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ROBIN LAW
 LHI
300^

Ouidah
 Western African Studies

Lineages of State Fragility Between the Sea IS the Lagoon

Rural Civil Society in Guinea-Bissau An Eco-social History
JOSHUA B. FORREST of the Anlo of South-eastern Ghana,
c. 1850 to Recent Times
EMMANUEL AKYEAMPONG
Willing Migrants
Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848-1960
FRANCOIS MANCHUELLE West African Challenge to Empire
Culture & History
in the Volta-Bani Anticolonial War
El Dorado in West Africa
MAHIR SAUL & PATRICK ROYER
The Gold-Mining Frontier,
African Labor & Colonial Capitalism
in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 ‘Civil Disorder is the Disease of Ibadan ’
RAYMOND E. DUMETT Chieftaincy & Civic Culture in a Yoruba City
RUTH WATSON

Nkrumah IS the Chiefs

The Politics of Chieftaincy in Ghana, 1951-60 Smugglers, Secessionists IS Loyal Citizens
RICHARD RATHBONE on the Ghana-Togo Frontier
The Lie of the Borderlands since 1914
Ghanaian Popular Fiction PAUL NUGENT

‘Thrilling Discoveries in Conjugal Life’

& Other Tales Eurafricans in Western Africa
STEPHANIE NEWELL Commerce, Social Status, Gender
& Religious Observance
from the 16th to the 18th Century
Paths of Accommodation
Muslim Societies & French Colonial Authorities GEORGE E. BROOKS
in Senegal & Mauritania
1880-1920 Fighting the Slave Trade
DAVID ROBINSON West African Strategies
SYLVIANE A. DIOUF (ED.)
Slavery IS Reform in West Africa
Toward Emancipation in Nineteenth ‘Kola is God’s Gift'*
Century Senegal & the Gold Coast Agricultural Production, Export Initiatives
TREVOR R. GETZ & the Kola Industry in Asante & the Gold Coast
c.1820-1950
Ouidah EDMUND ABAKA
The Social History of a West African
Slaving ‘Port’ Themes in West Africa's History*
1727-1892
EMMANUEL AKYEAMPONG (ED.)
ROBIN LAW

* forthcoming
 Ouidah

The Social History

of a West African Slaving ‘Port’
1727-1892

ROBIN LAW
Professor of African History
University of Stirling

Ohio University Press

ATHENS

fames Currey
OXFORD
 James Currey
73 Botley Road
Oxford 0X2 OBS

Ohio University Press

Scott Quadrangle
Athens, Ohio 45701

Copyright © Robin Law 2004

First published 2004
1 2 3 4 5 08 07 06 05 04

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Law, Robin
Ouidah : the social history of a West African slaving
‘port’, 1727-1892. - (West African studies)
1. Slave trade - Africa, West - History - 18th century
2. Slave trade - Africa, West - History - 19th century
3. Ouidah (Benin) - History - 18th century 4. Ouidah (Benin)
- History - 19th century
I. Title
966.8’3

ISBN 0-85255-498-2 (James Currey cloth)

ISBN 0-85255-497-4 (James Currey paper)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

available on request

ISBN 0-8214-1571-9 (Ohio University Press cloth)

ISBN 0-8214-1572-7 (Ohio University Press paper)

Typeset in 10'A/IVA pt Monotype Ehrhardt

by Long House Publishing Services, Cumbria, UK
Printed in Great Britain
by Woolnough, Irthlingborough
 To the memory of
the more than one million enslaved Africans
who passed through Ouidah
on their way to slavery in the Americas
or death in the Middle Passage
 '

\
 Contents

List of Maps S' Tables viii

Acknowledgements ix
Abbreviations xi

Introduction 1

1
Origins
Ouidah before the Dahomian conquest 18

2
The Dahomian Conquest of Ouidah 50

3
Dahomian Ouidah 71

4
The Operation of the Atlantic Slave Trade 123

5
De Souza’s Ouidah
The era of the illegal slave trade
1815-39 155

6
The Era of Transition
From slaves to palm oil
1840-57 189

7
Dissension & Decline
Ouidah under King Glele
1858-77 231

Vll
 Contents

8
From Dahomian to French Rule
1878-92 262

Sources & Bibliography 281

Index 298

List ofMaps & Tables

Maps
1 The Republic of Benin xii
2 Ouidah, showing the quarters and major historical sites 11
3 Dahomey and its immediate neighbours 51
4 Ouidah in 1776 72
5 The ‘ports’ of the slave trade 124

Tables
3.1 Estimated population of Ouidah, 1772-1890 74
4.1 Prices of (adult male) slaves at Ouidah, 1725-93 130
5.1 Slave prices at Ouidah in the illegal trade, 1834-64 159
6.1 Price of palm oil at Ouidah, 1844-78 208
8.1 Population figures for southern Benin towns, 1937-72 278

vm
 Acknowledgements

Illustrations on chapter openings: based on an applique cloth

representing the history of Ouidah,
Historical Museum at Ouidah

The project of writing a history of Ouidah was initially conceived in 1991 and took
on more concrete shape in a visit to the Republic of Benin in January 1992. That it
has finally come to fruition is the result of generous assistance received from numer¬
ous institutions and individuals, for which acknowledgement is gratefully made.
Among the many institutions that have contributed to the realization of the
project, thanks are due first to the University of Stirling, not only for maintaining
me in gainful employment, but more particularly for the grant of sabbatical leave
in the autumn semester of 2001, when much of the final work of writing was done.
During the academic session 2000/01 I held a visiting position at the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, when much of my time was likewise devoted to this work;
my thanks to the Lady Davis Fellowship Trust and the Harry S. Truman Research
Institute of the Hebrew University for their support in this period. Other institu¬
tions that in various ways have supported and assisted the research, especially by
the promotion of collaborative networks for the exchange of ideas and information,
from which it has benefited enormously, are the Nigerian Hinterland Project at
York University, Toronto (and, through its funding of this project, the Social
Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada), and the UNESCO Slave
Route Project.
Research was undertaken in several archives and libraries, to whose staff grateful
thanks are recorded: notably the libraries of the University of Stirling and the School
of Oriental and African Studies, London; the Public Record Office, London; the
Archives Nationales, Section d’Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence; the Centre de Docu¬
mentation de la Faculte des Arts et Sciences Humaines of the Universite Nationale
du Benin, Abomey-Calavi, and the Archives Nationales, Porto-Novo, in Benin.
Although the research has been mainly based on work in archives overseas, it also
critically depended on several visits to Benin, not only to work in local archives but
also to collect oral information in Ouidah and more generally for discussions with
local scholars; my gratitude is due therefore to those institutions that gave financial
support for some of these visits, notably the Faculty of Arts and the Department of

IX
 Acknowledgements

History of the University of Stirling, for visits in 1992,1996 and 2001, and UNESCO,
for a visit in 1994.
The individuals who have contributed to this work are too numerous for all to
be acknowledged here by name, but there are some to whom my debts are so great
as to require explicit mention. First, I must make clear my indebtedness to earlier
researchers in the field, upon whose work I have depended even when my own
conclusions have sometimes differed: especially important has been the work of
Ouidah’s leading local historian, Casimir Agbo, while among modern academic
scholars, particular acknowledgement is due to Ade Akinjogbin, Edna Bay, Patrick
Manning, John Reid, David Ross, Elisee Soumonni and Jerry Michael Turner. For
their generosity in supplying ideas, material and information, special mention
should be made of Edna Bay, Suzanne Preston Blier, Alberto da Costa e Silva,
Leopold David-Gnahoui, Felix Iroko, Adam Jones, Kristin Mann and Elisee
Soumonni; for assistance in tracking down and verifying particular references, I
thank Olatunji Ojo and Silke Strickrodt; and for reading and commenting on a
preliminary draft of this work, Ella Keren, Paul Lovejoy, Martin Lynn and David
Richardson. For her assistance as guide and interpreter in several visits to Ouidah,
as well as for sharing her profound local knowledge, my thanks to Martine de
Souza. For their generous hospitality and other practical assistance in Benin, I am
deeply grateful to Elisee and Maria Soumonni and Obare and Maryamou Bagodo.
This book is not offered with any pretensions to represent the final word on the
history of Ouidah. There is space, and indeed need, for much further work,
especially (although certainly not exclusively) in areas and periods where my own
firsthand research has been restricted, including French archival sources for the
nineteenth century, Portuguese and Brazilian sources more generally and the
period of Ouidah’s transition from Dahomian to French rule in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. I hope that those who work on Ouidah in future will
enjoy the experience, and especially working in the town itself, as much as myself.

x
 Abbreviations

Africa (London) Africa, Journal of the International African Institute

Africa (Rome) Africa, Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell’Istituto
Italo-Africano
ANB Archives Nationales du Benin, Porto-Novo
ANF Archives Nationales de la France, Aix-en-Provence
BIFAN Bulletin de Vlnstitut Fran fats/ Fondamental d’Afrique Noire
CEA Cahiers d ’Etudes Africaines
CJAS Canadian Journal of African Studies
ED Etudes Dahomeennes
GLL Le Grand Livre Lolame (Aneho, Togo)
HA History in Africa
IJAHS International Journal ofAfrican Historical Studies
JAH Journal of African History
PP Parliamentary Papers, United Kingdom
JHSN Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria
PRO Public Record Office, London
RC Revue Coloniale
RGCG Royal Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Advertiser
RMC Revue Maritime et Coloniale
S&A Slavery and Abolition
UGDO Union Generate pour le Developpement de Ouidah
UNB Universite Nationale du Benin
WMMS Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society Archives, London
WMQ William and Mary Quarterly

xi
Map 1 The Republic of Benin
 Introduction

Ouidah is situated in the coastal area (in the Department of Atlantique) of the
modern Republic of Benin (formerly the French colony of Dahomey) in West
Africa.1 In origin, it is an indigenous African town, which had existed long before
the French colonial occupation in 1892. In the pre-colonial period, it had belonged
successively to two African states, first the kingdom of Hueda (whence the name
‘Ouidah’) and from 1727 that of Dahomey, from which the French colony took its
name;2 and the first language of its inhabitants today remains Fon, the language of
Dahomey, with French inherited from the colonial period as the superimposed
official language of administration and education. Today, Ouidah has a popula¬
tion of around 25,000, which by modern standards is quite modest, and it is
dwarfed by the two leading cities of southern Benin: the official capital Porto-
Novo, 60 km to the east (with a population probably around 200,000), and the
commercial centre and international port of Cotonou, 40 km to the east (perhaps
approaching 1,000,000).
In the precolonial period, however, Ouidah was the principal commercial centre
in the region and the second town of the Dahomey kingdom, exceeded in size only
by the capital Abomey, 100 km inland. In particular, it served as a major outlet for
the export of slaves for the trans-Atlantic trade. The section of the African coast
on which Ouidah is situated, in geographical terms the Bight (or Gulf) of Benin,
was known to Europeans between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries as the
‘Slave Coast’, from its prominence as a source of supply for the Atlantic slave
trade; and within this region Ouidah was by far the most important point of
embarkation for slaves, far outshadowing its nearest rival, Lagos, 150 km to the
east (in modern Nigeria). Ouidah was a leading slaving port for almost two

1 The French colony became the independent Republic of Dahomey in 1960, the change of name to Benin
occurring in 1975. The Republic of Benin should be distinguished from the kingdom of Benin, situated in
what is today Nigeria.
2 In the present work, to avoid confusion, the name Dahomey is used only with reference to the pre-colonial
kingdom, the modern territory being referred to as Benin.

1
 Introduction

centuries, from the 1670s to the 1860s. During this period, the Bight of Benin is
thought to have accounted for around 22 per cent of all slaves exported to the
Americas, and Ouidah for around 51 per cent of exports from the Bight.3 Given the
current consensual estimate of between 10 and 11 million slaves exported from
Africa in this period, this suggests that Ouidah supplied well over a million slaves,
making it the second most important point of embarkation of slaves in the whole of
Africa (behind only Luanda, in Angola).4
This prominence of Ouidah in the Atlantic slave trade is reflected in the
occurrence of versions of its name in various contexts in the African diaspora in the
Americas. For example, there is a village called ‘Widah’ in Jamaica, originally a
sugar plantation, presumably so named through being settled with slaves imported
from Ouidah. In Haiti, one of the principal deities of the Afro-American vaudou
religion, the goddess Ezili, is distinguished in one of her forms as Ezili-Freda-
Dahomi, ‘Ezili [of] Ouidah [in] Dahomey’;5 although one modern account has
argued that Ezili is a purely Haitian creation, without African antecedents, there is
in fact in Ouidah to the present day a shrine of Azili (sic), a female river spirit, who
is evidently the prototype of the Haitian goddess.6 The name of the town was also
commemorated in that of the ship of the pirate Sam Bellamy, the Whydah, wrecked
off Cape Cod in what is now the USA in 1717, but located and excavated by marine
archaeologists, to become the subject of a museum exhibition in the 1990s, this ship
having been originally, prior to its capture and appropriation by pirates, engaged in
the slave trade and named after the West African town.7 Ouidah’s prominence in
European commerce is also reflected in the application of the name Whidah-bird to
a genus of the weaver-bird that is in fact common throughout tropical Africa but
became familiar to the wider world through Ouidah; in English usage, the name
was commonly corrupted into ‘widow-bird’ (whence, rather than directiy from the
name Ouidah, its zoological name, Vidua), under which form it was celebrated in a
poem by Shelley.
In more recent times, Ouidah has figured in a historical novel dealing with the
slave trade, by Bruce Chatwin, based on the career of the Brazilian slave-trader
Francisco Felix de Souza, who settled permanently in the town in the 1820s.8 In
the 1990s a systematic attempt was made to exploit Ouidah’s historical role in the
Atlantic slave trade for its promotion as a centre of ‘cultural tourism’, with the
development of monuments to the slave trade and its victims along the road from
the town to the beach where slaves were embarked, now designated ‘the slaves’

3 David Eltis & David Richardson, ‘West Africa and the transatlantic slave trade: new evidence of long-run
trends’, S&A, 18 (1997), 16-35; David Eltis et al., ‘Slave-trading ports: towards an Atlantic-wide
perspective’, in Robin Law & Silke Strickrodt (eds), Ports of the Slave Trade (Stirling, 1999), 12-34.
These figures relate to the period 1650—1870. Perhaps a further 1 million slaves were exported before 1650;
the Bight of Benin would have contributed a much smaller proportion of this earlier trade, and Ouidah
very little.
s Alfred Metraux, Le Vaudou haitien (Paris, 1958), 22.
6 Joan Dayan, Haiti, History and the Gods (Berkeley, 1998), 58; for Azili in Ouidah, see Chapter 3.
7 Barry Clifford, Expedition Whydah (New York, 1999).
Bruce Chatwin, The Viceroy of Ouidah (London, 1980). For de Souza, see below, Chapters 5—6.

2
 Introduction

route [la route des esclaves]’.9 This also led to the town featuring in television
programmes dealing with the slave trade, including a BBC ‘Timewatch’ pro¬
gramme in 1997 and an episode of the African travels of Henry Louis Gates, Jr, in
1999.10 What has hitherto remained lacking, however, is any study based on detailed
research of the town’s history in general, or of its role in the Atlantic slave trade in
particular: a deficiency which this volume seeks to redress.

Situating Ouidah's history

The present work represents, at one level, a continuation of my earlier research on

the history of the Slave Coast, and in particular its role as a source of supply for the
Atlantic slave trade.11 A central concern of the present book, as of this earlier work,
remains the organization of the African end of the slave trade, and the impact of
participation in this trade on the historical development of the African societies
involved. The present work, however, is informed by a significantly different
perspective. My earlier analysis was very much written from the viewpoint of the
Dahomian monarchy, in effect of the inland capital city of Abomey; and this focus
is shared by other earlier work on the history of Dahomey, including the major
published studies by Ade Akinjogbin (1967) and Edna Bay (1998), and the
unpublished doctoral theses of David Ross (1967) and John Reid (1986).12 This
more recent research, on the other hand, in focusing on the coastal commercial
centre of Ouidah, represents, if not quite a view from below, nevertheless a
perspective from what was, in political terms, the periphery rather than the centre.
It therefore foregrounds rather different aspects of the operation of the slave trade,
including especially the evolution of the merchant community in Ouidah, and in
particular the growth of a group of private traders that was distinct from the
official political establishment, and whose relations with the Dahomian monarchy
grew' increasingly problematic over time.13
9 For slave trade commemoration in Ouidah, see Thereza A. Singleton, ‘The slave trade remembered on the
former Gold and Slave Coasts’, S&A, 20 (1999), 150-69; Roberta Cafuri, ‘Silenzi della memoria: la tratta
degli schiavi’, Africa (Rome), 55/2 (2000), 244-60; Robin Law, ‘Memory, oblivion and return in
commemoration of the Atlantic slave trade in Ouidah’, Republic of Benin, in Ralph Austen (ed.), The
Atlantic Slave Trade in African and Diaspora Memory (forthcoming, Durham, N.C.). See also the official
Benin government publication, Noureini Tidjani-Serpos & Patrick Ecoutin, Ouidah, La Route des esclaves
(English version, Ouidah, The Slave Route) (Cotonou, n.d.); and two local tourist guide-books: Martine de
Souza & Mere Jah Evejah, Bienvenue a Ouidah au Benin/ Welcome to Ouidah in Benin (Ouidah, [1998]);
Martine de Souza, Regard sur Ouidah/A Bit of History (Ouidah, 2000).
10 ‘The African Trade’, BBC 2, 1998; ‘The Slave Kingdoms’, episode in the series ‘Into Africa with Henry
Louis Gates, Jr’, BBC 2, 1999.
11 Esp. Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 1550-1750 (Oxford, 1991).
'2 I. A. Akinjogbin, Dahomey and its Neighbours 1708-1818 (Cambridge, 1967); Edna G. Bay, Wives of the
Leopard: Gender, Politics and Culture in the Kingdom of Dahomey (Charlottesville, 1998); David A. Ross,
‘The autonomous kingdom of Dahomey 1818-1894’ (PhD thesis, University of London, 1967); John Reid,
‘Warrior aristocrats in crisis: the political effects of the transition from the slave trade to palm oil commerce
in the nineteenth-century kingdom of Dahomey’ (PhD thesis, University of Stirling, 1986).
13 For a preliminary treatment, see Robin Law, ‘The origins and evolution of the merchant community in
Ouidah’, in Law & Strickrodt, Ports of the Slave Trade, 55-70.

3
 Introduction

African coastal entrepots such as Ouidah played a critical role in the operation of
the Atlantic slave trade, by helping to coordinate exchanges between hinterland
suppliers and European ships, thereby accelerating their turn-round, and also by
supplying them with provisions to feed the slaves on their voyage.14 In addition to
extending and deepening understanding of the working of the slave trade, a study
of Ouidah also represents a contribution to a second area of growing interest
recently within African historical studies, urban history. Studies of urban history in
Africa have tended to concentrate on the growth of towns during the colonial and
post-colonial periods;15 but in West Africa especially, substantial towns existed
already in the pre-colonial period, and Ouidah offers an exceptionally well-
documented case-study of this earlier tradition of urbanism.16 Within southern
Benin, Ouidah provides the premier example of the ‘second generation’ of pre¬
colonial towns, which served as centres for European maritime trade: what have
been termed, although somewhat infelicitously, ‘fort towns [villes-forts\\ in
distinction from the ‘first generation’ of ‘palace-cities [cites-palais]\ which served
as capitals of indigenous African states, such as Abomey.17
The study of African coastal communities such as Ouidah also has a relevance
for the currently fashionable project of ‘Atlantic history’, i.e. the attempt to treat
the Atlantic as a historical unit, stressing interactions among the various states and
communities that participated in the construction and operation of the trans-
Atlantic trading system.18 Although proponents of Atlantic history have tended to
concentrate on links between Europe and the Americas, it needs to be recognized
that African societies were also active participants in the making of the Atlantic
world.19 If there was an ‘Atlantic community’, the African coastal towns which
served as embarkation points for the trans-Atlantic slave trade were part of it, their
commercial and ruling elites being involved in political, social and cultural
networks, as well as purely business linkages, which spanned the ocean.20 The study
of such African towns, moreover, adds an important comparative dimension to our

14 A.G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 106-7.

15 J.D.Y. Peel, ‘Urbanization and urban history in West Africa’, JAH, 21 (1980), 269-77.
16 See David M. Anderson & Richard Rathbone (eds), Africa's Urban Past (Oxford, 2000). This includes a
preliminary treatment of the case of Ouidah: Robin Law, ‘Ouidah: a pre-colonial urban centre in coastal
West Africa, 1727-1892’, 85-97.
17 For this classification, see Alfred Comlan Mondjannagni, Campagnes et villes au sud de la Republique
Populaire du Benin (Paris, 1977), 295-341; the ‘third generation’ being towns that served as administrative
or commercial centres within the colonial system, and the ‘fourth generation’ the unique case of Cotonou
as the modern economic and de facto political capital of Benin. These ‘generations’, it should be stressed,
are not to be understood necessarily as distinguishing among different groups of towns, since they may
represent successive periods in the history of a single town: for example, Ouidah itself originated as a town
of the ‘second generation’ but then developed as a colonial town of the ‘third generation’. The term ‘villes-
forts seems unfortunate since, as Mondjannagni acknowledges (309—10), the European commercial
establishments in them were not necessarily (and for example in Ouidah were not originally) fortified.
18 E.g. Bernard Bailyn, ‘The idea of Atlantic history’, Itinerario, 20/1 (1996), 38-44.
'1 See John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1680 (Cambridge, 1992).
20 Robin Law & Kristin Mann, ‘West Africa in the Atlantic community: the case of the Slave Coast’, WMQ, '
56/2 (1999), 307-34; also Robin Law, ‘The port of Ouidah in the Atlantic community’, in Horst
Pietschmann (ed.), Atlantic History: History of the Atlantic System 1580—1830 (Gottingen, 2002), 349—64.

4
 Introduction \

understanding of the growth and functioning of port cities in the Atlantic world in
the era ot the slave trade, since previous studies of Atlantic port towns in this
period have concentrated on ports in the Americas.21 But such American ports
were European colonial creations, which functioned as enclaves or centres of
European power, a model that is not applicable to Atlantic ports in Africa, which
remained under indigenous sovereignty (apart from the exceptional case of Luanda
in Angola, which uniquely had already become a Portuguese colony in the
sixteenth century).
There have been a number of studies of particular West African coastal ‘port’
communities in the pre-colonial period, which have served to delineate a number of
general issues in their history: the organization of overseas commerce, the
relationships between ports and their hinterlands, the effects of their involvement
in Atlantic commerce on their political and social structures and demographic
growth, and the problems posed for them by the transition from the slave trade to
exports of agricultural produce such as palm oil in the nineteenth century.22 Much
of this work, however, has dealt with the general history of the states or
communities in which ports were situated, rather than with the specific history of
the port towns themselves. Examples are, within the Slave Coast, studies of two
coastal communities west of Ouidah, the Gen kingdom (which included the port of
Little Popo, modern Aneho) by Nicoue Gayibor, and the Anlo confederacy
(including the port of Keta) by Sandra Greene.23 Those studies which have focused
on the history of coastal towns specifically have generally related to communities
which were ‘city-states’, in the sense of being independent of outside political
authority: examples being, on the eastern Slave Coast, the study of Badagry by
Caroline Sorensen-Gilmour; and beyond the Slave Coast, in the Bight of Biafra to
the east, those of Bonny by Susan Hargreaves, of New Calabar by Waibinte
Wariboko, Old Calabar by John Latham, and Douala by Ralph Austen and
Jonathan Derrick.24 In consequence, these have a rather different and more diffuse
focus than the present work, which seeks to highlight especially the development
and functioning of Ouidah as an urban community. The work which comes closest
to my own concerns among earlier studies of West African port communities is
Harvey Feinberg’s study of Elmina, on the Gold Coast (modern Ghana), to the
west.25 But Elmina was a very different sort of place from Ouidah, not only in being

21 E.g. Franklin W. Knight & Peggy K. Liss (eds), Atlantic Port Cities (Princeton, 1991).
22 See the studies collected in Law & Strickrodt, Ports of the Slave Trade.
23 Nicoue L. Gayibor, Le Genyi (Lome, 1990); Sandra E. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity and Social Change on the
Upper Slave Coast: A History of the Anlo-Ewe (London, 1996). See also Silke Strickrodt, ‘Afro-European
trade relations on the western Slave Coast, 16th to 19th centuries’ (PhD thesis, University of Stirling, 2003).
24 Caroline Sorensen-Gilmour, ‘Badagry 1784-1863’ (PhD thesis, University of Stirling, 1995); Susan M.
Hargreaves, ‘The political economy of nineteenth-century Bonny’ (PhD thesis, University of Birmingham,
1987); W.E. Wariboko, ‘New Calabar and the forces of change, c. 1850-1945’ (PhD thesis, University of
Birmingham, 1991); A.J.H. Latham, Old Calabar 1600-1891 (Oxford, 1973); Ralph A. Austen & Jonathan
Derrick, Middlemen of the Cameroons Rivers: The Duala and their Hinterland, c. 1600-c. 1960 (Cambridge,
1999).
25 Harvey Feinberg, Africans and Europeans in West Africa: Elminans and Dutchmen on the Gold Coast during
the Eighteenth Century (Philadelphia, 1989).

5
 Introduction

a ‘city-state’, but also in the preponderant influence exercised there by a European

power, in the form of the Dutch West India Company, so that its history, in
relation to that of Ouidah, is illuminating as much by way of contrasts as of
similarities.
The case of Ouidah may also serve to refine or qualify some of the conventional
conceptual categories that have been applied to West African ‘port’ communities.
In the most general terms, Ouidah can be interpreted as a ‘middleman’ community:
this term being understood, as Austen and Derrick propose for the case of Douala,
not only in relation to the exchange of commodities, but also with reference to the
role of such coastal communities as intermediaries in the transmission of cultural
influences, and in the longer term in mediating the accommodation of African
societies to European economic and political dominance.26 However, the more
specific categories that have been developed in order to elucidate the interstitial
position of African coastal ‘middleman’ communities seem more problematic. The
concept of an ‘enclave-entrepot’, applied to Elmina by Feinberg, for example, does
not fit the case of Ouidah, where European power was much more limited, and
which in this was a more typical case.27 That of a neutral ‘port of trade’,
propounded by economic anthropologists of the ‘substantivist’ school, such as Karl
Polanyi, although elaborated with reference to the specific case of Ouidah, is not in
fact sustained by the detailed empirical evidence relating to the operation of the
Atlantic trade there.28
Chronologically, this study concentrates on the period of Dahomian rule over
Ouidah, after 1727, although an introductory chapter deals with the town’s origins,
including its earlier history under the Hueda kingdom. The justification for this
emphasis relates basically to the nature of the available source material, which is
much more abundant for the Dahomian period. This, however, also reflects the fact
that Ouidah became much more important under Dahomian rule, not only as a
commercial centre, but also now as a centre of provincial administration. The study
effectively concludes with the French occupation in 1892, although with a brief
epilogue treating the fate of the town under colonial rule. This has been done with
some hesitation, since in general there is a strong case for downplaying the
conventional perception of the establishment of colonial rule as a watershed, and
for tracing continuities and transformations in the ‘middleman’ role into the
colonial period, as was illuminatingly done by Austen and Derrick for the case of
Douala.29 However, whereas in the cases of ports that remained prominent into the
colonial period - such as Accra in Ghana, and Lagos in Nigeria, as well as Douala
in Cameroun - the reality of continuity is transparent, this is less true of Ouidah,

“ Austen & Derrick, Middlemen, 1-4.

27 Feinberg, Africans and Europeans, 1-6, 155-8.
Rosemary Arnold, ‘A port of trade: Whydah on the Guinea Coast’, in Karl Polanyi et al. (eds), Trade and
Market in the Early Empires (New York, 1957), 154-76; Karl Polanyi, Dahomey and the Slave Trade (Seattle
1966), 96-139.
See also the emphasis on pre-colonial antecedents by John Parker, Making the Town: Ga State and Society
in Early Colonial Accra (Oxford, 2000), xviii-xix; although the study itself focuses on the period of colonial
rule.

6
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Julra Patteen, occupied by Tanteea Topee, 557
Jumma Musjid at Delhi, description, 65
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Jung Bahadoor, character and proceedings, 169, 423, 519
Junks, destruction of. [China.]

Kaiser Bagh, palace and garden at Lucknow, 421

Kantzow, Lieutenant de, gallantry at Minpooree, 113
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Kirk, Dr, killed at Gwalior, 189
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——, position and description of, 193
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Lucknow, situation and description, 84
——, first symptoms of mutiny, 89, 96
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M’Causland, Colonel, Bareilly rebels defeated by, 406

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Military stations and divisions in India, 208, 209, 293
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Missionaries, controversy with, at Hyderabad, 530
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Mundoree, action at, 341
Munro, Sir T., opinions on press of India, 215
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Nabah, Rajah of, rewarded for fidelity, 549

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Naval Brigade, arrived at Benares, 340
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—— [Peel; Sotheby.]
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Newspaper correspondents, 400
——. [Press.]
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Parkes, Mr. [China.]
Parliament, discussions on the mutiny, &c., 218, 221, 448
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Persia, disputes concerning Herat, &c., 578
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——, operations at Mohamrah and Ahwaz, 582
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Phillour, precautions against mutiny, 197
Platt, Colonel, killed at Mhow, 186
Plowden, Mr, his position at Nagpoor, 177
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Plunder, Sir Colin Campbell’s order concerning, 423
Polehampton, Rev. Mr, killed at Lucknow, 329
Police system of India, 200, 480
Poonah, precautions against rebellion, 290
Powell, Colonel, killed at Kudjna, 364
Presidencies, area and population, 31
Press of India, 46, 205, 215, 218, 400
——, liberty restricted, 215
——. [Newspapers.]
Proclamations, Viscount Canning’s, 450, 624
——, Sir Colin Campbell’s, 610
——, Mr Montgomery’s, 610
——, Queen Victoria’s, 611, 623
——. [Campbell; Canning; Ellenborough; &c.]
Prophecies and mysteries, native, 485, 531
Punjaub, history and description, 191, 192
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——. [Lahore; Lawrence; Moultan; Nicholson; Peshawur; Sealkote;
Sikhs; &c.]
Putialah, Rajah of, rewarded for fidelity, 549
Putiatine, Admiral Count. [China; Japan.]

Queen of Oude. [Begum; Oude.]

Queen Victoria’s proclamation, 609-612, 623

Raikes, Mr, on causes of mutiny, 606

Railways of India, lengths, &c., 119, 157, 224, 477
Raines, Major, rebels defeated at Rowah, 395
Rajahs, honours for fidelity of, 549
Rajpootana, situation and description, 189
——. [Napier; Nuseerabad; Roberts; Tanteea Topee; &c.]
Ramsay, Capt. (Major), operations near Nynee Tal, 115, 357
Ranee of Jhansi, killed at Gwalior, 511
——. [Calpee; Gwalior; Jhansi; Tanteea Topee.]
Rattray, Captain, services of Sikh battalion, 275, &c.
Rebels, discussions on punishment of, 455
Reed, Mr, American plenipotentiary. [China.]
——, Major-gen., brief services against rebels, 235, 242
——, resigned command at Delhi, 243
Rees, Mr, on causes of the mutiny, 605
Regiments. [Army; Stations; &c.]
Regulation districts, 15
Reid, Major, gallant achievements outside Delhi— 241, 297, &c.
Relief Fund, Indian Mutiny, 623
Religions of India, discussions concerning, 607
——, orders for respecting, 41
Renaud, Major, killed at Cawnpore, 254
Rennie, Capt., defeat of Persians at Ahwaz by. [Persia.]
Residency at Lucknow. [Inglis; Lawrence; Lucknow; &c.]
Revolt. [Barrackpore; Cartridge; Meerut; &c.]
Rewah, gallantly held by Osborne, 180, 345, &c.
Rhodamow Fort, disaster at, 473
Roberts, General, operations against Tanteea Topee, 555, 557, &c.
Rohilcund, position and description, 170
——, operations in, 114, 467, 495, 496, 610
——, rebel leaders in, 467
Rose, Lieutenant, killed at Gwalior, 513
——, Sir Hugh, operations at Mudenpore, 438
—— —— —— at Jhansi, 478
—— —— —— at Koonch, 505
—— —— —— at Gwalior, 510, 516
—— —— ——, address to his army, 516
Rowcroft, Brigadier, operations against rebels, 470, 610
Russell, Mr W. H., graphic descriptions by, 400, 414, &c.

Salar Jung, prime-minister to Nizam, 560

Salkeld, Lieutenant, heroism at Delhi, 315
Satara, Mahratta proceedings at, 290, 480
Saugor, fight between native troops at, 281
—— and Nerbudda territories, 178, 345, 553
Scindia, history and family, 182
——, offered aid to British, 110
——, difficulties with mutineers, 351, 507
——, expulsion from Gwalior, 508
——, reinstatement at Gwalior, 514
Sealkote, mutiny at, 202, 203
—— mutineers. [Nicholson.]
Seaton, Brigadier, services against rebels, 382, 475, &c.
Secrole, noticed, 105
Secunder Bagh, palace and garden at Lucknow, 365
Secunderabad, Rohillas defeated at, 291
Seetapoor, mutiny at, 168
——, operations commence from, 610
Seetabuldee, fort of Nagpoor, 177
Sepoys. [Army; Regiments; Troops.]
Seymour, Admiral Sir Michael [China.]
Shahjehan, Mogul emperor, 62
Shahjehanpore, mutiny and massacre at, 171
——, military operations, 495, 496, &c.
Shah Nujeef at Lucknow, 365
——, Peel’s services at, 366
Shang-hae. [China.]
Showers, Brigadier, operations against Delhi, 297
Sikhs, origin and description, 192
——, fidelity during mutiny, 156, 275, 344
Simpson, Sergeant, gallantry at Rhodamow, 473
Sinde, details concerning, 205-207
Sirmoor battalion of Goorkhas, fidelity of, 529
Smith, Brigadier, operations at Gwalior, &c., 511, &c.
Soldiers, English in India. [Army; &c.]
Sonthal Pergunnahs, mutiny at, 151
Soorut Singh of Benares, services to the English, 156
Soraon Field-force, services, 545
Sotheby’s Naval Brigade, services of, 402
Spencer, Major, killed at Meean Meer, 287
Spottiswoode, Captain, killed at Nuseerabad, 183
Spring, Captain, killed at Jelum, 202
Stalker, Major-general. [Persia.]
Stanley, Lord, India Bill and Council of India, 570
Steuart, Brigadier, operations in Deccan, 385
Stevens, Captain, killed at Chinhut, 164
Straubenzee, General. [China.]
Stuart, Brigadier, at Mundisore and Chendaree, 385, 439
Sultanpore, actions by Franks and Hope Grant, 402, 610
Sunstroke, fatal effects of, 496, &c.

Tanteea Topee, manœuvres and marches of, 478, 508, 555, 558, 611
——. [Michel; Napier; Roberts; &c.]
Tayler, Mr, proceedings at Patna, 470, 476
——, removed from office, 476
Telegrams. [Electric telegraph.]
Tien-Sing. [China.]
Tola Narainpore, rebels defeated by Eyre at, 272
Thalookdars and Thalookdaree, 360, 525
Thugs and Thuggee, 11
Travelling in India, 18, 20
——. [Marching; Railways; &c.]
Troops, number, clothing, &c., 25, 26, 29, 224, 250, 302, 535, 609
——, disarming, 149, 150, 194, 198, &c.
——, marching and transport of, 29, 222, 501, 611
——. [Army; &c.]
Tucker, Mr, killed at Futtehpoor, 172
Twigs, mystery of, in Gujerat, 531

Umballa, occurrences at, 118, 231

——, effects of cholera at, 201
Umritsir, position and description, 195

Vellore, revolt in, a premonitory symptom, 33

Venables, Mr, success against rebels, 278, 341
—— ——, death, and honourable testimonial, 519
Victoria Cross, bestowal for valour, 315, 464, 550
Vocabulary of Indian terms, 13
Volunteer cavalry of Oude, 526

Wake, Mr, heroic defence of house at Arrah, 268

Wallee Dad Khan, rebel leader near Meerut, 174
Walpole, General, disaster at Rhodamow, 473
——, victory at Sirsa, 473
Waterfield, Major, killed near Ferozabad, 500
Wheler, Colonel, and the religion of the sepoys, 101
Wheeler, Sir Hugh, defensive operations, sufferings, and death.
[Cawnpore; Nena Sahib.]
——, Miss, heroic conduct of, 139
Willoughby, Lieutenant, Delhi magazine exploded by, 71
Whitlock, General, operations in Bundelcund, 479
——, capture of treasure at Kirwee, 552
Windham, General, disaster at Cawnpore, 376
Wilson, Sir Archdale, Meerut column headed by, 232
—— —— ——, victories of Ghazeeoodeen and Hindoun, 232
Wilson, Sir Archdale, at siege of Delhi, 243, 245, 298, 306, 311
——, honoured and rewarded, 314
——, commanded cavalry in Oude, 409
Wingfield, Mr, commissioner at Goruckpore, 487

Yeh Mingchin, Chinese viceroy. [China.]

Yule, Colonel, killed outside Delhi, 238
 Edinburgh:
Printed by W. and R. Chambers.
 TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
1. Corrected for to four on p. 96.
2. Corrected withinside to within on p. 314.
3. Silently corrected typographical errors.
4. Retained anachronistic and non-standard
spellings as printed.
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