Part2: Mitosis

Made by/ Omar Okasha Mohamed

School/ Asyut STEM School S’24

Omar Okasha 01143222814 9/25/2022

 2

Part 2: Mitosis and the cell cycle:

1. Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells.
2. The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle.
3. The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system (G0 phase) 9/25/2022
 The ability of organisms to reproduce best distinguishes living things from
nonliving matter.
 The German physician “Rudolf Virchow” said that “Every cell from a cell”.
 The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or CELL DIVISION.
 Cell division plays several important roles in life. (Prevents the extinction of
most prokaryotes and many unicellular eukaryotes by reproduction)(fig.a)
 Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for:
 Development from a fertilized cell. (zygote) (fig.b)
 Growth. (Division of cells make the body grow)
 Repair. (while accidents or wounds) (fig.c)

 Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle, the life of a cell from
formation to its own division.
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 100 µm 200 µm 20 µm

(a) Reproduction (b) Growth and (c) Tissue renewal

development

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 (Section.1)

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NOTE:
 Most cell division results in
daughter cells with identical
genetic information (DNA) to
the parent cell.
 A special type of division
produces nonidentical daughter
cells (gametes (meiosis), or
sperm and egg cells)
 The most remarkable about cell
division is that the DNA is
replicated and passed from one
generation to the next.
Cell division

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 All the DNA in a cell constitutes the
cell’s genome.
 A genome can consist of a single
DNA molecule (common in
prokaryotic cells) or a number of
DNA molecules (common in
eukaryotic cells).
 Before the cell division, the DNA
must be replicated and distributed
over the daughter cells that ends
with a complete genome.
 DNA molecules in a cell are
packaged into chromosomes.
Chromosomes
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 The DNA molecule carries several hundred to a few thousand genes.
 Genes: the units of information that specify an organism’s inherited traits.

 Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and

protein that condenses during cell division and forms chromosomes.

Chromosome VS Chromatin
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Somatic cells Gametes
 Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes
in each cell’s nucleus.
- Somatic cells: (Nonreproductive cells)
The nucleus of each cell contains 46 chromosomes, made up of two
sets of 23, one set inherited from each parent. (2n)
- Gametes: (Reproductive “sex cells”)
human gametes have one set of 23 chromosomes.(n)
 The number of chromosomes in somatic cells and gametes varies
widely among species.

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Omar Okasha 01143222814 Somatic cells and Gametes 9/25/2022 10
 In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromatin
condense forming coiled and folded chromosome.
 Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, which separate
during cell division and contain identical DNA molecule.
 Each sister chromatid has a centromere. The centromere is the narrow
“waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most
closely attached.
 Later of the cell cycle after the attachment of the chromatids and then the
separation of them, the sister chromatids separate again and are no longer
called chromatids but individual chromosomes.

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 0.5 µm Chromosomes DNA molecules

Chromo-
Chromosome
some arm
duplication
(including DNA
synthesis)
Centromere

Sister
chromatids

Separation of
sister chromatids

Centromere

Sister
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 Difference between centrosome and centromere
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  Eukaryotic cell division consists of:
 Mitosis, the division of the nucleus
 Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm
 Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called
meiosis.
 Meiosis yields non-identical daughter cells that have only one set
of chromosomes, half as many as the parent cell (n)

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 (Section.2)

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 Cell cycle:
- Interphase (G1 , S , G2 ).
- Mitotic phase (Mitosis & cytokinesis).
 Interphase (the G1 phase (“first gap”), the S phase (“synthesis”), and
the G2 phase (“second gap”)). It accounts for about 90% of the cell
cycle.
 During interphase, the cell grows by producing proteins and
cytoplasmic organelles, copies its chromosomes, and prepares for
cell division.
 chromosomes are duplicated only during the S phase.

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 G1 S
(DNA synthesis)

G2

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 After the mitotic phase, the daughter cells may then repeat the
cycle.
 The G1 phase varies most in length from cell to cell.
 A typical human cell might divide once every 24 hours:

Phase Time
Cell division 24 hours
Mitosis Less than 1 hour
G1 5-6 hours
G2 4-6 hours
S phase 10-12 hours

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 Mitosis
 Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases:
1. Prophase
2. Prometaphase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase

 Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase.

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 Nucleus Chromatin 10 µm
Nucleolus condensing Chromosomes Cell plate

1 Prophase 2 Prometaphase 3 Metaphase 4 Anaphase 5 Telophase

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G2 interphase
1) A nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus.
2) The nucleus contains one or more nucleoli (singular, nucleolus).
3) Two centrosomes have formed by duplication of a single
centrosome.
Centrosomes: are regions in animal cells that organize the
microtubules of the spindle. Each centrosome contains two
centrioles.
4) Chromosomes, duplicated during S phase, cannot be seen
individually because they have not yet condensed.

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1) The chromatin fibers become more tightly coiled, condensing into
discrete chromosomes observable with a light microscope.
2) The nucleoli disappear.
3) Each duplicated chromosome appears as two identical sister
chromatids joined at their centromeres and, in some species, all
along their arms by cohesins (sister chromatid cohesin).
4) The mitotic spindle (named for its shape) begins to form.
It is composed of the centrosomes and the microtubules that
extend from them. The radial arrays of shorter microtubules that
extend from the centrosomes are called asters (“stars”).
5) The centrosomes move away from each other, propelled partly by
the lengthening microtubules between them.
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1) The nuclear envelope fragments.
2) The microtubules extending from each centrosome can now invade
the nuclear area.
3) The chromosomes have become even more condensed.
4) A kinetochore has now formed at the centromere of each
chromatid (thus, two per chromosome).
Kinetochore: a specialized protein structure.
5) Some of the microtubules attach to the kinetochores, becoming
“kinetochore microtubules,” which jerk the chromosomes back and
forth.
6) Nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those from the opposite
pole of the spindle, lengthening the cell.
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 G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase
Centrosomes Chromatin Early mitotic Aster Centromere Fragments Nonkinetochore
(with centriole (duplicated) spindle of nuclear microtubules
pairs) envelope

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore Kinetochore

envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule

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1) The centrosomes are now at opposite poles of the cell.
2) The chromosomes have all arrived at the metaphase plate, a plane
that is equidistant between the spindle’s two poles. The
chromosomes’ centromeres lie at the metaphase plate.
3) For each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids
are attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite
poles.

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1) Anaphase begins when the cohesion proteins are cleaved. This
allows the two sister chromatids of each pair to part suddenly. Each
chromatid thus becomes an independent chromosome.
2) The two new daughter chromosomes begin moving toward opposite
ends of the cell as their kinetochore microtubules shorten. Because
these microtubules are attached at the centromere region, the
centromeres are pulled ahead of the arms, moving at a rate of
about 1 µm/min.
3) The cell elongates as the nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen.
4) By the end of anaphase, the two ends of the cell have equivalent—
and complete— collections of chromosomes.
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1) Two daughter nuclei form in the cell. Nuclear envelopes arise from
the fragments of the parent cell’s nuclear envelope and other
portions of the endomembrane system.
2) Nucleoli reappear.
3) The chromosomes become less condensed.
4) Any remaining spindle microtubules are depolymerized.
5) Mitosis, the division of one nucleus into two genetically identical
nuclei, is now complete.

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 Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis

Metaphase Cleavage Nucleolus

plate furrow forming

Daughter Nuclear
Spindle Centrosome at chromosomes
one spindle pole envelope
forming

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The mitotic spindle:
- Centrosomes.
- Microtubules.
- Asters.
The mitotic spindle, fibers composed of microtubules and associated proteins, is
a major driving force in mitosis.
As the spindle assembles during prophase, the elements come from partial
disassembly of the cytoskeleton.
The spindle fibers elongate by incorporating more subunits of the protein tubulin.
Assembly of the spindle microtubules starts in the centrosome (microtubule
organizing center)

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 During G2 of the interphase, the single centrosome replicates
to form two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the
cell at the end of prometaphase, as spindle microtubules grow
out from them.
 An aster: a radial array of short microtubules, extends from
each centrosome.
 During prometaphase, some spindle microtubules attach to the
kinetochores of chromosomes and begin to move the
chromosomes.
 At metaphase, the chromosomes are all lined up at the
metaphase plate, the midway point between the spindle’s two
poles.
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 Aster
Centrosome
Sister
chromatids
Microtubules Chromosomes
Metaphase
plate

Kineto-
chores

Centrosome 1 µm

Overlapping
nonkinetochore Kinetochore
microtubules microtubules

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 In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the
kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell.
 The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore
ends.
CONCLUSION

Chromosome
movement
Kinetochore

Tubulin
Motor Subunits
Microtubule
protein

Chromosome

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 Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap
and push against each other, elongating the cell.
 In telophase, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at
opposite ends of the cell.

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 Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm, typically follows mitosis.
 In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process called cleavage.
 The first sign of cleavage is the appearance of a cleavage
furrow in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
 On the cytoplasmic side of the cleavage furrow is a contractile
ring of actin microfilaments associated with molecules of the
motor protein myosin.
 Contraction of the ring pinches the cell in two.

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 100 µm
Cleavage furrow

Contractile ring of Daughter cells

microfilaments
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)

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 Cytokinesis in plants, which have cell walls, involves a
completely different mechanism.
 During telophase, vesicles from the Golgi coalesce at the
metaphase plate, forming a cell plate.
 The plate enlarges until its membranes fuse with the plasma
membrane at the perimeter.
 The contents of the vesicles form new cell wall material
between the daughter cells.
Then it cleaves.

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 Vesicles Wall of 1 µm
forming parent cell
cell plate Cell plate New cell wall

Daughter cells
(b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)
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 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission, not mitosis.
 Most bacterial genes are located on a single bacterial chromosome
that consists of a circular DNA molecule and associated proteins.
 While bacteria are smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells, they still
have large amounts of DNA that must be copied and distributed
equally to two daughter cells.
 The circular bacterial chromosome is highly folded and coiled in the
cell.

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 In binary fission, chromosome replication begins at one point in the
circular chromosome, the origin of replication site, producing two
origins.
 As the chromosome continues to replicate, one origin moves toward
each end of the cell.
 While the chromosome is replicating, the cell elongates.
 When replication is complete, its plasma membrane grows inward to
divide the parent cell into two daughter cells, each with a complete
genome.

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 Cell wall
Origin of
replication Plasma
membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial
Two copies chromosome
of origin

Origin Origin

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 (Section.3)

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 The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell
cycle control system, which is similar to a clock.
 The cell cycle control system is regulated by both internal and external
controls.
 The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-
ahead signal is received.
• For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be the most important one.
• If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually
complete the S, G2, and M phases and divide.
• If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle,
switching into a nondividing state called the G0 phase.
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 G1 checkpoint

Control
system S
G1

M G2

M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
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 G0

G1 checkpoint

G1 G1

(a) Cell receives a go-ahead (b) Cell does not receive a

signal go-ahead signal

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 Resources
Campbell Biology Ch:12 section 1 and 2
Modern Biology Ch:8 section 2
Other online resources

YouTube Channel Link

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCgmmZ5arOSi_Wzf4wX1cygg
Telegram Channel
https://t.me/+L1KaT5DTYu02N2Nk

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 End of BI.2.02
Best Wishes
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Made by/ Omar Okasha Mohamed Farag Science Puzzles

(A&O)
School/ Asyut STEM School S’24 Biology, Earth Science, and
Chemistry Lectures

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