arcuate arm guard.

137.404 137.407
Figure 16-42.— Removing the arcuate arm guard. Figure 16-45.— Removing the tension spring
and plunger.

137.405
Figure 16-43.— Releasing the arcuate 137.408
arm centers. Figure 16-46.— Removing the dowel pin.

409
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.409 137.411
Figure 16-47. —Removing the lock nut Figure 16-49.— Index drum and pointer.
assembly spring.

137.410 137.412
Figure 16-48.— Removing the lock spindle. Figure 16-50.— Remounting the arcuate arm.

6. Apply a thin film of drum screw socket tighten these parts until the carriage screw is
oil on the ball end of the drum screw assembly properly fitted in the frame.
and put the two parts of the drum screw socket
on the end of the screw. These parts are fitted
with two dowel pins permanently fixed in the Telescope Assembly
upper section of the socket.
7. Screw the index plate (figs. 16-18 & 16-19) The procedure for assembling the telescope
to the top of the drum screw socket and set the assembly for Fiske and sextant-type stadimeters
carriage and the assembly aside until you re¬ follows.
place it on the frame. 1. Clean the eyepiece lens in the manner ex¬
Thread the carriage screw head (fig. 16-51) plained in chapter 8 and use tweezers to set its
onto the threaded end of the carriage screw, and concave side down in the eyepiece lens mount
screw the carriage screw head nut on. Do NOT (fig. 16-28).

410
 Chapter 16— STADIMETERS

2.
Replace the eyepiece lens retainer ring 4. Put the carriage guide plate in position on
and then tighten it (fig. 16-29), but not tight the bottom of the carriage and secure it with its
enough to put strain in the lens. four screws. Realign the assembly guide mark.
3. Screw the eyepiece lens mount into the 5. Apply a thin film of grease along the length
drawtube (fig. 16-28). of the frame where the carriage guide plate rides
4. Apply a thin coat of eyepiece grease on and screw the carriage up to the end near the
the outside surface of the drawtube and slide it screw head.
into the telescope body (fig. 16-31). Wipe off 6. Check for end play in the carriage screw
excess grease. head by pushing and pulling it. To adjust for
5. Clean the objective lens and use tweezers play, turn the head up against the frame and the
to set it in the mount, flat side down (fig. 16-28). bearing cap. Then tighten the screw head nut and
6. Replace the objective lens retainer ring. lock it in position with a carriage screw head nut
7. Screw the objective lens mount into the wrench. See illustration 16-52.
large end of the telescope body.
This completes reassembly of subassemblies
of the stadimeter. The next step is the replace¬ Handle Assembly
ment of subassemblies in their proper positions
in the instrument. Review illustrations 16-12 and 16-13. Reas¬
sembly of the handle assembly is the same as
Legs and Spring Arm Assembly disassembly, in reverse order. Because of the
simplicity of the task, the procedure is not re¬
peated here.
Screw the three frame legs into the frame and
tighten them with a frame leg pin wrench. See
figure 16-16. Index Mirror Base and
Scale Arm Assembly
Screw the scale arm spring assembly to the
frame and insert the study of the telescope holder
in its position in the frame. Then position the Do the following to assemble the index mirror
holder with its projecting ear towards the adja¬ base and scale arm assembly to the frame:
cent frame leg, and line up the hole in the holder 1. As illustrated in figure 16-53, oil with
for the telescope holder pin in the frame. Re¬ a thin film of oil the full length of the male
place and tighten the holder screw. center, on both sides. The oil will spread when
the centers are replaced.
Carriage Screw and 2. Pick up the index mirror base and scale
Drum Screw Assemblies arm assembly and insert the male center in the
female center (fig. 16-11). Hold the scale arm
spring assembly clear of the scale arm; and when
Follow the procedure outlined next for re¬ the scale arm is resting on the frame, release
placing these assemblies on the stadimeter the arm spring assembly. The arm should be
frame. pushed against the drum screw socket and the
1. Spread a film of carriage screw grease index plate should be over the edge of the arm.
over the thread on the screw (bearing end) and Work the scale arm back and forth and wipe off
on its bearing surface which fits the open bearing excess oil (squeezed out).
in the frame (fig. 16-15). 3. Turn the frame over and support the index
2. Set the frame on its legs and hold with mirror base and scale arm assembly with your
your left hand the carriage and drum screw as¬ left hand. Place the male center washer over the
sembly in place in the frame. Pick up the carri¬ square lug on the end of the male center and align
age screw assembly with your right hand and it with the reassembly guide mark on the center.
screw it into the carriage far enough to make its Review illustrations 16-7 and 16-10.
bearing end protrude. Then push the assembly 4. Replace the male center screw (fig. 16-7)
along the frame so that you can insert it in the and also the center cap over the female center.
end bearing and put it down in the open bearing. 5. Put the scale arm guide in position against
3. Secure the carriage screw bearing cap to the projecting lug beneath the scale arm. Then
the frame with the screws provided (figs. 16-13 insert and tighten the screw which secures it.
& 16-14). See illustrations 16-7 and 16-9.

411
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

2. Check the drum screw for play in the

carriage: and on a Fiske stadimeter, check the
carriage for play on the frame.
3. Check all moving parts for freedom of
action and smoothness of motion.
When the instrument passes this inspection
satisfactorily, proceed with the tests and adjust¬
ments.

TESTS AND ADJUSTMENTS

The range drum is calibrated at infinity be¬

cause at infinite range the index and horizon mir¬
rors remain parallel to each other, regardless
of the height of the object under observation. At
infinity setting, therefore, provided the stadi¬
meter is varied along the index scale, the index
mirror (arcuate arm or scale arm) remains
stationary and provides a convenient method for
setting the range drum to infinity and a simple
check on the trueness of the arcuate or scale
Figure 16-51.— Carriage screw assembly. arm.
Test and adjustment procedures for Fiske and
sextant-type stadimeters are slightly different,
but lack of space in this chapter prohibits a de¬
tailed discussion for the sextant -type. If neces¬
Horizon Mirror Base, Turntable, sary, refer to NavShips 250-624-6 for additional
and Range Drum Assembly information on this instrument.

To replace the horizon mirror base and turn¬

table assembly, do the following:
1. Lubricate with turntable grease the un¬
derside of the horizon mirror base and turntable
assembly and the flat side of the turntable washer
(fig. 16-7).
2. Secure the assembly to the frame.
3. With an adjusting screw wrench, screw
the two horizon mirror radial adjusting screws
into the frame, but leave them LOOSE.
4. Screw the range drum magnifier to the
drum index arm.
The overhauled stadimeter is now reassem¬
bled as completely as possible prior to final
tests and adjustments.

POST REASSEMBLY INSPECTION

After reassembling the stadimeter, make a

final repair inspection to detect flaws in work¬
manship before testing and adjusting. Inspect the
following:
1. Finish of each part, and legibility of en¬
gravings. Then examine the general appearance 137.414
of the instrument for defects which may affect Figure 16-52. —Locking the carriage
its useful life. screw head.

412
 Chapter 16—STADIMETERS

3. Crank the carriage to the 50-foot mark on

the index arm and set the indicator dial to zero,
Then run the carriage back to the 200-foot mark
and read the indicator. Correct the reading to
zero by turning the range drum, run the carriage
back to the 50 -foot mark, and read the deflection
on the dial. Then turn the range drum to add one
half of the deflection reading to the present de¬
flection. Reset the dial to zero.
Repeat this adjustment until the indicator
shows a deflection of no more than plus or minus
.0005 inch at the 50-foot mark and at the 200-
foot mark. As a rule, four or five repetitions of

137.415
Figure 16-53.— Applying oil to the
male center.

Setting the Range Drum at Infinity

The following procedure for setting the range

drum at infinity is applicable for Types I and II
Fiske stadimeters:
1. Clamp the dial indicator (with bracket) to
the frame and position it as necessary to bring
the indicator arm against the back of the scale
arm. See figure 16-54.
2. Slide the carriage crank onto the carriage
head and tighten its setscrew. Then turn the range
drum to bring the scale arm parallel with the
groove in the frame in which the tongue of the
carriage slides. If the drum screw and range 137.416
drum are correctly assembled, the drum will Figure 16-54.— Setting the range drum
read “INF”. at infinity.

413
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

this operation are required to get correct adjust¬ you do this, however, replace and adjust the in¬
ment. dex and horizon mirrors. They must be perpen¬
4. The range drum must be set at infinity dicular to the frame of the instrument and (at
(INF) on its scale, without changing the position infinity settings) parallel with each other. These
of the drum screw. To do this, loosen the three mirrors become loose and get out of adjustment
drum clamp plate screws which secure the range easily; and they must be adjusted each time the
drum on the screw. Then set the drum at infinity, stadimeter is used.
tighten one of the screws, and read the indicator
dial to check the infinity setting. It should read Perpendicular Adjustment of the
0 within plus or minus .0005 inch (circled por¬ Horizon Mirror
tion, fig. 16-54). If the setting is correct, tighten
the other screws. The top edge of the silver on the horizon
mirror and the center of the small peephole in
Checking Arcuate and Scale Arms the telescope holder have the same height above
the frame of the stadimeter; so if the horizon
After setting the range drum at infinity, mirror is perpendicular to the plane of the in¬
check the arcuate arm (sextant-type) or the scale strument, you can see the reflection of one half
arm (Fiske) on a stadimeter to make certain the of the peephole in the silvered portion of the
index mirror will not be moved at any intermedi¬ mirror.
ate point on the index scale more than the allow¬ If you cannot see one half of the peephole in
able deflection of plus or minus .0005 inch. The the mirror, turn the vertical adjusting screw in
procedure for doing this is identical for both the direction necessary to enable you to see it.
types of stadimeters. Study illustration 16-55.
NOTE: A true check of the arcuate or scale If you cannot see the peephole and telescope
arm is impossible when slack and backlash are holder in the horizon mirror, the mirror maybe
PRESENT in the instrument. at an incorrect angle. Adjust it by turning the
1. Set the range drum at infinity, position the radial adjusting screws.
carriage to read 50 feet on the index scale, and
set the indicator at zero. Perpendicular Adjustment of the
2. Constantly read the dial while moving the Index Mirror
carriage in small steps from the 500-foot mark
to the 200-foot mark. If the deflection exceeds If the index mirror of a stadimeter is not
.0005 inch, record the index reading and the de¬ perpendicular to the frame, the directly-viewed
flection with its plus or minus sign. For a object and its reflected image will not be aligned.
sextant-type stadimeter, minus deflections are Hold the stadimeter in the manner shown in
caused by high spots on the arm, and plus de¬ figure 15-56 (frame vertical) and look through
flections are caused by low spots. For a Fiske the telescope holder at a small vertical object
stadimeter, these readings are reversed— plus (mast or flagpole) to determine whether the
for high spots and minus for low spots. directly- viewed object and the reflected image
3. With fine emery cloth, remove the high coincide, as illustrated in the left part of figure
spots on the arm, polish them with croecus 16-57. If they do not coincide, use an adjusting
cloth, and wash off abrasive residue— to prevent screw wrench to turn the index mirror adjust¬
unnecessary wear. To prevent FLAT spots, use able base as necessary to make them coincide.
a sweeping motion when you remove high spots Wobble the stadimeter while holding it in a
on the arm. If there are FLATS, rub the scale vertical plane and check to determine whether
arm down with emery cloth; but remove only the the directly- viewed object appears to wiggle. If
amount of material necessary to make the arm it does not, the mirror is not properly adjusted.
even. If adjustment of the mirror does not remove the
When a scale or arcuate arm is bent or un¬ wiggle, repeat the procedure for perpendicular
even to a considerable extent, it is generally adjustment.
more economical to replace it.
When the indicator shows NO MORE THANa Parallel Adjustment of Mirrors
plus of minus .0005-inch deflection at infinity
setting of the range drum and all across the arm, With the range drum set at infinity, make the
the stadimeter is ready for collimation. Before horizon and index mirrors perpendicular to the

414
 Chapter 16—STADIMETERS

frame and parallel to each other, in the following

manner:
1. Set the range drum at infinity. The index
or height scale can be set at any position.
2. Hold the stadimeter in a vertical plane
and look through the telescope holder at a distant
object. If the reflected image and directly- viewed
horizon are not continuous, as illustrated in the
left portion of figure 16-58, loosen one of the
horizon mirror radial adjusting screws and
tighten the other enough to make the horizontal
line appear continuous.
When you hold the stadimeter horizontally,
a distant vertical object such as a smoke stack
can serve as the horizon.
3. Wobble the instrument along the horizon
to check the alignment of the object and its
reflected image. If the horizontal line appears
to wiggle, the mirrors are not exactly parallel.
4. As an overall check on the adjustment of
the mirrors, hold the stadimeter diagonally at
45° and wobble the stadimeter as you sight the
horizon. If there is a wiggle, the mirrors are
not vertical to the frame or parallel to each
other. Make necessary adjustments.
Now that the mirrors are correctly adjusted
and aligned, the instrument is ready for collima-
tion.

COLLIMATION PROCEDURE

The purpose of collimating a stadimeter is to

calibrate the index scale and check the range
readings. 137.418
Figure 16-56. —Perpendicular adjustment
of the index mirror.

HORIZON MIRROR One Half of

A Mk 4, Mod 5, collimator (fig. 16-59) or a

Mk 5 collimator may be used for collimating
sextant-type and Fiske stadimeters. The target
in the Mk 4, Mod 5, collimator, however, is
more suited for collimating stadimeters because
it has two flagstaffs. See illustration 16-60.
The radial lines of the collimator target
cross the coordinate axis at one degree intervals.
Each intersection is marked with the number of
degrees which it is displaced from the target
center. The Mk 4, Mod 5, target is used in this
discussion. The flagstaffs on this target are
spaced to subtend an angle of 3°48'48". The rea¬
Figure 16-55. —Perpendicular adjustment son for this will be clear after you study the next
of the horizon mirror. few paragraphs.

415
OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

416
 Chapter 16— STADIMETERS

Mark 4, No. 5 Target Mark 5, Target

137.422
Figure 16-60.— Collimator targets.

417
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

A stadimeter determines ranges of objects of Targets such as flagstaffs are desirable because
known heights by sighting the angle subtended by they are easily identified.
the object. This can be accomplished by varying
the index mirror as required to superimpose the Mirror Adjustment and Infinity Setting
directly-viewed and reflected images. If the
angular height of the object is known, the ratio To check the mirror adjustment and the in¬
of the height to the range will be equal to the finity setting, proceed as follows:
tangent of the angle. Study illustration 16-61. 1. Set the stadimeter on the collimator stand,
The formula for determining the tangent of the as shown in illustration 16-59. The telescope is
angle subtended is: not on the instrument because it is not required
for this operation.
Tangent of Angle = 2. Sight through the peephole in the telescope
holder and check the vertical position of the hori¬
The tangent of the angle subtended in illustra¬ zon mirror. If the mirror is not vertical to the
frame, turn its adjusting screw as necessary to
tion is 3°48'48", which equals .0666, or . So
make it vertical.
the ratio of height to range is 1 to 15 if they are 3. Set the range drum at infinity and sight the
expressed in the same distance units. Because target to check the vertical position of the index
stadimeter scales are calibrated in feet for the mirror. If the mirror is not vertical to the frame,
height (index) scale and in yards for range (on the reflected portion of the target in the horizon
the range drum), the ratio becomes 1 to 5. For mirror will be displaced up or down. To bring the
this reason, if the stadimeter scales are set to reflected image into position, adjust the index
the l-to-5 ratio (50 ft. & 250 yds, 100 ft. & 500 mirror vertical adjusting screw. Shake your head
yds., etc.), the flagstaffs in the collimator will up and down and look at the top edge of the hori¬
be superimposed. zon mirror. If the image jumps, the index mirror
Any other convenient ratio can be set up and is not exactly vertical.
targets made to suit it. If you use a collimator Horizontal displacement of the reflected im¬
such as the Mk 5, you must select two gradua¬ age indicates that the infinity setting of the range
tions on the target which subtend a known angle. drum is incorrect, or that the horizontal mirror

Relationship:
Height
Range

137.423
Figure 16-61.— Ratio of height to range of an object.

418
 Chapter 16— STADIMETERS

is not parallel to the index mirror. Adjust the The test of range readings is for 200 yards
range drum setting to eliminate this. to 1000 yards for objects of heights between the
4. Set the range drum at infinity and sight index scale limits of 50 to 100 feet. Perform the
the target to determine whether the horizon mir¬ test in the following manner:
ror is parallel to the index mirror. If the re¬ 1. Set the index scale at 50 feet and sight
flected image is displaced horizontally, adjust it the collimator target (fig. 16-60). Turn the range
as necessary with the horizon mirror radial drum to make the right flagstaff move and super¬
adjusting screws. See the circled portion of impose on the left flagstaff. Shake your head up
figure 16-59. For an accurate check, look at the and down and look for a wiggle. Align the flagstaff
vertical line on the target between the directly- accurately and read the range drum. It should
viewed portion of the line and its reflected image read 250 yards.
and shake your head up and down. If the line At a range of 200 yards, a 5 percent error
appears to wiggle (snake), the horizon mirror (allowed) is 10 yards. This is a measurement of
is not adjusted properly. almost 5/8 inch on the range drum scale; how¬
5. To check the infinity setting, set the range ever, 5/8 inch along the scale at the high end is
drum at infinity, run the carriage to the 50 -foot almost 700 yards. Misalignment or play in the
end of the scale, and check for horizontal dis¬ stadimeter, therefore, has the greatest effect at
placement in the manner explained in step four. long ranges.
Then check again at the 200-foot mark. If dis¬ Allowed tolerance at 10,000 yards is 500
placement is evident at either or both ends, the yards, which is equal to approximately 1/64 inch
infinity setting is incorrect. Set the range drums on the range drum at the 10,000-yard mark. At
at infinity and collimate again. any range for an object of any height, therefore,
provided the reading is within plus or minus
Setting the Index Scale 1/64 inch, the instrument will be within tolerance
for the 10,000 yard range and ALL lesser
ranges. The range drum magnifier gives a mag¬
A Fiske stadimeter has an index scale which
nification of about twice the length; so with a
slides in the index arm. To set the scale, do the
little experience, you will be able to judge the
following:
tolerance in the magnifier.
1. Set the range drum to read 250 yards, 2. Repeat step No. 1 at 55, 60,70, 80, 90, 100,
sight the collimator target, and superimpose the 110, 120, 140, 160, 180, and 200 feet on the index
right flagstaff on the left flagstaff by moving the scale; and in each case multiply the index scale
carriage with the carriage screw. To check the reading by 5 to determine the range reading ex¬
superimposition, shake your head up and down pected.
and look for a wiggle. Illustration 16-62 gives some defects in range
2. Partially release the index scale setscrew readings and the probable causes.
on the underside of the scale arm and slide the At this point, the stadimeter is fully tested
scale to make the 50-foot mark coincide with the and adjusted, ready for the final inspection.
line on the index plate. Tighten the setscrew and
fill the space (if any) between the end of the scale
FINAL SHOP INSPECTION
(at the 200-foot end) and the scale arm slot with
sealing compound.
Final inspection of the overhauled stadimeter
Checking Range Readings should reveal details previously overlooked dur¬
ing the repair procedure. Inspect as follows:
1. Check for completeness of component
Fiske and sextant-type stadimeters must be parts.
accurate enough to determine the range of ob¬ 2. Inspect parts for finish, tightness in as¬
jects of known height to within 5 percent. If the sembly, and legibility of engravings. Check all
adjustment was made properly, all range read¬ screws for tightness.
ings should be correct. This test procedure is 3. Look at an image through the telescope
intended as a final check on the work accom¬ assembly and check for brightness, clearness,
plished previously on the instrument during and distortion (shape and color).
overhaul. If the stadimeter does not give accu¬ 4. Examine both mirrors for cleanliness and
rate readings, diagnose the cause and correct it. freedom from visible defects.

419
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

5. When you are satisfied with the con¬ of horizon and index mirrors and an adjust¬
dition of the instrument, put it in its carrying ing screw wrench. For a sextant-type stadim-
case, which should have an attached name¬ eter, include two spare radius arm springs;
plate, and an instruction sheet pasted on the for a Fiske stadimeter, include two scale arm
underside of the cover. Include a spare set spring assemblies.

Wrong Range Reading for High or Low Range Readings

Inconsistent Readings
Particular Index Setting over the Entire Scale

Probable Cause Probable Cause Probable Cause

1. Bumps or low spots on the 1. Range drum infinity 1. Play in the drum screw.
arcuate or scale arm. setting is incorrect. 2. Play in the carriage
2. Play in the drum screw. 2. Index scale setting block (Fiske).
3. Looseness of carriage is incorrect. 3. Loose mirror mountings.
block in the frame 3. Defective mirrors.
groove (Fiske).

137.424
Figure 16-62.— Defects in range readings.

420
 CHAPTER 17

TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

Telescopic alidades were designed for use The OBJECTIVE LENS (E, fig. 17-2) of a
aboard ship to enable personnel to sight AC¬ telescopic alidade gathers reflected light from a
CURATELY and CLEARLY distant objects and to distant object and for ms an inverted and reverted
get precise bearings of those objects. A tele¬ image within the optical system, at the rhomboid
scopic alidade must indicate a bearing with an collective lens.
accuracy of less than two minutes of arc, rela¬ The RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE LENS (I, fig.
tive to the bearing circle assembly. 17-2) collects the extreme rays of the object
image and the auxiliary field image (explained
later) and diverts them into the erector lens. This
CONSTRUCTION lens is called a rhomboid collective lens because
it is next to the auxiliary rhomboid prism. With¬
A telescopic alidade consists of a telescope, out the rhomboid collective lens, extreme princi¬
with a reticle for sighting purposes, mounted on pal rays of light would miss the small erector
a bearing circle. An auxiliary telescope system lens.
which permits simultaneous sighting of a portion The ERECTOR lens (J, fig. 17-2), located
of a compass card and the object under observa¬ between the rhomboid collective lens and the
tion is located in the body of the telescope. The crossline plate, transforms the image of the
entire assembly is mounted on a gyrocompass object from the rhomboid collective lens into a
repeater or a standard ship magnetic compass to normal, erect image in the plane of the crossline
permit rapid taking of bearings. A Mk 2, Mod 3, plate (reticle side).
alidade is equipped with a prismatic altitude The CROSSLINE PLATE, commonly called
head which permits the taking of bearings of reticle, is apiece of plane-parallel optical glass
celestial objects. with a fine vertical line engraved across its
Study the telescopic alidades shown in figure diameter (on the side toward the eyepiece
17-1. Note the nomenclature, and observe the lenses). The image of the object formed by the
external similarities and differences in con¬ objective lens and inverted and reverted by the
struction. erector lens comes to focus in the plane of the
reticle line. When viewed through the eyepiece,
OPTICAL SYSTEM the reticle appears superimposed in sharp focus
on the image of the object under observation.
The complete optical system of a basic tele¬ This plate (reticle) is an accurate guide for align¬
scopic alidade is shown in figure 17-2. Mk 3, ing an alidade on a bearing point.
Mods 0 and 1, and Mk 4, ModsO and 1, have this The EYELENS and the EYEPIECE COLLEC¬
system. The optical system of a Mk2, Mod 3, TIVE LENS form an enlarged image of the object
alidade comprises the basic alidade optical sys¬ and the reticle line. See L and Min figure 17-2.
tem, but it also has an ALTITUDE prism head These lenses are mounted in a drawtube which
assembly and a RETICLE illuminator window. can be moved in or out to obtain a sharply
The basic optical system of an alidade is focused image.
essentially a terrestial telescope with a reticle
(K, fig. 17-2). In a Mk 2, Mod 3, alidade, the AUXILIARY TELESCOPE SYSTEM
reticle is illuminated through the illuminator
window by a small lamp attached to the telescope The auxiliary telescope system of a telescopic
body. alidade is a second optical system consisting of a

421
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

DIOPTER SCALE TELESCOPE OBJECTIVE PRISM OPERATING

BODY FILTER ASSEMBLY KNOB

EYEGUARD

CROSSLINE ILLUMINATOR - ALTITUDE PRISM

ASSEMBLY HEAD ASSEMBLY

BEARING CIRCLE
ASSEMBLY SPIRIT LEVEL

MARK2, MOD3

45.39
Figure 17-1.— Mks 2, 3, and 4 telescopic alidades
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

A. Housing window I. Rhomboid collective lens

B. Altitude head movable prism J. Erector lens
C. Altitude head fixed prism
K. Crossline plate (reticle)
D. Objective filter
L. Eyepiece collective lens
E. Objective lens
M. Eyelens
F. Auxiliary penta prism N. Reticle illuminator window
G. Auxiliary objective lens O. Auxiliary window
H. Auxiliary rhomboid prism P. Spirit Level
137.425
Figure 17-2.— Cross section view of a telescopic alidade.

penta prism, a small objective lens, and a rhom¬ BEARING CIRCLE ASSEMBLY
boid prism. See F, G, and H, figure 17-2. This
optical system sights a portion of the compass As shown in figure 17-1, the telescope body
card through the auxiliary window in the bottom of a telescopic alidade is rigidly mounted on a
of the main telescope body when the alidade is bearing circle assembly which fits over the bezel
mounted on a gyro compass repeater or on a ship of a ship magnetic compass or a gyrocompass
magnetic compass. At the same time, the spirit repeater. The bearing circle assembly is used
level of the alidade is visible. to indicate relative bearings.
The purpose of the auxiliary system is to
project the image of the compass card and the ALTITUDE PRISM HEAD ASSEMBLY
spirit level bubble from the auxiliary rhomboid
A Mk 2, Mod 3, telescopic alidade (and some
prism into the main telescope system, which
others) is equipped with a detachable altitude
covers about half of the rhomboid collective lens. prism head assembly which fits over the objec¬
The object being sighted, the instrument's cross -
tives end of the telescope, as shown in illustra¬
line, a portion of the compass card, and the tion 17-1. This assembly enables an observer to
bubble are visible at the same time. (This is il¬ sight objects which are at an angular elevation,
lustrated and explained under adjustments at the by means of two prisms within the head: (1) a
end of the chapter.) The bearing of an object is
fixed prism (C, fig. 17-2), and (2) a movable
read on the compass card, as indicated by the prism (B, fig. 17-2), so that objects from 0° to
portion of the crossline in the auxiliary field. 60° of angular elevation may be sighted.

423
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

A glass housing window (A, fig. 17-2) com¬ section of disassembly is designated as RE¬
pletes the altitude head housing, which protects MOVAL for the major assemblies. The proce¬
the altitude head prisms from dirt and accidental dure for disassembling the subassemblies fol¬
damage. lows.

Removal of Objective Filter Assemblies

TYPES OF TELESCOPIC ALIDADES
Pull the two objective filter assemblies off
Five different marks of telescopic alidades the filter carriers, which are on each side of the
are currently used by the Navy: Mks 2, 3, 4, 6, telescope body. Study illustration 17-3. Then un¬
and 7. Mk 4, Mods 0 and 1, telescopic alidades screw the two filter carrier screws from the
are used more extensively by the Navy than other telescope body and remove the filter carrier.
alidades and are discussed in detail in this Follow the same procedure to remove the filter
chapter. Mks 6 and 7, however, will also be used carrier on the other side of the body.
rather extensively and they are discussed at the
end of the chapter in as much detail as space Removal of the Objective Assembly
and material permit.
Refer to illustration 17-3 as you study the
following procedure for removing the objective
MARK 4 TELESCOPIC ALIDADES assembly:
1. Slip the sunshade off and remove the seal
A Mk 4 telescopic alidade does not have a ring screws. Then take off the objective mount
crossline illuminator assembly or an altitude seal ring.
prism head assembly. The principal design 2. With a prying tool (fig. 17-4), remove the
feature of this alidade is that an attempt was objective mount gasket from the recess in the
made to make it water- and moisture-proof by telescope body.
adding rubber gaskets to the seats of the eyelens 3. Unscrew the main objective assembly
and the objective lens, a rubber seal over the from the telescope body.
objective mount, and a sealing ring on the eye¬
piece. Removal of the Eyepiece Assembly
The telescope body of a Mk 4 alidade was
also made in one piece (instead of three) in an To remove the eyepiece assembly, proceed
effort to eliminate joints through which moisture as follows:
could enter the interior. The eyepiece mount 1. Remove the diopter ring screws with an
moves in and out of the end of the body; it does Allen screw wrench and slide the ring off (fig.
not have a separate adapter. Focusing is ac¬ 17-3).
complished by turning a pinion which engages 2. With a 3/64-inch drift pin and a hammer,
a rack cut on the eyepiece lens mount. Instead remove the adjusting pinion taper pin from the
of being in a fixed plane, the crossline plate is adjusting pinion collar.
mounted in its own mount and can be positioned CAUTION: Excessive pressure will bend the
IN or OUT in relation to the eyepiece. adjusting pinion; ALWAYS support the pinion
The whole auxiliary telescope system is collar on a block.
mounted on a plate so that it can be made up as 3. With a pinion collar and packing ring
a subassembly before it is placed in the tele¬ wrench, unscrew the adjusting pinion collar, as
scope body. To absorb moisture which DOES shown in illustration 17-5. Then unscrew the
ENTER the interior, a container of dessicant adjusting pinion packing ring (fig. 17-3).
(silica gel) is placed within the body of the tele¬ 4. As illustrated in figure 17-6, pull the
scope. The body cover is made watertight by a eyepiece assembly out of the telescope body as
rubber gasket between it and the telescope body. you turn and remove the adjusting pinion. Slide
the adjusting pinion packing and bushing off the
DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE pinion and discard the packing.
5. Unscrew the bushing cap screws from the
The disasembly procedure considered in this eccentric bushing cap on the left side of the tele¬
scope body. Then remove the bushing cap and the
section is for the Mk 4, ModsO and 1, telescopic
alidade. To prevent misunderstanding, the first pinion eccentric bushing, which is loose in the

424
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

adjusting pinion cylinder. See illustrations 17-3 and collimation, measure and record the depth
and 17-6.
of the crossline assembly in the body. Insert a
scale inside the body, as illustrated in figure
Auxiliary Telescope Assembly and Desiccator 17-9, and measure the depth to the nearest 1/64
Remove the cover screws and lift the cover inch at the face of the body.
and gasket off. Then remove the body desiccator CAUTION: Do NOT touch the crossline plate
and pull off the front and rear grommets. Dis¬ with the scale. If you scratch the glass, it must
card the desiccator. Study illustration 17-7. be discarded.
Unscrew the auxiliary telescope plate screws. Insert the outer element (fig. 17-10) of a
Then push the end of the telescope plate with crossline adjusting wrench through the eyepiece
your left thumb and lift the assembly out of the end of the body and unscrew the crossline as¬
telescope body; but be careful NOT to chip the sembly lock ring.
lower edge of the auxiliary rhomboid prism which Use the outer element of a Crossline adjusting
projects from the bottom of the telescope assem¬ wrench as a guide and insert the inner element
bly (fig. 17-8). of this wrench through the eyepiece end of the
tube to engage the slots in the crossline plate
Removal of the Crossline Assembly mount. See figure 17-11. Then unscrew the
crossline assembly, tilt the body slightly, and
The position of the crossline along the optical catch the crossline assembly in one hand when
axis is critical. To save time during reassembly it falls out. Refer to illustration 17-7.

SEAL RING SCREW

ADJUSTING PINION DIOPTER
TAPER PIN- RING-.

SUNSHADE

OBJECTIVE
MOUNT GASKET

MAIN OBJECTIVE
ASSEMBLY

FILTER CARRIER

OBJECTIVE
FILTER ASSEMBLY BUSHING CAP GASKET EYEPIECE ASSEMBLY
137.426
Figure 17-3.— Telescopic alidade assemblies.

425
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

H jr
& 1
y
Cv

&
M
»yj>V
UP
CROSSLINE AND
AUXILIARY WINDOW
COLLECTIVE
RETAINING RING
RETAINING RING
WRENCH BODY-LEG TESTING
WRENCH
PLATE

& &
FILTER RETAINING
\/ RING WRENCH

CROSSLINE
ADJUSTING WRENCH

3)

PRYING TOOL LOCK RING PIN GAS PRESSURE

WRENCH FITTING

137.427
Figure 17-4.— Special service tools for alidades.
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

- EYEPIECE ASSEMBLY

— ADJUSTING PINION
COLLAR

137.428
Figure 17-5. —Unscrewing the adjusting
pinion collar. Figure 17-6.— Removing the eyepiece assembly
and the adjusting pinion.

BODY COVER SCREW BODY COVER

AUXILIARY TELESCOPE
PLATE SCREW
COVER GASKET

AUXILIARY TELESCOPE
ASSEMBLY

DESSICATOR FRONT
GROMMET

BODY DESSICATOR

DESSICATOR REAR
GROMMET

TELESCOPE BODY

CROSSLINE
ASSEMBLY
LOCK RING

CROSSLINE ASSEMBLY

137.430
Figure 17-7.— Crossline and auxiliary telescope assemblies and desiccator.

427
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Now do the following:

1. Insert the long rod of a collective ar
erector assembly wrench into the objective er
of the body, as shown in figure 17-13. Engaf
the slots in the rhomboid collective mount ai
unscrew the rhomboid collective assembly. Th<
remove the assembly with tweezers.
2. With a lock ring pin wrench, unscrew tl
rhomboid collective assembly lock ring.
3. Remove the erector assembly lock rii
and unscrew the erector assembly. Then ui
tweezers to remove the assembly. Both assen
blies are shown in illustration 17-14.

Removal of the Bearing

Circle Assembly

Unscrew the body leg screws. Then use

metal wedge and a hammer to separate the tel
scope body from the bearing circle assembl

137.431
Figure 17-8.— Removing the auxiliary
telescope assembly.

CAUTION: Wrap the crossline assembly in

lens tissue to protect the crossline plate from
scratches.

Removal of Rhomboid Collective

and Erector Assemblies

As is true for the crossline assembly, the

rhomboid collective assembly and the erector
assembly must be placed in definite positions
along the optical axis in the body. Scribe re¬
assembly guide marks on them, and scribe a
longitudinal mark along the length of the rhom¬
boid collective mount and on the inside rib of
the body. Then scribe a circumferential mark
around the mount where it enters the opening in
the body. Study illustration 17-12. Then (in the
same manner) put marks on the erector mount Figure 17-9.— Measuring the distance of 1
and on the collective assembly lock ring. crossline assembly in the body.

428
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

137.433
Figure 17-10.— Removing the crossline
assembly lock ring.

137.434
Figure 17-11. —Unscrewing the
crossline assembly.

Figure 17-12.— Scribing reassembly guide marks on the rhomboid collective

and erector assemblies.

429
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

137.436
Figure 17-13.— Unscrewing the rhomboid collective assembly.

RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE
ASSEMBLY

RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE
ASSEMBLY LOCK RING

AUXILIARY WINDOW ERECTOR ASSEMBLY

GASKET LOCK RING

ERECTOR ASSEMBLY

AUXILIARY WINDOW
TELESCOPE
BODY
AUXILIARY WINDOW
RETAINER RING

SPIRIT LEVEL
ASSEMBLY

BEARING CIRCLE
LEVEL BRACKET
ASSEMBLY
SCREW
137.437
Figure 17-14.— Rhomboid collective and erector assemblies.

430
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

Drive the metal wedge in at the spot shown in Disassembly of the Crossline Assembly
figure 17-15, adjacent to the body leg dowel pin.
With a pair of pliers, pull the two body leg To disassemble the crossline assembly, use
dowel pins out of the bearing circle assembly. If the following procedure:
they remain in the body leg or support, use a 1. Place the assembly on a bench and (with a
hammer and a 5/64-inch drift pin to remove straightedge as a guide) scribe two guide marks
them. on the crossline plate mount, in line with the
line in the crossline plate. See illustration 17-20.
Spirit Level Assembly and Auxiliary Window 2. With a crossline plate retaining ring
wrench, unscrew the crossline plate retaining
Remove the spirit level assembly by un¬ ring.
screwing the screws which secure the bracket 3. The crossline plate is loose in its mount;
to the main body (fig. 17-14). To remove the protect it with lens paper and gently push it out.
auxiliary window, use an auxiliary window re¬ Then wrap it in clean lens paper.
taining ring wrench (fig. 17-16) to unscrew the
ring from the body. If the auxiliary window does Disassembly of the Rhomboid Collective
not drop out with the retaining ring, put a piece Assembly
of lens tissue or clean cloth over some fingers
to protect the glass and gently push the window To disassemble the rhomboid collective as¬
out into your hand. See figure 17-14. sembly, unscrew the rhomboid collective lens
This last stop completes the removal of the retaining ring from the rhomboid collective
mount (fig. 17-21).
assemblies and the next stop in the repair
process is disassembly of the subassemblies.
Disassembly of the Erector Assembly
Disassembly of the Spirit Level Assembly
Hold the erector assembly in one hand and
To disassemble the spirit level assembly, unscrew the lens retaining ring. Then drop the
unscrew the caps from the level mount (fig. lens out of its mount onto a clean cloth in your
17-17) and slide the spirit level out of its mount. other hand. If the lens does not dropout, wrap a
Then, to disassemble the level mount from the finger with lens paper and gently push it out.
level bracket, remove the level mount screws. The parts of the assembly are shown in figure
NOTE: The spirit level is sealed in the mount. 17-22.
If the level caps are stuck, or the spirit level
will not slide out, gently heat the parts on a hot Disassembly of the Eyepiece Assembly
plate to soften the sealing compound.
Proceed as follows to disassemble the eye¬
Disassembly of the Objective Filter Assemblies piece assembly:
1. Unscrew the eyepiece collective lens re¬
The two objective filter assemblies (light and taining ring from the mount. Study illustration
dark) in a telescopic alidade are made up of 17-23.
identical parts (except for the filters) and the 2. Turn the assembly over and let the eye¬
disassembly procedure is the same for both. piece collective lens fall out on clean lens paper
With a filter retaining ring wrench, unscrew or cloth.
the filter retaining ring, as illustrated in figure 3. Remove the eyelens retaining ring. Then
17-18. If the ring is tight, use a clamp wrench protect the lens with clean lens paper and gently
to hold the filter mount during this operation. press it from the mount.
Then lift the objective filter out. 4. With a prying tool, remove the eyeguard
snap ring (fig. 17-23). Then slide off the rubber
Disassembly of the Main Objective Assembly eye guard.
To disassemble the main objective assembly,
Disassembly of the Auxiliary Telescope
hold the assembly in one hand and unscrew the
Assembly
objective lens retaining ring from the objective
lens mount. Use lens paper to protect the objec¬ The procedure for disassembling the auxil¬
tive lens from fingerprints and gently press it iary telescope assembly is as follows:
out of the mount. The assembly parts are shown 1. Put the assembly on an auxiliary telescope
in figure 17-19. fixture, which protects the bottom edge of the

431
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

BEARING CIRCLE LEVEL MOUNT LEVEL BRACKE'

ASSEMBLY

SPIRIT LEVEL

Front Right
Body Leg

Body Leg Screw Hole LEVEL

LEVEL CAP MOUNT SCRE
METAL WEDGE
137.440
Figure 17-17.— Spirit level assembly.

FILTER RETAINER RII

WRENCH

FILTER RETAINER RING-i

137.438 FILTER MOUNT

Figure 17-15.— Removing the bearing
circle assembly.

FILTER MOU
OBJECTIVE

1 1/4" CLAMP
WRENCH

137.44

Figure 17-16.— Removing the auxiliary Figure 17-18.— Unscrewing the filter
window retaining ring. retaining ring.

432
2. Unscrew the auxiliary rhomboid prism

Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

- OBJECTIVE LENS MOUNT RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE

- OBJECTIVE
LENS GASKET

COLLECTIVE (Rhomboid)
OBJECTIVE LENS LENS RETAINER RING - 1
RETAINER RING -

137.442 137.444
Figure 17-19.— Main objective assembly. Figure 17-21.— Rhomboid collective assembly.

tuxiliary rhomboid prism, and scribe reassem- pull it back and rotate it out of the opening in
)ly guide marks for the auxiliary rhomboid the auxiliary telescope plate.
irism assembly on the telescope plate, as shown 3. Remove the rhomboid prism strap screws
n figure 17-24. Scribe marks also on the plate and lift the prism strap and pad off.
dong the sides of the auxiliary objective assem- 4. With tweezers, grasp the loose rhomboid
>ly, and along the back of the auxiliary penta prism by its unpolished sides and lift it out.
>rism assembly. 5. Remove the rhomboid prism shield and
pad from the prism mount.
issembly screws (fig. 17-25) and lift the auxil¬ 6. Unscrew the screws which secure the
ary telescope assembly up in one hand. Use the auxiliary objective assembly and remove the
)ther hand to turn the auxiliary rhomboid prism assembly (fig. 17-25).
issembly one-fourth turn (fig. 17-26), and then
NOTE: Do NOT loosen the auxiliary objective
mount lock ring or remove the mount from the
bracket. Do NOT remove the diaphragm or its
lock ring unless it or the auxiliary objective
mount must be replaced.
7. With an alidade flat wrench, remove the
auxiliary objective lens retaining ring and allow
the lens to fall out gently onto a clean cloth. If

Figure 17-20.— Scribing guide marks on the

crossline plate mount.

433
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

EYEPIECE COLLECTIVE
LENS RETAINER RING

\- EYE LENS RETAINER RING

EYEPIECE - - EYE LENS GASKET

COLLECTIVE LENS
EYEPIECE GASKET

EYE LENS

EYEPIECE MOUNT EYEGUARD

SNAP RING

EYEGUARD

137.446
Figure 17-23.— Eyepiece assembly.

AUXILIARY RHOMBOID
PRISM ASSEMBLY

\
AUXILIARY TELESCOPE AUXILIARY
FIXTURE TELESCOPE
PLATE
Guide Marks

AUXILIARY OBJECTIVE AUXILIARY PE NT A

ASSEMBLY PRISM ASSEMBLY

137.44'
Figure 17-24.— Scribing reassembly guide marks on the telescope plate for the
auxiliary rhomboid prism assembly.

434
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

r DIAPHRAGM LOCK RING

AUXILIARY OBJECTIVE
BRACKET

-DIAPHRAGM

OBJECTIVE MOUNT

OBJECTIVE LENS
(Flat side toward mount)

LENS RETAINER RING

MOUNT
LOCK RING

RHOMBOID
PRISM MOUNT

AUXILIARY RHOMBOID PRISM

OBJECTIVE
(- PRISM STRAP
ASSEMBLY
PAD

AUXILIARY
TELESCOPE PLATE PRISM STRAP- STRAP SCREW

137.448
Figure 17-25.— Components of the auxiliary penta prism, auxiliary objective,
and rhomboid prism assemblies.

the lens is stuck, wrap a small stick with lens 10. Loosen the auxiliary objective mount
paper and push it out. lock ring and unscrew the mount from the ob¬
jective bracket.
8. Measure and record the distance the aux¬
iliary objective mount extends from the bracket. 11. Remove the auxiliary penta prism as¬
This distance is indicated by A in illustration sembly screws and then the prism assembly from
17-27. The distance the auxiliary objective the telescope plate (fig. 17-25).
diaphragm extends from the mount is indicated 12. Remove the penta prism strap screws
by B. and lift the penta prism strap off.
9. With an alidade flat wrench, unscrew the 13. Remove the penta prism pad, lift the
diaphragm lock ring on the auxiliary objective prism out of its mount, and lay it on clean cloth
diaphragm and remove the diaphragm. or lens paper.

435
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

AUXILIARY RHOMBOID 3. SILVER PLATING. Inspect the silver

PRISM ASSEMBLY plating on the mirror surfaces of the auxiliary
(Rotated 1/4 Turn) penta and auxiliary rhomboid prisms by viewing
the mirrors through the polished surfaces of the
prisms. Deteriorated mirror surfaces may
cause a lack of brightness or poor quality of the
auxiliary image.
4. ANGLES FORMED BY RHOMBOID
PRISM. Examine both edges formed by the sur¬
faces of the acute angles of the auxiliary rhom¬
boid prism. If one edge is chipped, reverse the
prism and use the other side. NOTE: Some aux¬
iliary rhomboid prisms have one beveled edge
and one sharp edge. The beveled edge cannot be
used.

Inspection of Mechanical Parts

Inspect mechanical parts of the alidade for

Auxiliary Telescope the following:
Plate Opening
1. FUNCTIONAL DEFECTS. Lookfor dents,
burrs, distortion, damaged threads, and wear on
AUXILIARY TELESCOPE mechanical parts.
ASSEMBLY 2. BEARING CIRCLE. Inspect the bearing
137.449 circle for legibility of compass figures, degree
markings, and distortion. If the markings are not
Figure 17-26.— Removing the auxiliary
clearly legible, they must be refilled.
rhomboid prism assembly.
3. LEGS OF TELESCOPE BODY. The legs
of the telescope body must lie in a flat plane; but
they are easily bent, especially when the body is
This last step completes the disassembly of removed from the bearing circle. Put the body
a Mk 4, Mods 0 and 1, telescopic alidade. Refer
to chapter 14 for the disassembly procedure for
a hearing circle.
- AUXILIARY OBJECTIVE
OVERHAUL AND REPAIR BRACKET

After disassembling the instrument, inspect

all parts for defects. Some parts may have to
be replaced, as is also true for complete sub-
assemblies.

Inspection of Optical Parts

Inspect optical parts of an alidade for the

following:
1. ANTI-REFLECTIONCOATING. Checkthe
anti-reflection coating on the objectives (main — AUXILIARY OBJECTIVE
and auxiliary), on the erector eyepiece collec¬ DIAPHRAGM
tive, and on the eyelenses by viewing the light
AUXILIARY OBJECTIVE
reflected from their surfaces. MOUNT LOCK RING -
2. DEFECTS IN CEMENT. Inspect the main
137.450
and auxiliary objective lenses, the erector lens,
and the eyelens for defects in cement between Figure 17-27.— Distance the auxiliary objective
the elements. If necessary, replace the lenses. assembly extends from the mount.

436
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

on a body-leg testing plate (fig. 17-4) and test and of the same length. Use emery cloth to finish
for flatness of the legs by pressing down on them the job; that is, to remove small amounts of
with your thumbs. If rocking occurs, the legs are metal at a time from the legs until all are level
uneven. and have the same length.
4. EYEPIECE PARTS. Inspect the eyepiece
parts for backlash or binding and, if present, Assembly Lock Rings
repair or replace the parts.
If slots are needed in the erector assembly
5. GENERAL APPEARANCE. Checkthefin-
or rhomboid collective assembly lock rings,
ish of all parts and take the action recommended
put them in the locations shown in figure 17-29.
in chapter 8 of this manual, or as directed by
Be sure to use exact measurements.
the shop supervisor.
When repairs on the alidade are completed,
Refer to chapter 14 for repair procedures
clean all parts in the manner explained in chapter
for bearing circles. Some other repairs which
8.
may be required on the alidades are explained
next. REASSEMBLY

Objective Lens Mount

The procedure for reassembling subassem¬
blies of your instrument is explained first. The
Illustration 17-28 shows the location and size
procedure for replacing the subassemblies fol¬
of slots which must be put in the objective lens
lows:
mount of a Mk 4, Mods 0 and 1, telescopic
Replace all old gaskets. Lubricate moving
alidade. Use a good file to do this job, and re¬
parts with approved oils and greases.
move burrs formed by the file.
Reassembly of the Main Objective Assembly
Telescope Body Feet
Study the optical layout of a Mk 4, Mod 1,
If the feet of the telescope body are not flat telescopic alidade in figure 17-30. Then proceed
and do not lie in the same plane, the body and
the bearing circle will be distorted when tight¬
ened together with the body leg screws. File or
machine the legs as necessary to have them flat

OBJECTIVE
LENS MOUNT
(MK 4, Mods 0 and 1)
137.452
137.451 Figure 17-29.— Location of slots in the erector
Figure 17-28. —Position of slots in the assembly lock ring and the rhomboid collective
objective lens mount. assembly lock ring.

437
 OPTIC A LM AN 3 & 2

AUXILIARY OBJECTIVE AUXILIARY RHOMBOID RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE

ASSEMBLY- PRISM ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY

RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE
ASSEMBLY LOCK RING
AUXILIARY PENTA ERECTOR ASSEMBLY
PRISM ASSEMBLY LOCK RING

CROSSLINE
ASSEMBLY

MAIN OBJECTIVE
ASSEMBLY -

EYEPIECE
•—ERECTOR ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY

137.453
Figure 17-30.— Optical layout of a Mk 4, Mod 1, alidade.

as follows to reassemble the main objective as¬ crossline face down. See illustration 17-32.
sembly: Screw the crossline plate retaining ring into the
1. Put the objective lens gasket on the lens mount but do not tighten it. Then cover your
seat of the lens mount (fig. 17-19). Make certain fingers with lens paper and turn the plate until
it lies flat. you have it aligned with the reassembly guide
2. Clean the objective lens and use a lens marks on the back of the mount.
suction adapter to put it in the objective lens
mount, convex side down. Reassembly of the Eyepiece Assembly
3. Replace and tighten the objective lens re¬
taining ring. Clean the eyelens and the interior of its
mount (fig. 17-23). Then put an eyelens gasket
Reassembly of the Rhomboid in the mount and replace the eyelens, flat-side
Collective and Erector Assemblies down. Replace and tighten the lens retaining ring.

Clean the rhomboid collective lens and use a

lens suction adapter to place it flat-side down in
its mount. Then clean the erector lens and re¬ FILTER FILTER
place it in its mount. Replace and tighten the GASKET MOUNT
collective lens retaining ring. Review illustra¬
tion 17-22.

Reassembly of the Objective

Filter Assemblies
Put a filter gasket (fig. 17-31) on the seat of
the filter mount and make it flat and even all
around. Then place the clean objective filter on
top of the gasket in the filter mount. Replace and
secure the filter retaining ring. OBJECTIVE
FILTER
RETAINER RING FILTER
Reassembly of the Crossline Assembly
137.454
Clean the crossline plate and use a lens Figure 17-31.— Disassembled objective
suction adapter to set it in its mount, engraved filter assembly.

438
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

CROSSLINE PLATE - CROSSLINE PLATE top of the prism. Next, replace the prism strap
RETAINER RING (Engraved Side and tighten the screws evenly and just enough to
Toward Mount) hold the prism. Excessive pressure will cause
strain in the prism.

PENTA PRISM ASSEMBLY. -Clean the aux¬

iliary penta prism, pick it up with tweezers,
and place it in its mount. See illustration 17-25
for the position of each part. Next, pick up the
penta prism pad with tweezers and put it on top
CROSSLINE PLATE MOUNT of the prism. Then replace the prism strap.
Make certain the vertical face of the prism is
137.455 even and square with the side of the mount;
Figure 17-32.— Crossline assembly. then tighten the screws to hold the prism firmly
in position. Excessive pressure will cause
strain.

Put the clean eyepiece collective lens (fig. OBJECTIVE ASSEMBLY. -Screw the auxil¬
17-23) in the eyepiece mount, with its convex iary objective mount into the auxiliary objective
side facing the eyelens. Then replace and tighten bracket. The distance the mount should project
the collective lens retaining ring. Put the eye¬ from the bracket is represented by A in illustra¬
piece gasket over the eyepiece mount and seat tion 17-27.
it in the groove. Slide the eyeguard onto the end
of the mount and insert the eyeguard snap ring
into its groove.

Reassembly of the Level Assembly

Assemble the spirit level mount to its bracket

(fig. 17-17) and then fit the level in it. Replace
one level cap and fill the assembled level cap
with sealing compound. Use a sealing compound
tool and an alcohol lamp, as illustrated in figure
17-33.
Now slide the level into its mount and position
it in the soft compound, with its leveling line on
top and centered in the holder. Then fill the
space on top of the level with compound and
replace the other level cap.

Reassembly of the Auxiliary

Telescope Assembly

Refer to illustration 17-25 while studying the

procedure for reassembling components of the
auxiliary telescope assembly.

RHOMBOID PRISM ASSEMBLY. -Attach the

rhomboid prism shield to its mount and clean
the polished surfaces of the auxiliary rhomboid
prism. Replace the prism shield pad and use
tweezers to pick up the prism by its unpolished
sides and put it in the mount, parallel to the 137.456
vertical sides and centered between them. Then Figure 17-33. —Filling a spirit level cap
use tweezers to replace the prism strap pad on with sealing compound.

439
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Replace and tighten the mount lock ring. into the threads in the body with the inner
Then screw the objective diaphragm into the element of a crossline adjusting wrench. The
other end of the mount and replace the lock outer element of the wrench acts as a guide to
ring. Position the ring to the dimension indicated keep the inner element from slipping.
by B in figure 17-27 and then tighten it. Reset the crossline assembly to its depth in
Clean the objective lens, pick it up with the telescope tube assembly recorded during
tweezers, and place it flat-side down in its disassembly (fig. 17-9), by actual measurement
mount. with a rule. If the depth varies more than 1/ 32
inch from 1-21/64 inch, which is accurate, set
ATTACHING THE AUXILIARY ASSEM¬ it to this depth.
BLIES. —Place the auxiliary telescope plate on Make certain the crossline is vertical and at
the telescope fixture (fig. 17-24). This illustra¬ the correct depth. Then insert the assembly lock
tion shows the fully assembled auxiliary tele¬ ring, slotted side out, into the body and tighten
scope, with the reassembly guide marks on the it against the crossline assembly. Hold the
plate. crossline assembly at the measured depth with
Replace the penta prism assembly on the the inner element (fig. 17-11) of the crossline
plate and position it to the guide marks. (If adjusting wrench and use the outer element to
there are no guide marks on a plate, center the engage the slots in the lock ring to tighten it.
assembly on the plate.) Then assemble the Recheck the depth to be sure it has not changed.
auxiliary objective assembly on the plate and
assemble it in accordance with the guide marks, Reassembling the Erector
with the diaphragm facing the penta prism Assembly
assembly.
Pick up the partially assembled auxiliary Screw a collective and erector assembly
telescope assembly with one hand, and the wrench into the objective end of the body. Then
rhomboid assembly with the other hand (fig. pick up the erector assembly (fig. 17-35) with
17-26), and insert the telescope assembly in the tweezers and put it down in the body. Screw
plate. Then rotate the rhomboid prism assembly the assembly into the body and turn the erector
to bring it into correct position. mount to align the guide marks with those made
Put the assembly on the telescope fixture on the body during disassembly. Replace the
and position it to the guide marks. Then insert assembly lock ring and screw it in against the
and tighten the screws. (If there are no guide erector assembly.
marks, pull the prism assembly toward the
objective assembly and tighten the screws.) Assembling the Rhomboid
This completes the reassembly of subassem¬ Collective Assembly
blies and you are now ready to replace them in
their proper positions in the telescopic alidade. Use tweezers to put the rhomboid collective
assembly lock ring in the body. Then screw the
Assembly of the Auxiliary Window ring into the threaded rib of the body, and
position it to align the reassembly guide marks
Use the following procedure to assemble the on the lock ring and the rib. See figures 17-34
auxiliary window to the telescope body. and 17-36.
1. Turn the telescope body over on its back Position the rhomboid collective assembly in
and put the window gasket in the seat of the accordance with the reassembly guide marks on
body opening. the telescope body and also on the mount (fig.
2. Pick up the clean window with tweezers 17-36). When in its aligned position, the as¬
and place it on the gasket. sembly should be tight against the lock ring.
3. Screw in and tighten the window retaining
ring (fig. 17-16). Replacing the Main Objective
Assembly
Assembling the Crossline Assembly
Screw the main objective assembly (fig.
Slide the crossline assembly into the eyepiece 17-30) into the end of the telescope body. Turn
end of the telescope body, crossline plate re¬ it in until the objective mount protrudes about
taining ring facing in (fig. 17-34), and screw it 1/16 inch from the end of the body.

440
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

% SUNSHADE COVER SCREW BODY COVER -RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE

ASSEMBLY

DESICCATOR FRONT
GROMMET

RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE
ASSEMBLY LOCK RING

BODY DESICCATOR

ERECTOR ASSEMBLY
LOCK RING

ERECTOR ASSEMBLY

OBJECTIVE FILTER
ASSEMBLY

LEVEL BRACKET
SCREW

SPIRIT LEVEL ASSEMBLY

BUSHING CAP SCREW EYEPIECE

ASSEMBLY
ECCENTRIC BUSHING CAP

BUSHING CAP GASKET CROSSLINE

PINION CROSSLINE ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY
BEARING CIRCLE ASSEMBLY ECCENTRIC BUSHING (Retainer Ring Facing In) LOCK RING

137.457
Figure 17-34.— Location of components and parts of a Mk 4, Mod 1, telescopic alidade.

441
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Do NOT put the objective mount gasket and

seal ring in at this time, because you may have
to change the position of the assembly during
testing to eliminate parallax.

Replacing the Auxiliary

Telescope Assembly

Put the auxiliary telescope assembly back

into the body. Be sure the assembly is clean;
and use a suction line to pick up loose particles
of dirt within the body before replacing the
assembly.
Pick up the telescope assembly and set it
down in the body. Then replace and tighten the
auxiliary telescope plate screws. Slide the
assembly on the auxiliary telescope plate until
the rhomboid prism is against its collective
lens mount. Then tighten the prism mount
screws.
Put the body cover over the opening in the
body and secure it temporarily with two body
cover screws. After collimating the instrument,
replace the body desiccator, the cover gasket,
body cover and all eleven screws which secure
the cover.
erector assembly. At this point, put an eyepiece assembly in
the eyepiece end of the body and look through

RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE Circumferential Guide

ASSEMBLY LOCK RING Mark on Mount

Pointer -Guide Mark on

Inside Body Rib

Erector Mount
Guide Marks Longitudinal Guide
Mark on Mount

RHOMBOID
COLLECTIVE MOUNT

ERECTOR ASSEMBLY Guide Marks on

LOCK RING Lock Ring

RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE RHOMBOID COLLECTIVE

ASSEMBLY LOCK RING - MOUNT

137.459
Figure 17-36. —Reassembling the rhomboid collective assembly.

442
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

the telescope at a light source to check for hold the bushing with one finger as you turn the
cleanliness and position of the optical elements. diopter ring to test for backlash in the eyepiece.
The edge of the auxiliary rhomboid prism should There should be no movement of the pinion
appear as a sharply focused horizontal line. If without movement of the eyepiece.
11. it is not in focus with the crossline, the cross- Replace the bushing cap gasket and the
line plate may be in backwards or in the wrong cap.
position, or the erector assembly and the rhom¬
COLLIMATION
boid collective assembly may be in the wrong
positions. Before collimating the alidade, inspect all
optical and mechanical parts; and check the
Replacing the Eyepiece Assembly image fidelity (chapter 8).
Collimation of a telescopic alidade is a step-
Before you replace the eyepiece assembly, by-step procedure of interdependent adjust¬
put the objective filter assemblies (one on each ments. The main optical system and also the aux¬
side) on the body. See figure 17-3. iliary optical system must be collimated to the
Proceed as follows to replace the eyepiece mechanical axis of the bearing circle. The first
assembly: step is mechanical alignment of the bearing cir¬
1. If you removed the eyepiece gasket, cle with the axis of the collimator. The second
stretch it over the eyepiece mount and roll it step is alignment of the main optical system with
into the groove around the mount. the collimator. The third step is alignment of the
2. Make a pencil guide mark on the eyepiece auxiliary optical system with the main optical
mount, near the eyepiece guard and gear teeth, system.
to indicate the position of the teeth on the eye¬ The collimator generally used for collimating
piece assembly when it is in the body. See a telescopic alidade is a Mk4, ModO, instrument,
illustration 17-37. illustrated and discussed in chapter 8 (fig. 8-22).
3. Smear a thin coating of lubricant over The collimation procedure discussed in this
the eyepiece teeth and the adjusting pinion. section is for a Mk 4, Mod 1, telescopic alidade.
4. Insert the eyepiece assembly in the eye¬
Positioning the Crossline
piece end of the body and push it in until the
eyepiece mount is protruding about 3/16 inch The crossline of an alidade must be vertical
from the body. Turn it to bring the teeth on top, when the instrument is in the position of normal
as indicated by the pencil mark you put on the use. Test and adjustment procedures for posi¬
mount. tioning the crossline are as follows:
5. Insert the adjusting pinion into the body, 1. Mount the telescopic alidade on the colli¬
as indicated, and turn it slightly until you FEEL mator stand, look through the eyepiece, and turn
it slide through the teeth on the eyepiece mount. the alidade on the stand to make its crossline
Turn the pinion as necessary to engage the teeth. image coincide with the vertical line of the
6. Cut a piece of adjusting pinion packing collimator target. If the alidade crossline is
3 1/4 inch in length. Then push the end in not in exact vertical coincidence with the target,
against the adjusting pinion bushing and use a proceed to step No. 2.
stock to wind it CLOCKWISE around the pinion, 2. Note the depth to which the crossline
as shown in figure 17-38. assembly is set in the telescope body. If un¬
7. Replace and tighten the adjusting pinion certain about the depth, remove the eyepiece
packing ring. This ring should feel snug assembly and measure the length with a scale.
against the packing when it is just inside the This depth must be maintained; and the cross-
body; and if it does not snug up securely, use a line must be made vertical at this depth.
longer piece of packing. Observe the error in the position of the
8. Replace the adjusting pinion collar on the crossline relative to the vertical line of the
threaded end of the pinion and tighten it enough target. Record the error in terms of the angle
to make it flush with the end of the pinion. Then it appears to be off the vertical. If it is a small
insert the pinion taper pin. error, remove the eyepiece assembly and use
9. Assemble and secure the diopter ring the two concentric elements of the crossline
over the adjusting pinion collar. adjusting wrench to turn the crossline assembly.
10. Push the pinion eccentric bushing into The outer element of the wrench grips the cross-
the opening on the opposite side of the body and line assembly lock ring and the inner element

443
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

turns the crossline assembly. Then remove the they are out of alignment, proceed as explained
wrenches and check with the eyepiece. Repeat in the next paragraph.
this procedure until the crossline is in vertical Remove the two detent housing screws to
coincidence with the collimator target. disassemble one of the ball detents (with spring
If the bottom edge of the auxiliary rhomboid and housing), its detent housing spacer, and
prism is in sharp focus for the same eyepiece spacer shims (if any). If shims must be used to
setting as the crossline, the crossline is in get proper alignment, experiment with several
correct position along the optical axis of the of them under one (or more) of the ball detents
telescope. If the crossline is not in correct until proper alignment is obtained.
position, or if the angular error was large in When the bearing circle is aligned, clamp it
the vertical position of the crossline, do the to the collimator stand to keep it aligned.
following: Disassemble the crossline assembly
from the telescope body. Then loosen the Aligning the Main Optical System
crossline plate retaining ring and turn the cross-
line plate to correct the error noted in the Telescopic alidades must indicate bearings
original position. Reassemble the crossline within two minutes of arc. The collimator
assembly and its lock ring, at the depth measured target is marked with tolerance limits, and the
originally. bearing circle assembly has been aligned with
the collimator. Use the procedure discussed
Positioning the Objective Lens next to align the main optical system with the
bearing circle assembly.
The image formed by the objective lens Sight through the alidade (with the bearing
must focus in the plane of the crossline. If it circle clamped on the collimator stand and
does not, the crossline image will not be in aligned with the collimator) and note the devia¬
focus at the same time (same eyepiece setting) tion of the crossline from the vertical line in
as the object. the center of the target. See illustration 17-39.
Properly position the objective lens by If it is within the tolerance limits of two
checking for parallax. minutes of arc, tighten the four body leg screws
Sight through the alidade and focus on its to fix the body to the bearing circle assembly.
crossline and move your eye from side to side If the two vertical lines do not coincide within
to check for parallax between the crossline the tolerance limits, shift the telescope body on
plate and collimator image. If the image of the the bearing circle assembly as necessary to
collimator target formed by the objective lens obtain coincidence.
falls in the plane of the crossline plate (cross- Loosen the body leg screws of the alidade
line side), no parallax will be observed. If the and withdraw the body leg dowel pins. Then
images are not in focus in the same plane, there sight the collimator target and gently tap the
will be parallax, which can be removed by telescope body legs with a mallet to shift the
screwing the main objective assembly in or out. body on the bearing circle assembly enough to
Put the objective mount gasket over the get coincidence of the vertical crosslines. If
objective lens mount of the main objective necessary, elongate the screw holes in the body
assembly and press the gasket into its groove legs. Then tighten the body leg screws and re¬
in the face of the telescope body. Then replace check the vertical lines for authorized coinci¬
the objective mount seal ring. dence. If necessary, repeat the whole operation.
After tightening the body leg screws, tap
Aligning and Checking the the dowel pins in. If you shifted the body on the
Bearing Circle Assembly bearing circle assembly and the dowel pinholes
are not in line, drill new holes.
Because the bearing circle assembly indi¬
cates the direction in which the alidade is Adjusting the Auxiliary
pointing, it must be round and true. Turn the Telescope System
alidade to align the 180° and 360° cardinal points
on the bearing circle assembly with the cor¬ The auxiliary telescope system projects a
responding points on the collimator stand. The segment of the compass or repeater into the
90f and 270° cardinal points should be aligned eyepiece view so that bearing readings may be
within the width of a line at the same time. If taken during the sighting of an object. It also

444
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

137.461
Figure 17-38.— Inserting adjusting
pinion packing.
on eyepiece mount to indicate position of teeth
on the assembled eyepiece.

Alidade Crossline
Superimposed on
Collimator Target
Vertical Line

COLLIMATOR TARGET
Collimator Target
Horizontal Line

SCALE on COLUMA TOR

AUXILIARY RHOMBOID STAND (Compass Card)
PRISM
(Lower Edge)
ALIDADE SPIRIT LEVEL

Alidade Crossline
Superimposed on SPIRIT LEVEL
Scale Line — (Leveling Line)
137.462
Figure 17-39.— Collimator target viewed through a telescopic alidade.

445
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

provides a view of the spirit level at the same The black leveling line on the spirit level
time. glass tube should coincide with the crossline
Sight the collimator target and observe the and the 0° line on the collimator. The leveling
position of the horizontal dividing line in the bubble should also appear centered on the level¬
telescope (formed by the bottom edge of the ing line, as shown in figure 17-39. This is the
auxiliary rhomboid prism) relative to the hori¬ final adjustment, a slight one, which can be
zontal crossline of the collimator target. It made by shifting the level holder or level
should be parallel to the crossline (fig. 17-39). mount screws and shifting the level holder.
The auxiliary field should appear as shown in Replace the body cover to keep the interior
illustration 17-39. Disregard the position of the clean and secure it with two cover screws. The
spirit level for the present. The 0C line on the desiccator, cover gasket, and the other cover
collimator stand coincides with the crossline in screws must be assembled before the Mk 4
the telescope— about 10° are visible on each side alidade is tested for waterproofness.
of the 0° line.
Loosen the penta prism mount or auxiliary Setting the Diopter Scale
objective assembly screws and shift the auxiliary
penta prism assembly to shift the auxiliary field To set the diopter scale on aMk4 telescopic
up or down. Twist the auxiliary penta prism alidade, do the following:
assembly slightly to eliminate lean of the 0° line 1. Look through the auxiliary telescope into
on the collimator stand. Make this line parallel a Mk 4 collimator and sight the target of the
to the crossline in the telescope. collimator. Bring it into sharp focus.
To center the auxiliary field and make the 2. Put the auxiliary telescope in front of the
0° line coincide with the crossline, loosen the eyelens of the alidade and look through the
auxiliary objective bracket or auxiliary objective alidade into the collimator. Bring the collimator
assembly screws and shift the assembly to one into sharp focus and observe the reading of the
side or the other. Exclusive of the spirit level, alidade diopter scale. It should be 0 within
the field of view should appear as shown in 1/4 diopter.
figure 17-39. 3. If the diopter scale error is greater than
1/4 diopter, shift the diopter ring. Loosen the
Tighten the screws which hold the auxiliary two diopter ring screws and turn the ring as
telescope assemblies in place to make certain required to align the 0 with the index line. Then
they will not shift. Then check the auxiliary tighten the diopter ring screws.
field to determine whether the image of the
scale on the collimator stand in the auxiliary
field is in focus in the same plane as the cross- FINAL ASSEMBLY AND WATERPROOFING
line plate (fig. 17-39). Focus on the crossline
and check for parallax between the crossline At this point in the repair procedure, replace
in the telescope and the image of the lines and the desiccator in the body. Put a cover gasket
figures on the collimator stand. over the opening in the body and replace the
To remove parallax, loosen the auxiliary cover. Replace and tighten the screws, but do
objective mount lock ring and screw the mount not put a screw in the pressure hole. This hole
in and out in the auxiliary objective bracket. was drilled through the casting for making the
After you eliminate parallax, tighten the objec¬ waterproof test. See illustration 17-40. Review
tive mount lock ring. the procedure for waterproofing and sealing
Now. look through the telescope to check the optical instruments in chapter 8.
position of the bubble in the spirit level. The
level in its mount holder is shown in the correct
position in illustration 17-39. If the level MARK 6 AND MARK 7
TELESCOPIC ALIDADES
should be shifted up or down, or straightened
parallel to the horizontal, loosen the level
bracket screws and shift the entire spirit level Mark 6, Mod 1, and Mark 7, Mod 0, tele¬
assembly. To get to these screws, you must scopic alidades are portable navigational instru¬
remove the alidade from the collimator stand; ments. Each type consists of a housing, bearing
so when you replace the alidade, be sure to ring, handle, supports, level vial, main optical
align the compass points. system, and an auxiliary optical system.

446
 Chapter 17-TELESCOPIC ALIDADES

lens, an Amici prism, areticle, and the eyepiece

elements. The objective lens receives light from
an object and forms an image which is magnified
by the eyepiece. The two polarizing filters may
be rotated in or out of the line of sight to meet
varying light conditions. One filter may be ro¬
tated independently to vary the intensity of light.
The compensator lens is mounted in the filter
assembly, but it is put in the line of sight only
when the polarizing filters are not in use. It
converges the path of light and maintains the
required focus. Light from this lens, or the
polarizing filters, is then focused through a fixed
stop aperture and on the eyepiece side of the
Amici prism.
The Amici prism inverts and reverts the im¬
age and deviates the line of sight through a 45°
angle. The reticle wire is superimposed on the
image and the eyepiece elements (field lens,
center lens, and the eyelens) then produce an
enlarged, virtual image of the distant object at
the eyepoint of the alidade.

AUXILIARY OPTICAL SYSTEM

The auxiliary optical system of aMk6or Mk

7 alidade contains a sealing window, front sur¬
face mirror, outer objective lens, inner objective
137.463 lens, erector lenses, and an auxiliary optical
Figure 17-40. —Location of pressure hole system prism.
in body cover.

A Mk 6, Mod 1, telescopic alidade (fig. 7-41)

is for use only on a 6-inch (card diameter) gyro¬
compass indicator or a magnetic compass. This
alidade does not require adapter rings. When it
is mounted on an indicator or a compass, the
auxiliary optical system forms an image of the
level vial, the reticle, and 25° of the indicator or
compass card. The main optical system forms
an image of the object or target in the field of
view of the instrument.
A Mk 7, Mod 0, telescopic with adapter rings
is illustrated in figure 17-42. One adapter ring
(type A) fits on a Navy No. 1 magnetic compass.
The other adapter ring (type B) fits on a 7 1/2-
inch gyrocompass indicator.

MAIN OPTICAL SYSTEM

The main optical system of a Mk6or a Mk 7 45.39

alidade is a terrestial telescope consisting of an Figure 17-41.— Mark 6, Mod 1,
objective lens, polarizing filters, a compensator telescopic alidade.

447
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

of the mask. The reticle wire is superimposed

on the compass card and the bubble in the level
vial, and an image is formed at the eyepoint of
the alidade.
The complete image formed at the eyepoint of
the alidade consists of the distant object with the
reticle wire superimposed (as viewed through
the main optical system), and the image of the
compass card, bubble, and reticle wire super¬
imposed (transmitted through the auxiliary op¬
tical system).

FOCUSING ASSEMBLY

The function of the focusing assembly is to

accommodate for visual variations between dif¬
ferent observers. The assembly includes a fo¬
cusing knob and shaft, diopter scale, and a
stuffing box. When an observer rotates the focus¬
ing knob, he can adjust the eyelenses to his de¬
sired focus. The diopter scale on the focusing
knob may be aligned with the white line on the
45.39 stuffing box to obtain a diopter setting.
Figure 17-42.— Mark 7, Mod 0, telescopic
alidade with adapter rings. FILTER ASSEMBLY

The filter assembly enables an observer to

The image of the compass or indicator card control, by means of two polarizing filters and a
and level vial is transmitted through the window compensator lens, the light intensity and glare
and reflected into the auxiliary optical system by within the alidade. When an observer turns the
the front surface mirror. knob on the filter drive shaft he can increase or
The inner and outer objective lenses converge decrease light intensity. Another knob (larger)
the image from the front surface mirror, through is provided for turning the polarizing filters out
the stop in the erector lens cell, into the auxili¬ of the line of sight and inserting the compensator
ary optical system prism. The erector lens in¬ lens.
verts the image of the inner and outer objective For additional information on Mk 6 and 7
lenses and reticle wire; the auxiliary optical telescopic alidades, refer to NavShips 324-0654
system prism re-inverts the image in the plane and NavShips 0924-001-6000.

448
 CHAPTER 1 8

BINOCULARS

Binoculars are the eyes of the Fleet. They MECHANICAL FEATURES

magnify distant objects and appear to bring them
closer to the viewer for better observation. As Prismatic binoculars considered in this
the name implies, a binocular pertains to both chapter are manufactured in accordance with
eyes. There are two binocular optical systems, Navy specifications. The bodies are made of
one for each eye; and in this discussion, each aluminum, as are all other mechanical parts,
side of a binocular is considered as a binocular with the exception of gaskets and some of the
optical system, or body. See illustration 18-1. hinge parts. The weight of each binocular must
The magnification, or power, of a binocular be less than 46 ounces— carrying case and strap
is expressed as 7x, 9x, or whatever times larger excluded.
an object is when observed with a binocular as The hinge (fig. 18-2) joins the two optical
compared to the size of the object when ob¬ systems and provides a means for interpupillary
served by the naked eye. A 7 x 50 binocular, for adjustment. The design of the hinge is such that
example, has 7 power (7x) and an objective lens it gives smooth action, with sufficient tension
whose free aperture (usable diameter) is 50 to maintain proper spacing between the systems,
millimeters. This is the code system commonly without play or looseness.
used for all hand-held binoculars. The tapered hinge axle (fig. 18-2) is held
You studied stereoscopic vision in chapter 6 firmly in the hinge lugs of the left body and
and understand its importance. A binocular, by rides freely in the matching taper of the hinge
magnifying an image, increases the convergence tube, which is set permanently in the hinge lugs
angles and therefore increases the apparent of the right body. Hinge tension is controlled by
divergence of these angles. Inprismbinoculars, the lower axle screw. When this screw is
the distance between the centers of the two ob¬ tightened, the left body hinge lugs are SQUEEZED
jectives is greater than the distancebetweenthe against the right body hinge lugs. Since the right
pupils of the observer’s eyes. Thus, abinocular body lugs are held rigid by the hinge tube, fric¬
increases the effective interpupillary distance tion developed between the faces of the outer and
of the eyes and therefore increases the con¬ inner hinge lugs gives hinge tension. The .010-
vergence angles of objects in the field of view. inch cellulose acetate hinge washers between
For this reason, a binocular can extend the each pair of upper and lower hinge lugs receive
range of stereoscopic vision far beyond the the wear resulting from hinge motion. These
500-yard limit of the unaided eyes and make it washers fit firmly in their positions against the
easier to detect small differences in the bright¬ hinge lugs and provide frictionfor hingetension.
ness of objects. This is very important when an The hinge on a Mk 45, Mod 0, binocular has a
observer is scanning the sea for a periscope, different design. The hinge axle fits tightly in
for example. the straight hinge tube, and the axle is splined
This chapter provides information concern¬ to the top of the tube. The hinge tube is held in the
ing the construction, performance, repair, and left body hinge lugs. A split hinge expanding
collimation of 7 x 50 prismatic binoculars, the bearing is threaded onto a modified Buttress-
type generally used by the Navy. When a binocular type thread on each end of the axle. The right
leaves your shop, it should meet all performance body lugs swing on the expanded bearings.
requirements— users of the instrument should When a split-hinge expanding bearing is
be able to see distant objects CLEARLY without tightened against the hinge bearing thrust washer
EYESTRAIN. (between the bearing and the bottom of the

449
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

37.1
Figure 18-1.— Mark 28, Mod 0, binocular.

threaded axle shoulder), the thrust forces the the same point on a distant object. This is
bearing up on the sloping sides of the threads necessary to prevent eyestrain.
to cause it to expand and develop friction with
the right body hinge lug. Hinge tension is ad¬ OBJECTIVE LENSES
justed by tightening the hinge expanding bearing.
Hinge locks fit in notches in the ends of the axle The objective lens in a binocular is a large,
and keep the bearing from loosening on the axle. cemented doublet which collects light from an
Lubrication is forced into the hinge through a object under observation. Its size, as you learned
grease fitting, and up through holes in the center previously in this manual, determines the amount
of the axle to the top bearing. of light it can gather. Night glasses, for example,
have EXTRA LARGE objective lenses which give
greater detail to dim objects.
OPTICAL SYSTEM The objective lenses receive the light from a
distant object and form a real, inverted and
The optical systems in both bodies of a reverted, image in the system at the focal plane
binocular are identical, and the optical axes of of the objectives. A pair of Porro prisms in the
the two systems must be parallel and LOOK at path of light in the system receives the image

450
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

and erects it in the form in which the observer

sees it in the eyepieces.

PORRO PRISM CLUSTERS

The Porro prisms used as an erecting sys¬

tem in each body are mounted at right angles
between the objective lenses and the eyepiece
clusters. The prism clusters serve three im¬
portant purposes:
1. They revert and invert the image formed
by the objective lens, to the right-side-up or
true position.
2. They increase stereoscopic effect and
thus give better depth perception. This is true
because they permit greater distance between
the left and right objective lenses than would be
allowed by the user’s interpupillary distance
alone.
3. They decrease the physical distance (the
length of the body) between the objective lens
and the eyepiece by FOLDING UP the path of
light, as shown in illustration 18-3. Much longer
tubes would be required if an erector lens were
used to erect the image.

EYEPIECES AND DIOPTER SCALES

A user of prismatic binoculars sees the image

formed by the objective lenses and inverted and
reverted by the prism clusters. An eyepiece con¬
sists of a collective lens and a doublet eyelens
(Kellner type) and is used like an ordinary mag¬
nifying glass, except that the object viewed in
the binocular is the real image formed by the
objective lenses.
To adjust for differences in vision between
his right and left eyes, and to focus the image
so that he can see it sharply and clearly, the user
of a binocular can move the eyepieces in or out.
The scale on each eyepiece (fig. 18-1), called
the diopter scale, enables a person who regularly
uses a binocular to set the eyepieces to compen¬
sate for visual correction required by his eyes.
This feature enables him to use the binocular
quickly without delay for focusing.
A person who has normal vision should be
able to see distant objects in perfect focus with
both eyepieces set at the 0 mark, or slightly
less.

OVERHAUL AND REPAIR

Overhaul and repair procedures discussed in

Figure 18-2.— Hinge mechanism (Mks 28, this chapter are for Mk 28, Mod 0; Mk 32, Mod 7;
32, & 39 binoculars). and Mk 39, Mod 1, binoculars.

451
 OPTIC ALMAN 3 & 2

EYE LENS COLLECTIVE LENS

Plane of real Image formed
by objective lens

PORRO PRISMS

RIGHT TELESCOPE
LEFT TELESCOPE
137.465
Figure 18-3.— Cross section of a binocular system.

The Mk 28, Mod 0, binocular is the standard, end of the body; (2) it has aplastic eyelens gas¬
basic design of several marks and mods of ket, a molded rubber eyepiece sealing ring; and
7 x 50 prismatic binoculars. Mod 0 was made a plastic stop ring gasket in the eyepiece
waterproof by adding a rubber gasket between assembly to waterproof the eyepiece assembly.
the cover and the body, together with a channel A Mk 39, Mod 1, binocular is the same as a
of wax. A rubber gasket was also added between Mk 28, Mod 0, except that it has a CROSSLINE
the objective mount and the objective lock ring. reticle attached to the top of the right-hand
The eyelens and the objective lens are set in a prism cluster.
A Mk 45, Mod 0, binocular is made of drawn
wax seal.
A Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular differs from a aluminum and waterproofed by rubber gaskets to
Mk 28, Mod 0, in two ways: (l)the objective lens, make it capable of withstanding water pressure,
mount, and rings are made up as a subassembly which other binoculars cannot do. It is used on
board submarines and by demolition personnel.
with an adapter which screws into the objective

452
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

PREDISASSEMBLY INSPECTION Removal of the Reticle Assembly

You already learned in other chapters of
A Mk 39, Mod 1, binocular has a reticle
this manual the function and importance of pre¬
assembly mounted on a post on the right prism
disassembly inspections. Prepare an inspection
plate. See illustration 18-7. Other binoculars
sheet for your binocular, make the inspection,
do not have reticles.
and record your findings on it. Inspect the fol¬
lowing:
1. General appearance and physical con¬ Removal of the Prism Cluster
dition, including metal finishes, plastic body
covering, and legibility of white-filled engrav¬
Use a long screwdriver to remove the prism
ings.
plate screws on Mks 28, Mod 0, and 32, Mod 7,
2. Hinge action, for smoothness and tension.
binoculars. On a Mk 39, Mod 1, binocular, re¬
There should be NO shake in the hinge.
move the reticle mount post and the prism
3. Eyepiece focusing motion, for wear and
plate screws from the right body (fig. 18-7)
condition of lubricant. The tension should be
and the three plate screws from the left body.
fairly tight, and smooth action indicates that the
Then tilt the cluster upward and rotate it to
condition of the lubricant in the eyepiece focusing
remove it from the body (fig. 18-8).
sextuple thread is good. Scribe an L (left) or an R (right) on the TOP
4. Condition of cement in lenses.
SIDE OF THE PRISM PLATE to indicate the side
5. Image fidelity, brightness, and contrast. of the binocular from which you removed the
6. Interpupillary distance. Use an inter¬
prism cluster. These clusters are NOT inter¬
pupillary distance spacing bar to check this.
changeable.
7. Collimation and diopter settings. Failure
of the binocular to collimate indicates that the
prisms are cocked or tilted. If the diopter Removal of the Objective and
settings are correct, set the eyepieces at 0 Mount Assembly
diopters and place a straightedge across the eye
caps. If they are not even within 1/16 inch, the The procedure for removing the objective
prisms, objective lenses, or objective mounts and mount assembly (figs. 18-9 and 18-10) is as
in both telescopes may be mismatched. follows:
1. Unscrew and remove the objective cap. If
DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE it is frozen, warm it over a hot plate. CAUTION:
If you overheat the cap, you will crack the ob¬
To prevent confusion of terms, the procedure jective.
for removing major assemblies from a binocular 2. Remove the sealing compound over the
is considered first. Then the details of dis¬ objective lock ring setscrew and the objective
assembly of the major assemblies are discussed. ring lock screw and then remove the screws.
Some special tools used in the repair ofbinocu- 3. Remove the objective lock ring, objective
lars are shown in figure 18-4. gasket ring, and the rubber gasket.
Keep your workbench clean. Keep unprotected 4. With a suction cup, pull out the objective
(unwrapped) fingers off polished optical sur¬ and mount assembly.
faces. Wrap optical elements in clean tissue 5. A Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular has an objec¬
and protect them until needed. Work with care tive adapter (fig. 18-10) screwed into the body.
to prevent damage to parts. Use an objective adapter clamp wrench to re¬
move it.
Removal of Eyepiece and Cover Assembly
To remove this assembly, take out the cover Removal of the Interpupillary
screws and discard the fiber washers. See il¬ Distance Scale
lustration 18-5. Then remove the synthetic
rubber cover gasket and the desiccator (fig. Use an appropriate screwdriver to remove
18-6). Discard the desicator. Mk 28, ModO,and the interpupillary scale lock screw (not on Mk 32,
Mk 39, Mod 1, binoculars have nickel-silver Mod 7, binoculars). Then remove the scale
washers which may be cleaned and replaced on retainer screw and the scale. Study illustration
the instrument. 18-11.

453
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

PRISM CLUSTER FIXTURE

AXLE SCREW WRENCHES

INTERPUPILLARY DISTANCE ECCENTRIC

SPACING BAR RING WRENCHES
WAXING PENCIL PINNED AXLE LOCK
and ALCOHOL LAMP PIN DRILL JIG

HINGE PIN
PULLER HINGE TUBE REAMER
137.466

Figure 18-4.— Special service tools for binoculars.

454
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

LEFT BINOCULAR
ASSEMBLY % —COVER GASKET % —COVER SCREWS
137.467
Figure 18-5.— Eyepiece and cover assembly.

RIGHT BODY RIGHT PRISM CLUSTER

PRISM PLATE SCREW

LEFT BINOCULAR RIGHT

ASSEMBLY DESICCATOR

137.468
Figure 18-6.— Right prism cluster and desiccator.

455
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

RIGHT BODY RIGHT PRISM CLUSTER

PRISM PLATE
SCREW

RETICLE MOUNT
SPRING

RETICLE MOUNT
SCREW

LEFT BINOCULAR RETICLE MOUNT RETICLE

ASSEMBLY POST - ASSEMBLY

137.469
Figure 18-7.— Reticle assembly.

Scribe an "R" or "L" RIGHT PRISM

on top of each cluster CLUSTER

137.470
Figure 18-8. —Identification mark on a prism cluster.

456
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

OBJECTIVE CAP

OBJECTIVE LOCK RING

OBJECTIVE ECCENTRIC
RING LOCK SCREW -

OBJECTIVE LOCK RING

SET SCREW

OBJECTIVE
GASKET RING

RIGHT BODY

OBJECTIVE GASKET

OBJECTIVE and
MOUNT ASSEMBLY

LEFT BINOCULAR
ASSEMBLY

137.471
Figure 18-9.— Binocular objective and mount assembly (Mks 28, Mod 0, & 39, Mod 1).

Removal of the Bodies Disassembly of the Eyepiece

and Cover Assembly

To remove the right and left telescope Use the following procedure to disassemble
bodies, do the following: the eyepiece and cover assembly of a Mk 28,
1. Put the binocular assembly on the bench, Mod 0, or a Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular:
objective end up, and remove the lower axle lock Hold the assembly in one hand and unscrew
screw (fig. 18-11) and the axle screw. the collective lens retaining ring. Then remove
2. Turn the binocular assembly around on the lens. Illustration 18-13 shows the assembly
the bench and use an axle screw wrench to re¬ for a Mk 28, Mod 0, binocular and figure 18-14
move the upper axle screw. shows the assembly for a Mk 32, Mod 7,
binocular.
3. Scribe a reassembly guide mark across
the top of the hinge axle and the hinge lug, as 2. Reach inside the eyepiece lens mount and
shown in figure 18-12. Note the enlarged part slide out the eyepiece lens spacer. This is not
in the circle. on a Mk 32, Mod 7, or a Mk 45, Mod 0, instru¬
ment.
4.
Observe the hinge puller in figure 18-4. 3. Cover the open end of the eyepiece and
The long part is the puller and the small part cover assembly with lens tissue and push the
is the collar which fits over the puller. Screw eyelens out of its waxed seat. (A Mk 32, Mod 7,
the puller onto the upper end of the hinge pin and or a Mk 45, Mod 0, binocular has a lens retaining
keep screwing it down until it pulls the pin out. ring which must be removed first.)
5. Discard the cellulose hinge washer. On a 4. Remove the clamp ring lock screw and
Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular, keep the bronze hinge the eyepiece clamp; then lift off the knurled
washers (one upper and one lower). focusing ring (fig. 18-14).

457
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

OBJECTIVE CAP

OBJECTIVE LOCK RING

- OBJECTIVE
MOUNT -TO -ADA PTER
GASKET

( IKJ Ki: % I Vl>i

ADAPTER

OBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE -TO-BODY

MOUNT ASSEMBLY
GASKET

RIGHT BODY
OBJECTIVE LOCK RING
SET SCREW

OBJECTIVE ECCENTRIC
RING LOCK SCREW

LEFT BINOCULAR
ASSEMBLY

137.472
Figure 18-10.— Objective and mount assembly for a Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular.

LOWER AXLE LOWER HINGE RIGHT BODY

SCREW WASHERS

LOWER AXLE UPPER HINGE

LOCK SCREW WASHERS

UPPER AXLE SCREW

INTERPUPILLARY
DISTANCE SCALE
HINGE AXLE
LEFT BODY -
(Knurled Type)
INTERPUPILLARY
SCALE RETAINER
HINGE AXLE SCREW
(Pinned Type)

HINGE AXLE -INTERPUPILLARY

LOCK PIN SCALE LOCK SCREW

137.473
Figure 18-11.— Components of the interpupillary distance scale.

458
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

CLAMP RING
LOCK SCREW

KNURLED
FOCUSING
RING

EYEPIECE
N
STOP RING

RIGHT
COVER
and
EYEPIECE
MOUNT
ASSEMBLY

137.474
Figure 18-12.— Scribing a reassembly guide
mark across the hinge axle and lug.

EYE LENS

5. Unscrew and remove the eyepiece stop

ring. Then unscrew the eyepiece lens mount EYEPIECE
from the cover. LENS SPACER
6. Scribe a reassembly guide mark (fig. 18-
15) on the top of the eyepiece lens mount cor¬
responding to the diopter line on the neck of the COLLECTIVE
LENS
cover. Do NOT interchange the parts of the two
bodies.

Disassembly of the Reticle Assembly

On a Mk 39, Mod 1, binocular, remove the

lower and upper reticle shields by pulling them COLLECTIVE LENS
off the reticle mount. Then unscrew the reticle RETAINER RING
retaining ring from the mount and slide the
loose reticle off onto a clean cloth. See figure 137.175
18-16. Figure 18-13.— Eyepiece and cover assembly
for a Mk 28, Mod 0, binocular.
Disassembly of the Prism Cluster

Set the right prism cluster of a Mk 28, Mod 0, from which it was removed and its position on
or a Mk 39, Mod 1, prism cluster on the prism the plate— bottom (eyepiece) or top (objective),
cluster fixture in the manner shown in figure and right and left.
18-17. With a lead or wax pencil, mark each prism
CAUTION: The two prisms in a cluster are on its unpolished surface before you remove it
matched. Mark each prism to indicate the plate from the prism plate. Make the mark as shown

459
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Reassembly EYEPIECE LENS

Guide Mark - MOUNT
EYEPIECE CAP

CLAMP RING
LOCK SCREW
EYEPIECE
CLAMP RING

KNURLED
FOCUSING
RING

EYEPIECE
STOP RING

- EYEPIECE
Vv_ SEAUNG RING
COVER PLATE
137.476
NECK
GASKET
—^ J)
Figure 18-15.— Scribing a reassembly guide
EYEPIECE
mark on an eyepiece lens mount.
LENS MOUNT

RIGHT
RIGHT COVER COVER
and
[—EYEPIECE
MOUNT
ASSEMBLY

EYE LENS
GASKET

EYE LENS

EYE LENS
RETAINER RING
COLLECTIVE
LENS

COLLECTIVE
LENS
RETAINER RING
137.477
137.475
Figure 18-16.— Reticle assembly for a Mk 39,
Figure 18-14.— Eyepiece and cover assembly Mod 1, binocular.
for a Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular.

in figure 18-17— TR for the top-right prism Remove next the Porro prism by picking it up
cluster, for example. B represents bottom and L by its sides. Then set the prism on its side on a
represents the left position. clean cloth. Follow this procedure to remove
Remove the prism clip screw and the clip. each prism.
Observe the parts in figure 18-18. Then remove Remove the four prism posts from the prism
the prism shield and the pad. Discard the pad. plate, but do NOT remove the two prism plate

460
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

PRISM CLIP PRISM CLIP

SCREW

PRISM POST
PRISM POST
"A” B"

PRISM CLIP
PAD

PRISM
COLLAR
SCREW

PRISM
PLATE
DOWEL
PIN

137.478 PRISM
Figure 18-17.— Disassembly of a right COLLAR
SCREW
prism cluster.

PRISM CLIP
dowel pins unless they are defective and must be PAD

replaced. PRISM POST

"D"
Disassembly of the Objective and PRISM POST "C
Mount Assembly

The objective eccentric ring, the objective

mount, and the objective lens in each objective PRISM CLIP

and mount assembly are matched to each other. PRISM CLIP

The objective lens in each left and right binocu¬ SCREW
lar assembly may also be matched to its respec¬ 137.170
tive prism cluster. For this reason, keep the left Figure 18-18.— Disassembled prism cluster.
and right side objective and mount assembly
parts separate.
With a rotary motion, slide the objective
eccentric ring off the objective mount. Do NOT
squeeze the objective eccentric ring out of shape. thumbs onto a clean cloth. The procedure for
See illustration 18-19. Then remove the objective doing this is shown in figure 18-20.
This completes the disassembly of sub-
lens retaining ring.
Place a clean tissue over the objective lens, assemblies of the binocular. The next step in the
hold the objective mount in both hands, and repair procedure is inspection, repair , and
remove the lens by pressing it out with the cleaning of parts.

461
 OPTIC ALM AN 3 & 2

1. ANTI-REFLECTION COATING. Check

the anti- reflection coating on the objective, eye
and collective lenses, and the LONG faces of
the prisms. The coating must comply with Navy
St3.nCj3.rdS •
2. CONDITION OF CEMENT IN LENSES.
Inspect the condition of cement between the
doublet eyelenses and the objective lenses.
3. CODE MARKS ON PRISMS. Inspect the
code marks on the pairs of prisms for correct
matching of deviations and prism heights. If
there are no code marks, or if the prisms do not
match, test them and make necessary replace¬
ments.
137.479
Inspection of Mechanical Parts
Figure 18-19.— Disassembling the objective
assembly. Inspect mechanical parts of your disas¬
sembled binocular for the following:
1. FUNCTIONAL DEFECTS. These defects
include: distortion, dents, burrs, damaged
threads, wear, and so forth. In accordance with
prescribed standards, effect repairs or replace
the parts.
2. APPEARANCE AND FINISH. Inspect ap¬
pearance defects and correct them in accordance
with prescribed procedures, or the recom¬
mendation of your shop supervisor.

Fitting a New Hinge Axle

Hinge tension and collimation of a hand-held
binocular are dependent upon the action of the
hinge. In order to get proper tension and smooth
action in a binocular hinge, you maybe required
to install an oversized hinge axle onMks28, 32,
and 39 binoculars. Weak and faulty hinge tension
in Mk 45, Mod 0, binoculars can be corrected
Tissue by using oversized hinge expanding bearings.
137.480 An oversized hinge axle must be fitted to the
Figure 18-20.— Pressing the objective lens tube in the right body of the binocular, in the
from its mount. following manner:
1. Fit the bodies together and place wedge
shims between the lower hinge lugs to push the
REPAIR PROCEDURE right body (hinge tube) up. Make certain the
shims are clear of the hole for the hinge axle.
After you disassemble a binocular, inspect Study illustration 18-21.
all parts for defects. This inspection sometimes 2. With a hinge tube reamer (fig. 18-4),
will reveal defects overlooked or undetected when required, ream the left body hinge lugs
during the predisassembly inspection; and you and the hinge tube to get a new bearing surface
can give disassembled parts a more thorough and to help fit the axle. Ream the tapered hole
inspection. as necessary to make the new axle fit, with its
top end approximately flush with or slightly
Inspection of Optical Parts above the top surface of the left body top hinge
Post disassembly inspection of optical parts lug. To draw the axle down, you may have to
should include: replace and tighten the lower axle screw.

462
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

137.481
Figure 18-21.— Wedge shims in position
between the lower hinge lugs.

3. If needed, screw the pinned axle lock pin

drill jig (fig. 18-4) into the top of the hinge axle
137.482
and drill two holes 5/64 inch in diameter and
1/8 inch deep. Use two opposite holes in the jig. Figure 18-22.— Drilling a hole in the hinge
Then disassemble the axle and the bodies. See axle and hinge barrel.
figure 18-22.

Cleaning Operations

In accordance with procedures discussed in Mk 39, Mod 1, binoculars. Instructions are for
chapter 8, clean the mechanical parts of each reassembling the right half and, except wherever
binocular optical system and protect them in noted, also the left half.
separate trays. Clean the threads in holes and The order of reassembly is as follows: Parts
on all parts to remove paint and corrosion. are reassembled to form their particular sub-
Use commercial inside and outside thread assemblies; the subassemblies are then attached
chasers and taps and dies. If paint on surfaces to each other to form the major assembly, the
interferes with reassembly or spoils the ap¬
complete binocular.
pearance, remove it.
Clean optical parts in the prescribed manner Reassemble all parts in their original posi¬
just before you replace them. tions, for both bodies. Follow your reassembly
guide marks. Apply approved lubricants to
REASSEMBLY parts which require them, and in the proper
places— hinge grease on hinges only, for ex¬
The reassembly procedure discussed in this ample. Apply anti-seize compound on threads
section is for Mk 28, Mod 0; Mk 32, Mod 7; and and wherever specified.

463
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

6. Replace and tighten the lower axle screw.

Joining the Bodies
NOTE: Steps 7 and 8 do NOT apply to Mk 32,
The best way to join the bodies of a binocular Mod 7, binoculars.
7. Use tweezers to insert the two hinge axle
is outlined next.
1. Put cellulose acetate hinge washers be¬ lock pins. See illustration 18-24. Then complete
tween the hinge lugs (upper and lower) of the the job with a rivet set and a hammer.
right and left bodies of Mk 28 and Mk 39 binocu¬ 8. Replace the upper axle screw and screw it
lars. These washers are .010 inch thick; but down just enough to bring the head against the
when you must replace them, use washers .0125 hinge lug.
inch thick. Mk 32, Mod 7, binoculars have two 9. Test the hinge tension by grasping the
bronze washers, and the one with the largest bodies and flexing them. Make proper adjustment
hole goes on the top hinge. by loosening or tightening the lower axle screw.
2. Slide the two hinges together and check Do NOT change the position of the upper axle
with a straightedge to determine whether the two screw; it keeps the axle at the correct depth in
bodies are even, as shown in figure 18-23. Use the hinge tube for lubrication clearance.
different combinations of washers, as necessary, 10. Put an objective -to-body gasket down
until you have the tops even. The fit must be over the outside threaded end of the objective
tight— no shaking or looseness. adapter and seat it on the shoulder. Then screw
3. Separate the bodies and coat the tapered the objective adapter into the end of the body and
hinge axle, the inside of the hinge tube, and the tighten it.
hinge washers (faces away from the hinge lugs) 11. If you have an interpupillary distance
gage, put the assembled bodies on it, as shown
with hinge grease.
4. Replace the washers on the hinge should¬ in figure 18-25. If you do not have the gage,
use an interpupillary distance spacing bar (fig.
ers of the two bodies and push the two halves
18-4). Then replace the interpupillary distance
together.
5. Use a hinge washer locating pin to align scale and secure it with retainer screw, just
the washers with the hinge lug holes; then turn
the bodies to allow the locating pin to work (down)
into place. Remove the locating pin and insert
the hinge axle in the hinge holes, and re-align
the axle with the reassembly guide mark.

Tops of binocular bodies STRAIGHTEDGE

must be even -

137.483
Figure 18-23.— Checking the bodies of a
binocular with a straightedge.

464
 Chapter 18— BINOCULARS

INTERPUPILLARY Indicator Line (Mks 28 & 39 binoculars). On a Mk 32, Mod 7,

binocular, place the objective lens gasket on the
lens seating shoulder in the objective mount.
2. Put anti-seize compound on the thread of
the objective lens retaining ring.
3. Clean the objective lens, pick it up by its
edges, and put it in the objective mount, with the
positive side (with greatest curvature) down.
4. Replace and tighten the objective lens re¬
taining ring. To relieve possible strain present,
unscrew the ring about 1/4 turn; then screw it
tight enough to hold the lens in place without
shaking.
5. Put a drop of shellac on the threads of
the objective mount next to the objective lens
retaining ring and run it all the way around. This
prevents the ring from becoming loose. Then re¬
move excess shellac and clean the lens.
6. Apply anti-seize compound to the inside
surface of the objective eccentric ring. Then
slide the ring on the mount and turn it to distrib¬
ute the compound. NOTE: The slotted end of the
ring goes on the outside.

Reassembly of the Prism Cluster

Proceed as follows to reassemble the prism

cluster:
1. Clean the prisms and assemble them to
DISTANCE GAGE
their collars. Be sure the code mark on the
prism is near the code mark on the collar. Work
137.485
gently as you do this. The four pads on the col¬
Figure 18-25.— Setting the interpupillary lars which bear against the sides of the prisms
distance scale. have been fitted to the prisms. Make certain
that you assemble the RIGHT prism to each col¬
lar. Do not turn the prisms around in their
collars. CAUTION: If the collar pads exert
too much pressure on the prisms, strain occurs
enough to keep the scale from shifting. Too and must be eliminated. See chapter 8.
much pressure will crack the plastic scale. 2. If you removed them, replace the two
12. If the interpupillary scale lock screw prism plate dowel pins by lightly tapping them
hole is lined up, replace the screw (Mk 28, into the holes in the prism plate. Do the same
Mod 0, & Mk 39, Mod 1). If you did not knock thing to replace the reticle mount pin in a Mk 39,
off the lug on the scale during step No. 11 (on a Mod 1, binocular. Do NOT distort the plate.
Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular), the scale is properly Study illustration 18-26. If necessary, use a
set and will be held in position by the lug. drill to enlarge the holes as required to have a
Cover the assembly with a clean cloth and perfect fit of the pins. If the pins still do not fit,
put it in a safe place. try another prism plate.
3. Replace and secure the prism posts to the
Reassembly of the Objective prism plate. As shown in figure 18-26, Mk 32,
and Mount Assembly Mod 7, binoculars do not have prism posts;
The procedure for reassembling the objec¬ they have prism straps.
tive and mount assembly is as follows: 4. Place the right prism plate on the prism
1. Place a string of sealing compound on the cluster fixture (fig. 18-27) on the pins set for the
inside shoulder of the clean objective mount prism at the top-right position. Move the center

465
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

PRISM POST "A" RETICLE MOUNT PIN

PRISM POST "A"

PRISM POST "B

PRISM POST "B'

PRISM PLATE
DOWEL PIN

PRISM POST "D"

PRISM PLATE
PRISM POST "C" DOWEL PIN

PRISM POST "D" ‘—PRISM POST "C

MK 28, Mod 0 MK 39, Mod 1 MK 32, Mod 7

PRISM PLATE PRISM PLATE PRISM PLATE
137.486
Figure 18-26.— Replacing dowel pins in the prism plate.

pin (fig. 18-27) of the prism cluster fixture to Reassembly of the Eyepiece and
the TR-BL hole. When positioned so that it will Cover Assembly
receive its T (top) prism on top, the right prism
plate will fit on pins Nos. 1 and 2 and the mov¬ Proceed as follows to reassemble the eye¬
able center TR-BL. The left prism plate will piece and cover assembly:
fit these same pins when so positioned that it 1. Apply a thin coat of eyepiece grease to
will receive its B (bottom) prism on top. the threads on the eyepiece lens mount. Then
5. Set the top-right prism (with its collar hold the cover and mount on the bench (with
assembled) on the right prism plate on the guide marks aligned) and screw the mount into
prism cluster fixture. The prism should fit in the cover (fig. 18-16).
the recess in the prism plate, and the two prism 2. Screw the eyepiece stop ring into the neck
posts will fit in the spaces on each side between of the cover and tighten it. Mk 32, Mod 7, bi¬
the prism and the collar. noculars have sealing rings and a cover plate
neck gasket in the eyepiece stop ring to keep
NOTE: On aMk28, ModO,or a Mk 39, Mod 1, moisture and dirt out of the body. Stretch the
binocular, place a cork prism clip pad on the gasket over the threads and into the external
apex of the prism, put a prism shield over the groove in the stop ring and insert the sealing
prism, and place a prism clip on the tops of the ring in the groove. Tighten the stop ring.
prism posts. These parts are illustrated. On a 3. Place the knurled focusing ring over the
Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular, put a cork prism pad eyepiece lens mount and screw on the eyepiece
and a prism shield on the prism and secure the clamp ring. Replace the clamp ring lock screw
prism with a clip. but do not tighten it.
4. Clean the eyelens and the collective lens.
6. Reassemble the bottom-left prism in the 5. Put a string of sealing compound on the
same manner as explained for reassembling the inside shoulder of the eyepiece lens mount and
top-right prism. replace the lens. A Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular
The procedure for squaring a prism cluster uses an eyelens gasket instead of sealing com¬
is explained in chapter 8. pound to seal the lens.

466
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

the lens (side of least curvature down) on the

ring.
8. Pick up the collective lens and retaining
ring with one hand (fig. 18-28). Hold the lens
by its edges. Then pick up with your other hand
the assembled eyepiece parts and assemble the
collective lens in the eyepiece lens mount. Screw
in the retaining ring.

EYEPIECE and COVER

ASSEMBLY

137.488
Sa^—PRISM
CLIP Figure 18-28.— Assembling the collective lens

1 in the eyepiece

9. Screw an eyepiece
lens mount.

cap onto the eyepiece

clamp ring but leave it loose. Place a drop of
shellac on the threads between the mount and
•—PRISM CLIP the collective lens retaining ring and spread it
SCREWS around. When the shellac hardens, it prevents
137.487 the retaining ring from becoming loose.
Figure 18-27.— Replacing prisms on the 10. On a Mk 39, Mod 1, binocular, clean the
prism plate. reticle carefully and reassemble it, in reverse
order of disassembly.
6. Place the eyepiece lens spacer on the eye- This completes the reassembly of the bi¬
lens (side of greatest curvature). If available, nocular and it is ready for the final tests and
use an eyelens assembly fixture when you do this. adjustments.
Then pick up the assembled eyepiece parts and
slide the eyepiece lens mount down over the TESTS AND ADJUSTMENTS
eyelens and eyepiece spacer. Press it down to
seat the eyelens in the sealing compound. This section is concerned with the tests and
NOTE: For a Mk 32, Mod 7, binocular, use adjustments necessary to bring your overhauled
a lens suction adapter to set the eyelens in the binocular up to required performance standards.
eyepiece lens mount. Then apply anti-seize Make certain the instrument is in perfect op¬
erating condition before giving it your final
compound to the threads on the eyelens retaining
approval. Tests for image fidelity and the pro¬
ring and replace the ring.
7. Apply anti-seize compound to the threads cedure for waterproofing and sealing are ex¬
on the collective lens retaining ring and replace plained in chapter 8. Tests for hinge tension

467
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

and interpupillary distance were covered pre¬ 5. Screw the eyepiece clamp ring onto the
viously in this chapter. eyepiece lens mount and tighten it.
6. Check the setting again by repeating step
Setting the Diopter Scales No. 2. Each line on the scale is 1/4 diopter.
The first adjustment you must make in order 7. With a .015-inch drill, make a set point
to bring this binocular up to performance re¬ for the lock screw. Then insert and tighten
quirements is setting the diopter scales on each the clamp ring lock screw.
eyepiece. They must read 0 diopters plus or 8. Screw on the eyepiece caps.
minus 1/4 diopter on their scales to get sharp
Checking the Position of the Eyepieces
focus of a distant object.
You can set the diopter scales of the binocular To check the position of the eyepieces, set
with a Mk 5 binocular collimator and a separate both eyepieces to 0 diopters and check with a
auxiliary telescope. See illustration 18-29. Pro¬ straightedge across the top of both eyepiece
ceed as follows: caps to determine whether they are even. They
1. Sight through the auxiliary telescope and should be even within 1/16 inch.
properly adjust it to your eye. COLLIMATION
2. Look through the auxiliary telescope and
adjust the knurled diopter ring on the binocular When a binocular is thoroughly overhauled
eyepiece as necessary to bring the crossline and properly assembled, collimation with a Mk 5
into sharp focus. collimator is not difficult. The TAIL-OF-ARC
3. Unscrew the eyepiece cap and the eye¬ method of collimating is recommended. The
piece clamp ring but do NOT change the diopter step-by-step procedure for using this method is
setting. as follows:
4. Remove the knurled focusing ring and then 1. Turn the binocular upside down and so
set it back on the position necessary to have the mount it on the collimator fixture that the left
mark on the neck of the cover read 0 diopters. barrel (now on your right) swings freely.

137.489
Figure 18-29.— Mark 5 binocular collimator.

468
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

2. Look through an auxiliary telescope (jyith

the binocular attachment in place) and the swing¬
ing barrel of the binocular. Two images of the
collimator crossline should be visible, and one
image should be more magnified than the other.
3. With the two adjusting screws on the
collimator fixture, superimpose the two cross-
lines at 58 mm interpupillary distance. Study
illustration 18-30.
4. Move the swinging barrel down to 74 mm
interpupillary distance and observe the posi¬
tion of the larger crossline, as shown in figure
18-31. Then sketch on graph paper the two
crosslines as they appear in the field of view,
and construct an equilateral triangle, as ex¬
plained in the next step. NOTE: ALWAYS figure
the displacement of the larger crossline on the
scale of the smaller crossline.
5. Use point A in illustration 18-32 as the
vertex of a compass and the distance from A to
B as a radius and draw an arc CLOCKWISE
from B. NOTE: Point A is the intersection point Figure 18-31.— Position of binocular crosslines
of the smaller crossline and B is the point of (A & B) when the interpupillary distance
intersection of the larger crossline. Next, use is at 74 mm.
point B as the vertex of your compass (with the
same radius) and draw another arc which crosses
the first arc. This is represented by Cin figure

469
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

18-33, and C is the mechanical axis of the bi¬ eyestrain, sometimes severe and accompanied
nocular. The distance from one letter to the by nausea.
other is the same, and the triangle formed by 2. When both eyepieces are set to the same
connecting points A, B, and C is therefore diopter reading, they should be even within
equilateral. 1/16 inch. Deviation from this tolerance
NOTE: ALWAYS draw the FIRST arc clock¬ causes eyestrain.
wise from point B. 3. The images of a distant, vertical, straight
6. Observe the vertical and horizontal dis¬ line formed in the two telescopes (barrels)
placement of point C. must be parallel to each other within 1 degree.
7. Look through the auxiliary telescope and This is a very liberal tolerance. Failure of
the swinging barrel of the binocular and mentally the images to stay within this tolerance results
transfer the triangle to your field of view. Then in eyestrain.
manipulate the objective eccentric rings until the 4. Hinge tension of a binocular is most
point of intersection of the larger crossline is important. At 70° F, plus or minus 5°, the
at point C. unsupported side must support a load of 1.80
8. Repeat steps 4 through 7 until the cross- to 3 pounds at a distance of five inches from
lines remain superimposed at all settings when the center of the hinge (9 inch pounds minimum
the swinging barrel is moved from 58 mm to and 15 inch pounds maximum). Part of the
74 mm interpupillary distance. weight is to the unsupported side of the binocular.
9. Exercise care to prevent throwing the If the hinge is TOO tight, it will NOT permit
barrel out of collimation and lock the eccentric adjustment over the interpupillary distance
rings in place with the objective ring setscrew. range. If the hinge is TOO loose, it will not
10. Leave the mechanical adjustments to maintain any inter pupillary setting.
the collimator fixture intact and look through 5. Inter pupillary scale readings must be
the stationary barrel with the auxiliary tele¬ accurate within 1 millimeter. Deviation from
scope. Then manipulate the objective eccentric this tolerance causes eyestrain.
rings until the crosslines are superimposed. 6. The diopter scales must be set to give
11. With the objective ring setscrew, lock readings accurate within 1/4 diopter. If this
the objective eccentric rings in place. CAUTION: tolerance is not maintained, a blurred image
Do NOT throw the barrel out of collimation. and eyestrain result.
12. Replace the objective gaskets, the objec¬ 7. Loss of image fidelity results when optical
tive gasket rings, and the objective lock rings. Elements in a binocular are improperly mounted.
13. Check both barrels again to make certain The image is distorted. Tests of two character¬
the instrument was not thrown out of collimation. istics of optical performance (central astigma¬
Then replace the objective lock ring setscrews. tism and central resolution) provide an overall
14. Put a drop of sealing compound over check on both design and service defects.
the objective ring and the objective lock ring NOTE: Most defects are eliminated by design
setscrews. Then replace the objective caps. of the instrument.
15. Give the instrument another check to be Objects in the center of the FIELD OF
sure it is still collimated. VIEW that subtend an angle of 4 seconds of arc
must be clearly resolved. In terms of the
test to be made, equal -width lines equally
TOLERANCE AND PERFORMANCE
spaced .018 inches on centers must be clearly
REQUIREMENTS
visible as separate and distinct when viewed
at 77 feet. Failure to stay within this tolerance
Binoculars must meet specific tolerances and results in BLURRED and/or DISTORTED images
performance requirements before they are re¬ and eyestrain.
turned to service, as follows: 8. Each barrel of a binocular must transmit
1. The optical axis of the two barrels must at least 75 percent of the white light being
be parallel within: (a) 2 minutes’ step (vertical viewed, and the transmission of the two barrels
alignment of the two axes); (b) 4 minutes’ may not differ by more than 3 percent. Give
divergence (spreading apart of the two axes); the binocular a functional test and inspect the
and (c) 2 minutes’ convergence (coming together optics for proper coating. Loss of light, image
of the two axes). CAUTION: Failure of the brightness, and glare, result when this tolerance
axis to stay within these tolerances causes is not maintained.

470
 Chapter 18-BINOCULARS

9. When submerged in water, a binocular 10. To test a binocular’s resistance to

must withstand a pressure of 3 pounds per shock, drop it from a height of six feet into a
square inch; otherwise, moisture will collect box containing six inches of sand and then
in the instrument during service. This means recheck alignment on the collimator. If the
that sealing of the instrument must be thor¬ binocular cannot withstand this test, it will be
ough. knocked out of collimation during normal usage.

471
 APPENDIX I

TRAINING FILM LIST

Certain training films that are directly related to the information

presented in this training course are listed under the appropriate chapter
numbers and titles. Unless otherwise specified, all films listed are black
and white with sound, and are unclassified. For a description of these and
other training films that may be of interest, see the United States Navy
Film Catalog, NavPers 10000 (revised).

Chapter 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

MN-2449A Optical Craftsmanship-Introduction to Optics. (17 min. —1945.)

MN-5383 Fundamentals of Photography -The Basic Camera. (15 min.-

195875

MN-5384 Fundamentals of Photography— Elementary Optics in Photog¬

raphy. (18 min.— Color —1948.)

MN-5385 Fundamentals of Photography-Light-Sensitive Materials.

(20 min.— Color —1948.)

Chapter 9

MACHINING OPERATIONS

ME-243A The Engine Lathe— Rough Turning between Centers. (15 min.—
1942.)

ME-243B The Engine Lathe— Turning Work of Two Diameters. (11 min.—
19427

ME-243C The Engine Lathe-Cutting a Taper with a Compound Rest.

(11 min. —1942.)

ME-243D The Engine Lathe-Drilling, Boring, and Reaming Work Held

in a Chuck. (11 min. —1942.)
ME-243F Operation on the Lathe— Turning a Taper with the Tailstock
Set Over. (17 min. —1942).
MC-365B How to Run a Lathe-Plain Turning. (20 min.-Color-1942.)

472
 INDEX

Aberrations, eye, 113 Azimuth and bearing circles, 331-351

Aberrations, lens, 92-100 collimation, 348-351
astigmatism, 96 construction of, 331
chromatic, 92 overhaul and repair, 335-348
coma, 95 disassembly, 335-340
distortion, 96-100 parts inspection and repair, 340-343
loss of light, 96 predisassembly and repair, 335
Newton's rings, 96 reassembly procedure, 343-348
spherical, 92-95 principle of operation, 333-335
Aberrations, prism, 105
Acute vision, 114 Ball bearings, 158
Advancement in rating, 1-9, 64-100 Barium oxide, 14
active duty advancement requirements, 4 Basic optical instruments, 110-142
administrative responsibilities, 2 binoculars, 141
billets, 2 compared with the human eye, 110-113,
courses, 7-9 118-120
enlisted rating structure, 1 eyepieces, 123-127
inactive duty advancement requirements, microscopes, 120-122
5 objectives, 122
information sources, 8, 64-100 telescopes, 127-141
lenses and prisms, 64-100 Bearing circles and azimuth, 331-351
Opticalman rating, 1-9 collimation, 348-351
qualifications for, 2 construction of, 331
training for, 7-9 overhaul and repair, 335-348
Administrative responsibilities, 2 disassembly, 335-340
Alkalies, 13 parts inspection and repair, 340-343
Amici prism, 105, 148 predisassembly and repair, 335
Angles, system of measuring, 50 reassembly procedure, 343-348
Angstrom unit, 25 principle of operation, 333-335
Angular ball bearing, 158 Bearings, 156-160
Angular milling, 252 Bed type milling machines, 239
Antiaircraft gun mount telescopes, 305-316 Bevel gears, 161
Antiaircraft machine gun boresighted at Binoculars, 449-471
mean firing range, 291 collimation, 468
Antiglare stops, 145 eyepieces and diopter scales, 451
Antidotes for poison, 212 lenses, 450, 459
Aperture of lenses, 90 lens mounts, 459
Arbors, sleeves, and special adapters, 241 mechanical features, 449
Arc, system of measuring, 50 optical system, 450
Astigmatism, 96, 175 overhaul and repair, 451-467
testing for, 175 disassembly procedure, 453-462
Astronomical telescopes, 127 predisassembly inspection, 453
Auxiliary telescopes, 201 reassembly, 463-467

473
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Binocular s- continued deviation, 318

repair procedure, 462 overhaul and repair, 322-330
tools for, 453 principle of operation, 317
Porro prism clusters, 451 types of, 318-320
tests and adjustments, 467 variation, 317
tolerance and performance requirements, Compound microscope, 120
470, 471 Concave spherical mirrors, 54-61
Binocular vision, 116 Construction of optical instruments, 143-165
Blueprints, 211-213 bearings, 156-160
Body housings, 143-148 body housings, 143-148
Boresights with self-contained optical diaphragms, 145
elements, 291 eyeshields, 143
Boresight telescopes, 289-304 sunshades and objective caps, 143
antiaircraft machine gun boresighted drafting machines, 163-165
at mean firing range, 291 eyepiece assemblies, 149-156
boresighting procedure, 289 draw tube focusing arrangement, 150
boresights, 290, 291 internal focusing mount, 154-156
Mk 8 boresight telescope, 302-304 spiral keyway focusing arrangement,
Mk 75 boresight telescope, 291-302 152
collimation, 301 threaded lens mounts, 153
disassembly procedure, 296-299 gears, 160-163
optical characteristics, 293 lens cells or mounts, 145
physical characteristics, 293 burnished, 147
predisassembly inspection, 296 eccentric, 147
reassembly, 299-301 retainer, 146
repairing and cleaning, 299 screw adjusting, 148
sight misalignment, effect of, 292 prism mounts, 148
Boro-silicate crown glass, 14-16 Conventional milling, 248
Breech bar boresight, 291 Convex mirrors, 62, 63
Burnished lens mount, 147 Coolants, 226
Corpuscular theory of light, 17
Calcium oxide, 14 Correspondence courses, 8
Cambric nainsook, 192 Corrosion, removal of, 188-192
Camera, comparison with the human eye, Courses, training for advancement in rating,
113 7
Cameras, 21 Crown glass, 14
Candlepower, 21 Crucibles, 14
Cassegranian reflecting telescope, 130 Cullet, 15
Cementing lens, 194 Cutters, milling machine, 243-247
Center rest, 222 speeds of, 250
Checking telescope, 201 Cylindrical lenses, 89
Cleaning glass optics, 192 Cylindrical mirror, 61
Cleaning optical instrument parts, 185,
188 David White sextant, 352
Climb milling, 248 Degree system of measuring, 50
Collet chuck, 220 Dense flint glass, 12
Collimation, 200-209 Deteriorated balsam, 169
Color blindness, 114 Diaphragms or field stops, 145
Colored filters, 108 Diopters, 78, 103, 208
Colored reticles, 108 lens, 78
Color vision, 27 prism, 103
Coma, 95 setting of eyepieces, 208
Compasses, magnetic, 317-330 Dispersion of light, 27
construction of, 320 Distortion, 96
correcting compass error, 318 Dove prism, 105
474
 INDEX

Drafting machines, 163-165 transparency and color of, 11

Draw tube focusing arrangement, 150 Glass optics, cleaning, 192
Dryer, optical instrument, 209 Gunsight telescopes, 137
Dynameter, 141
Hard crown glass, 12
Eccentric lens mounts, 147 Heat waves, 43
Einstein, Albert, 18 Huygenian eyepiece, 125
Electric exposure meter, 19 Huygens, Christian, 17
Electromagnetic spectrum, 25-27
Engine lathe, 214-224 Illumination, 21
Eye as an optical instrument, 110-113 Image formation
Eyepiece, 123-127 by a convergent lens, 71, 74
Eyepiece assemblies, 149-156 by a convex lens, 73, 75
Eyepiece mount, internal focusing, 154 by a divergent lens, 81
Eyeshields, 118, 143 by prisms, 104
and eye tension, 118 Image position, 73
Images and mirrors, 48-63
Face milling, 251 formed by mirrors, 50-63
Field stops, 145 concave mirrors, 54-61
Films, training, 472 convex mirrors, 62, 63
Filter mountings, 109 parabolic mirrors, 61
Filters, colored, 108 plane mirrors, 51-53
Fining process, 15 spherical mirrors, 53
Fire clay, 13, 14 lenses, 48
Fire-clay crucibles, 13 magnification, 48
First Aid Training Course, 8 measuring systems, 49
Fiske stadimeter, 385, 387, 402-404, 410, position of, 50
414 prisms, 48, 51
Fixed prism gunsight telescopes, 305-316 porro, 51
Flares and ghosts, testing for, 176 Internal focusing mount, 154-156
Flint, 13
Flint glass, 14 Jupiter's moons, 23
Focusing mount, internal, 154
Follower rest, 222 Kellner eyepiece, 124
Foot-candles, 22 Keplerian system, 129
Fungus, removal of, 169 Knee-and- column milling machines, 239
Furnaces and crucibles, 14
Land, E. H., 114
Galilean telescopes, 131 Lathes, 214-236
Galilean-type rifle scope, 138 alignment, 227
Galileo, 23 boring, 235
Gears, 160 coolants, 226
General ratings, 1 cutting speeds and feeds, 225
Glass, 10-16 engine, 214-224
amorphous state of, 11 holding the work, 228-233
boro-silicate crown glass, 14-16 maintenance of, 224
chemical stability, 12 operation of, 233
components of, 13 preparing centers, 227
composition of, 10 setting tool holder and cutting tool, 228
freedom from internal strains, 12 tapers, 236
furnaces and crucibles, 13-15 turning, 234
homogeneity of, 11 Lens cells or mounts, 145
manufacture of, 13-16 Lens erecting systems, 133
mechanical hardness of, 12 Lenses, 64-100
refraction and dispersion of, 12 aberrations, 92-100

475
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Lenses - continued tapers, 236

astigmatism, 96 turning, 234
distortion, 96-100 milling machines, 238-254
spherical, 92-95 cutters, 243
aperture of, 90 indexing equipment, 240, 244
cylindrical lenses, 89 knee-and-column, 239
diopter, 78 manufacture of instrument gears, 252
terminology of, 67 operations, 251
thick lenses, 83-89 safety precautions, 253
compound, 89 slab milling, 252
constructed from thin lenses, 85 standard equipment, 239
tracing light rays through, 83, 88 universal, 239
thin lenses, 64-84 Magnetic compasses, 317-330
convergent, 67-79 construction of, 320
divergent, 79-83 correcting compass error, 318
light rays passing through, 64-66 deviation, 318
refraction in, 64-67 overhaul and repair, 322-330
terminology of, 70 principle of operation, 317
Lens mounts, sealing compound in, 197 types of, 318-320
Lens, testing for striae, 11 variation, 317
Light, 17-47 Magnification, 48, 60
behavior of, 30 definition of, 48
color of, 27-30 image, 60
electric exposure meter, 20 Magnifying power of optical instruments,
electromagnetic spectrum, 25-27 testing, 172
foot-candles, 22 Maintenance of lathes, 224
illumination, 21 Maintenance procedures, 166-213
radiation of light waves, 19 blueprints, 211-213
rays, 20 collimation, 200-209
reflection, 31-33, 41 handling and stowing, 166-168
refraction, 33-47 inspecting optical instruments, 168-172
Roemer's discovery, 23 overhaul and repair, 178-195
source of, 19 categories of, 185-187
speed of, 22-24 cleaning glass optics, 192
theories of, 17, 18 cleaning parts, 185, 188
visibility of objects, 30 disassembly, 180-185
waves, 22 inspecting parts, 185
wavelength and frequency, 24 painting, 188-192
Light rays passing through thin lenses, 64-66 recementing lenses, 192-195
Looming, 43 removal of corrosion, 188
Luminous bodies, 19 tools, 178
Luminous flux, 22 reassembly of instrument parts, 195-200
safety precautions, 212
Machining operations, 214-254 sealing, drying, and charging, 209-211
lathes, 214-236 testing qualities, 172-178
alignment, 227 Manual of Qualifications for Advancement in
boring, 235 Rating, 3
coolants, 226 Mk 1 Mod 9 ship telescope, 256
cutting speeds and feeds, 225 Mks 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7 telescope alidades,
engine, 214-224 421-424
holding the work, 228-233 Mk 8 boresight telescope, 302-304
maintenance of, 224 Mk 28 Mod 0 binoculars, 450
operation of, 233 Mk 32 Mod 7 binoculars, 451
preparing centers, 227 Mk 39 Mod 1 binoculars, 451
setting tool holder and cutting tool, 228 Mk 74 fixed prism gunsight telescopes, 305

476
 INDEX

Mk 75 boresight telescope, 291-302 Objectives, 122

Mk 77 and Mk 79 fixed prism gunsight Oculars, 123
telescopes, 305-316 Oils, 226
disassembly, 310-313 One-erector telescope, 133
mechanical features, 306 OOD spyglass, 280-288
optical features, 306 collimation, 287
overhaul and repair, 306 disassembly, 282-286
predisassembly inspection, 307-309 gassing and drying, 288
reassembly and collimation, 313-315 mechanical characteristics, 282
setting the fixed eyepiece, 315 predisassembly inspection, 282
testing and gassing, 316 repair and reassembly, 286
Measuring systems, 49 Opaque objects, 30
Metric system of measuring, 49 Optical instruments, basic, 110-142
Michelson, A. A., 23 binoculars, 141
Microscopes, 120-122 compared with the eyes, 110-113,
Millikan, R. A., 18 118-120
Millimicron, 25 eyepieces, 123-127
Milling machines, 238-254 microscopes, 120-122
conventional and climb milling, 248 objectives, 122
cutter, 242, 247, 250 telescopes, 127-141
cutters, 242 Optical instruments, construction of,
methods of positioning, 247 143-165
plain-milling, 241 bearings, 156-160
speeds in revolutions per minute, body housings, 143-148
250 diaphragms, 145
indexing the work, 240, 244 eyeshields, 143
knee-and-column, 239 sunshades and objective caps, 143
manufacturing instrument gears, 252 drafting machines, 163-165
operations, 251 eyepiece assemblies, 149-156
safety precautions, 253 draw tube focusing arrangement,
setting up, 244 150

slab milling, 252 internal focusing mount, 154-156

standard arbor, 246 spiral keyway focusing arrangement,
standard equipment, 239 152
turning, 234 threaded lens mount, 153
universal, 239 gears, 160-163
Mirrors and images, 48-63 lens cells or mounts, 145
concave mirrors, 54-61 burnished, 147
convex mirrors, 62, 63 eccentric, 147
lenses, 48 retainer, 146
magnification, 48 screw adjusting, 148
measuring systems, 49 prism mounts, 148
parabolic mirrors, 61 Orthoscopic eyepiece, 127
plane mirrors, 51-53 Overhaul and repair, 178-185
position of, 50 categories of, 185-187
prisms, 48, 51 cleaning glass optics, 192
porro, 51 cleaning parts, 185, 188
spherical mirrors, 53 disassembly, 180-185
Mounts, internal focusing eyepiece, 154 inspecting parts, 185
Mounts, prism, 145 painting, parts, 188-192
reassembly of instrument parts,
Newtonian telescope, 130 195-200
Newton, Sir Isaac, 17 recementing lenses, 192-195
Newton's rings, 96 removal of corrosion, 188
Night vision, 113 tools, 178-180

477
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Painting and cleaning optical parts, 188-192 Refracting astronomical telescope, 129
Parabolic mirrors, 61 Refracting prisms, 100
Parallax, how to check for, 207 Refracting telescopes, 128
Penta prism, 105 Refraction of light, 33-47
Photography and light, 28 and reflection combined, 39
Pinhole camera, 21 angle of, 38
Pioneer sextant, 352 atmospheric, 43
Plain and slab milling, 252 in a prism, 38
Planck, Max, 18 index of, 36-38
Plane mirrors, 51-53 laws of, 35
Poison, antidotes for, 212 visibility, 41
Polariscope, 197 Repair and overhaul, 178-200
Polaroid Corporation, 114 cleaning and painting parts of optical
Porro prism, 101 instruments, 188-192
mount, 148 cleaning glass optics, 192
Positive ocular, 124 disassembly of instrument, 180
Potassium, 13 frozen parts, removal of, 183
Pot furnace, 14, reassembly, 195-200
Prism, 100-109 recementing lenses, 192
aberration, 105 repair procedure, 185-192
Amici, 105 cleaning machine, 186
colored filters, 108 corrosion removal, 188
diopter, 103 glass optics, 192
dove, 105 old parts, 186
filter mountings, 109 replacement parts, 187
images formed by, 104 scribing an assembly mark, 182
penta, 105 tools, 178
Porro, 101 Resolving power of the eyes, 114
reflecting, 101-105 Retainer ring mount, 146
refracting, 100 Reticles, 108
reticles, 108 Rhomboid prisms, 105
rhomboid, 105 Right-angled prism, 101
right-angled, 101 mounts, 148
rotating Dove, 106 Roemer's discovery, 23
windows, 109 Roof-angle, 105
Prism gunsight telescope, 305-316 Rotating Dove prism, 106
Prisms, light rays passing through, 66-68 Rotational bearings, 158
Prisms, refraction in, 38
Prism-squaring fixture, 197 Safety precautions, 212, 253
Publications, training for advancement in milling machines, 253
rating, 7 repair and overhaul of optical instruments,
212
Quals Manual, 3 Screw adjusting lens mount, 148
Sealing compound, 197
Rack and pinion, 163 Sealing, drying, and charging, 209-211
Radar waves, 27 Searchlights, 61
Radial and thrust ball bearings, 158 Sector gear and worm, 163
Radiation of light waves, 19 Selvyt cloth, 192
Rainbows, 43 Service ratings, 1
Rainbow, creation of, 29 Sextants, 352-384
Ramsden eyepiece, 123 construction of, 352-355
Recementing lenses, 192-195 David White sextant, 352
Record of Practical Factors, 3 overhaul and repair, 357
Reflecting prisms, 101-105 cleaning operations, 372
Reflecting telescopes, 129 disassembly procedure, 358-364

478
 INDEX

Sextants — continued construction of, 385

final repair inspection, 378-384 Fiske stadimeter, 385-387, 402-404, 414
inspection of disassembled parts, overhaul and repair, 387-419
364-367 collimation procedure, 415-419
predisassembly inspection, 357 disassembly, 387-399
reassembly, 372-378 final shop inspection, 419
repair procedure, 367-372 horizon and index mirror assemblies,
pioneer sextant, 352 392
principle of operation, 355-357 post assembly inspection, 412
types of, 352 predisassembly inspection, 387
Sextant-type stadimeter, 385, 399, 402, 407, reassembly, 408-412
410 repair procedure, 399-408
Ship telescopes, 255-280 tests and adjustments, 412-415
disassembly, 257-272 principle of operation, 385
cover assemblies, 272 types of, 386
eyepiece assemblies, 265 Stereoscopic vision, 48, 116-118
eyepiece assemblies and sighting vanes, Stowing and handling optical instruments,
260 166-168
eyepiece cover assembly and objective Striae, testing for, 11
cap, 258 Sun, 19
eyepiece filter and prism box subas¬ Sunshades and objective caps, 143, 145
semblies, 267-272 Symmetrical and two-doublet eyepieces, 127
objective assembly, 262-264
prism box, filter and eyepiece focusing Tapers, 236-238
assembly, 261 Telescope, body housing and optical elements
sunshade assembly, 262 of, 144
telescope tube body, 265 Telescopes, basic types of, 127-141
yoke assembly, 272 astronomical, 127
inspection and collimation, 272-279 Galilean, 131
Mk 1, Mod 0 ship telescope, 256 gunsight, 137-140
parts inspection and repair, 272 lens erecting, 133
predisassembly inspection, 255-257 magnification in, 140
reassembly, 273-277 one-erector, 133
Silica, 13 reflecting, 129
Slab milling, 252 refracting, 128
Sliding surface bearings, 156 terrestial, 131
Slitting saws, 244 Telescopes, boresight, 289-304
Sniperscopes, 27 antiaircraft machine gun boresighted at
Snooperscopes, 27 mean firing range, 291
Soda water mixtures, 226 boresighting procedure, 289
Sodium chloride, 13 boresights, 290, 291
Spherical mirrors, 53 Mk 8 boresight telescope, 302-304
Spiral bevel gears, 162 Mk 75 boresight telescope, 291-302
Spiral keyway focusing arrangement, 152 collimation, 301
Spur gears, 160 disassembly procedure, 296-299
Spyglass, OOD, 280-288 optical characteristics, 293
collimation, 287 physical characteristics, 293
disassembly, 282-286 predisassembly inspection, 296
gassing and drying, 288 reassembly, 299-301
mechanical characteristics of, 282 repairing and cleaning, 299
predisassembly inspection, 282 sight misalignment, effect of, 292
repair and reassembly, 286 Telescope, collimator, 200
Spyglass, quartermaster, 280 Telescopes, eyeshields, 143
Square bearing, 156 Telescopes, fixed prism gunsight, 305-
Stadimeters, 385 316

479
 OPTICALMAN 3 & 2

Telescopes, fixed prism gunsight- continued overhaul and repair, 436

Mk 74 telescopes, 305 reassembly, 437-443
Mk 77 and Mk 79 telescopes, 305-316 Mk 6 and Mk 7 telescopic alidades, 446-448
disassembly, 310-313 types of, 424
mechanical features, 306 Terrestial telescopes, 131
optical features, 306 Thick lenses, 83-89
overhaul and repair, 306 compound, 89
predisassembly inspection, 307-309 constructed from thin lenses, 85
reassembly and collimation, 313-315 tracing light rays through, 83, 88
setting the fixed eyepiece, 315 Thin lenses, 64-84
testing and gassing, 316 convergent, 67-79
Telescopes, maintenance of, 166 divergent, 79-83
Telescopes, ship, 255-280 light rays passing through, 64-66
disassembly, 257-272 refraction, 64-67
cover assemblies, 272 terminology of, 70
eyepiece assemblies, 265 Threaded lens mounts, 153
eyepiece assemblies and sighting vanes,
260 Ultraviolet light, 25
eyepiece cover assembly and objective Universal milling machine, 239
cap, 258
eyepiece, filter, and prism box subas¬ Vises, 239, 240
semblies, 267-272 Vision, 113-120
objective assembly, 262-264 acute, 114
prism box, filter and eyepiece focusing binocular, 116
assembly, 261 color blindness, 114
sunshade assembly, 262 color, 114
telescope tube body, 265 comparison of the eye with camera, 114
yoke assembly, 272 limitations of, 114
inspection and collimation, 272-279 night, 113
Mk 1 Mod 0, ship telescope, 256 resolving power of the eyes, 114
parts inspection and repair, 272 stereoscopic, 116-118
predisassembly inspection, 255-257
reassembly, 273-277 Water marks, removal of, 169
Telescopic alidades, 421-448 Wave motion of light, 17
construction, 421-424 Windows, 109
Mk 4 telescopic alidades, 424-446 Worm gear and worm, 163
collimation, 443-446
disassembly procedure, 424-436 Young-Helmholts theory, 114
final assembly and waterproofing,
446 Zinc, 14

480
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Reader of the Growth of Ideas Underlying Our Present Atomic
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Presents lucidly and expertly, with barest amount of mathematics, the problems
and theories which led to modern quantum physics. Dr. Hoffmann begins with
the closing years of the 19th century, when certain trifling discrepancies were
noticed, and with illuminating analogies and examples takes you through the
brilliant concepts of Planck, Einstein, Pauli, de Broglie, Bohr, Schroedinger,
Heisenberg, Dirac, Sommerfeld, Feynman, etc. This edition includes a new, long
postscript carrying the story through 1958. "Of the books attempting an account
of the history and contents of our modern atomic physics which have come to
my attention, this is the best,” H. Margenau, Yale University, in American
Journal of Physics. 22 tables and line illustrations. Index. 275pp. 534 x 8.
T518 Paperbound $2.00
Great Ideas and Theories of Modern Cosmolocy,
Jag] it Singh
The theories of Jeans, Eddington, Milne, Kant, Bondi, Gold, Newton, Einstein,
Gamow, Hoyle, Dirac, Kuiper, Hubble, Weizsacker and many others on such
cosmological questions as the origin of the universe, space and time, planet
formation, “continuous creation,” the birth, life, and death of the stars, the
origin of the galaxies, etc. By the author of the popular Great Ideas of Modern
Mathematics. A gifted popularizer of science, he makes the most difficult
abstractions crystal-clear even to the most non-mathematical reader. Index,
xii -j- 276pp. 5% x 814 T925 Paperbound $2.00

Great Ideas of Modern Mathematics: Their Nature and Use,

Jagjit Singh
Reader with only high school math will understand main mathematical ideas
of modern physics, astronomy, genetics, psychology, evolution, etc., better than
many who use them as tools, but comprehend little of their basic structure.
Author uses his wide knowledge of non-mathematical fields in brilliant exposi¬
tion of differential equations, matrices, group theory, logic, statistics, problems
of mathematical foundations, imaginary numbers, vectors, etc. Original publica¬
tions, appendices, indexes. 65 illustr. 322pp. 534 x 8. T587 Paperbound $2.00

The Mathematics of Great Amateurs, Julian L. Coolidge

Great discoveries made by poets, theologians, philosophers, artists and other
non-mathematicians: Omar Khayyam, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Diirer,
John Napier, Pascal, Diderot, Bolzano, etc. Surprising accounts of what can
result from a non-professional preoccupation with the oldest of sciences. 56
figures, viii -f 21 ipp. 53/^ x 814. S1009 Paperbound $2.00
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Differential Equations,
F. R. Moulton
A detailed, rigorous exposition of all the non-elementary processes of solving
ordinary differential equations. Several chapters devoted to the treatment of
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advanced than problems usually given as illustrations. Includes analytic dif¬
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tions; analytic implicit functions; problems of elliptic motion; sine-amplitude
functions; deviation of formal bodies; Cauchy-Lipschitz process; linear dif¬
ferential equations with periodic coefficients; differential equations in infinitely
many variations; much more. Historical notes. 10 figures. 222 problems. Index.
xv + 395PP- 5% x 8- Paperbound $2.00

Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics,

A. G. Webster
A keystone work in the library of every mature physicist, engineer, researcher.
Valuable sections on elasticity, compression theory, potential theory, theory of
sound, heat conduction, wave propagation, vibration theory. Contents include:
deduction of differential equations, vibrations, normal functions, Fourier’s
series, Cauchy’s method, boundary problems, method of Riemann-Volterra,
spherical, cylindrical, ellipsoidal harmonics, applications, etc. 97 figures, vii
-f- 440pp. 53^ x 8. Paperbound $2.25

The Continuum and Other Types of Serial Order,

E. V. Huntington
This famous book gives a systematic elementary account of the modern theory
of the continuum as a type of serial order. Based on the Cantor-Dedekind
ordinal theory, which requires no technical knowledge of higher mathematics,
it offers an easily followed analysis of ordered classes, discrete and dense series,
continuous series. Cantor’s transfinite numbers. 2nd edition. Index, viii -j-
82pp. 5S4 v 8. Paperbound $1.00

Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite

Numbers, Georg Cantor
These papers founded a new branch of mathematics. The famous articles of
1895-7 are translated, with an 82-page introduction by P. E. B. Jourdain dealing
with Cantor, the background of his discoveries, their results, future possibilities.
Bibliography. Index. Notes, ix 211pp. tj3/s x 8. Paperbound $1.35

Advanced Euclidean Geometry,

R. A. Johnson
For years the standard textbook on advanced Euclidean geometry, requires only
high school geometry and trigonometry. Explores in unusual detail and gives
proofs of hundreds of relatively recent theorems and corollaries, many formerly
available only in widely scattered journals. Covers tangent circles, the theorem
of Miquel, symmedian point, pedal triangles and circles, the Brocard configura¬
tion, and much more. Formerly “Modern Geometry.” Index. 107 diagrams,
xiii 319pp. 534 x 8. Paperbound $1.65

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i ~u 0 3
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DE 3’8(

GAYLORD PRINTED IN U S A.
 HPRYGROUE COLLEGEL IBRhRY
Basic optics and optical instr
535.33 Un3

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535-33
U.S. Bureau of Naval Per¬
Un3
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Basic optics and optical
instruments
ISSUED TO
DATE

A! BINDERY

535.33
Un3
 BASIC OPTICS
AND OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS
PREPARED BY THE BUREAU
OF NAVAL PERSONNEL
This hook provides a thorough coverage of the basic theory of optics and its
applications. Presenting its subject matter with extraordinary clarity, it stresses
theory and application equally, and will serve admirably to supplement a course
in which only one of these factors is emphasized.
The course begins with a discussion of the composition of optical glass and the
manufacture of lenses and prisms for optical instruments. This is followed by a
consideration of the characteristics of light, with special emphasis on wave
lengths, reflection and refraction. Two chapters contain a detailed discussion
of the formation of images by mirrors, lenses and prisms; these explain how
images are formed by thin and thick lenses, how to use the lens formula, and
how to determine the location of an image formed by an optical instrument.
The mechanical construction, maintenance procedures, and machining opera¬
tions of basic optical instruments are explained in detail, and nine chapters on
the function and operation of specific optical instruments— ship telescopes and
spyglasses, boresight telescopes, fixed prism gunsight telescopes, magnetic com¬
passes, azimuth and bearing circles, sextants, stadimeters, telescopic alidades and
binoculars— complete the volume. These final chapters contain detailed instruc¬
tions for disassembling, repairing, reassembling and adjusting the instruments
under consideration.
One of the outstanding features of this manual, aside from its remarkably level¬
headed approach to technical material, is its profusion of illustrative matter.
Nearly 600 charts, diagrams, photographs and drawings of tools and parts of
instruments, cross-sections that reveal inner workings— all of these help to
clarify even further an already clear and well-organized presentation. Although
it was designed for use in U.S. Naval training schools, this book can be used to
great advantage as a basic text in optics in standard technical schools, and it
will be immensely valuable even to the layman who desires a knowledge of the
fundamentals of optics.
Unabridged republication of Opticalman 3 & 2, Navy Training Course NavPers
10205 (1966). 583 figures. Index, v -)- 480pp. 61/>x 9(4- 62291-6 Paperbound

A DOVER EDITION DESIGNED FOR YEARS OF USE!

We have made every effort to make this the best book possible. Our paper is
opaque, with minimal show-through; it will not discolor or become brittle with
age. Pages are sewn in signatures, in the method traditionally used for the best
books, and will not drop out, as often happens with paperbacks held together
with glue. Books open flat for easy reference. The binding will not crack or
split. This is a permanent book.